This document is a student dissertation that focuses on researching and developing cement-based batteries as an alternative energy source. The student conducted a literature review on existing cement battery models and tested two types of cement batteries in the laboratory. Testing involved measuring the batteries' open circuit voltage, internal resistance, and examining their microstructure under a scanning electron microscope. The results showed limitations in the batteries' energy output and lifespan. The student proposes recommendations for further research like using conductive meshes and salts to potentially enhance conductivity and rechargeability.

1.
DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE AND CIVIL
ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF BATH
Cement Batteries
Student: Anshul Gupta (ag685)
Supervisor: Dr. Richard Ball
April 14, 2015
AR30315 Dissertation

2.
Abstract
Recently, due to the depletion of resources, there has been a need to look for alternate sources of energy that can
meet our usage demands whilst keeping the environment clean.
Environmental and economic issues such as pollution and the ever­rising prices of fuel and electricity
have stressed the importance and demand for research into alternative solutions for energy
sources. One potential solution that is currently being investigated is cement batteries.
This paper focuses on researching the pre­existing cement based battery models and then developing some test
batteries. Experiments were conducted to test their feasibility.
A literature review was initially conducted to explore any existing cement based battery models that have been
developed by researchers. The research revealed two particular methods of cement battery manufacturing that
form the basis of this study.
Methods of analysis involved laboratory fabrication of cement batteries and testing the power output and
changes in microstructure using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Internal resistance readings for the
batteries were measured using an electrical device.
The research draws attention to the fact that although the cement­based batteries may seem lucrative to
use, due to limited lifecycle of the battery and energy output constraints, thus the conventional
battery design may still prevail to cater to our energy demands. With further research and experiments
in the field, it is possible that our questions to a cleaner energy source may lead to success.
The current study proposes several recommendations for the future. This includes using a
conductive mesh within the different layers of the battery to collect more current per unit area of the cell
than just simply touching the electrodes at a surface. Furthermore, use of other conductive additives
such as CaCl2 and MgCl2 salts in the mix, so when wet, these particles could form ions and enhance
conductivity and maybe recharge­ability of the setup.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Professor Richard Ball for his supervision, guidance and constant support during
the different stages of the research and experiments. Furthermore, the author would also like to thank Dr. Fatma
from India who was kind enough to help carrying out research in India during the Christmas vacation. For his
guidance and help in preparing samples for the Scanning electron microscope test, the author would like to
thank Dr. John Mitchels at the University of Bath
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3.
Abstract​ .................................................................................................................................................................1
Acknowledgements​...............................................................................................................................................1
List of figures​........................................................................................................................................................3
List of tables​..........................................................................................................................................................3
1. Introduction​......................................................................................................................................................5
1.1 Global warming and energy use​……………....................................................................................5
1.2 Aim​....................................................................................................................................................5
1.3 Current forms of battery​....................................................................................................................5
1.4 Structure of dissertation​.....................................................................................................................6
2. Literature review​..............................................................................................................................................6
2.1 Storage battery​...................................................................................................................................6
2.1.1 Uses and applications​........................................................................................7
2.1.2 Limitations​........................................................................................................7
2.2 Cement battery​...................................................................................................................................8
2.2.1 Working​............................................................................................................8
2.2.2 ​Applications and Advantages​...........................................................................9
2.2.3 Previous Fabrication Attempts and Results​....................................................10
2.2.4 Possible Challenges​........................................................................................11
3. Methodology​....................................................................................................................................................11
3.1 Materials (Type I)​.............................................................................................................................12
3.1.1 Battery Composition (Type I)​........................................................................13
3.1.2 Experimental procedure​.................................................................................14
3.2 Aluminum – cement battery (Type II)​..............................................................................................15
3.2.1 Materials​.........................................................................................................15
3.2.2 Experimental procedure​.................................................................................16
3.3 Test Introduction​...............................................................................................................................17
a) Open Circuit Voltage (OCV)​..............................................................................17
b) Internal Resistance Measurement​.......................................................................17
3.3.1 Instruments used​.............................................................................................18
3.3.2 Observations for OCV and Internal Resistance Measurement (Type I)​.........19
3.3.3 Observation for OCV (Type II)......................................................................20
3.4 Scanning electron microscope (SEM)​................................................................................................21
3.4.1 Experiment Introductio​n................................................................................22
3.4.2 Sample Preparation and Experiment​..............................................................22
4. Analysis and Discussions for OCV, Internal Resistance and SEM​............................................................23
4.1 Physical analysis and Discussion (Type I)​....................................................................23
4.2 Discussion and Physical observation (Type II)​.............................................................24
4.3 Discussions for SEM​.....................................................................................................25
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4.
a. Cathode..........................................................................................................................26
b. Electrolyte......................................................................................................................28
c. Anode.............................................................................................................................29
5. Conclusion​.....................................................................................................................................................31
6. Recommendations​….....................................................................................................................................32
References​..........................................................................................................................................................33
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5.
List of figures
Figure 1: Lead acid storage batteries........................................................................................................................6
Figure 2: An LED lit by portable cement battery.....................................................................................................9
Figure 3: Section of continuous cement battery matrix (TYPE I)..........................................................................10
Figure 4: Sketch of Bedini's battery (TYPE II)......................................................................................................11
Figure 5: Mold for cement battery, zinc powder, manganese dioxide powder and carbon…................................12
Figure 6: Set cement mix in mold...........................................................................................................................14
Figure 7: Schematic diagram of the Can setup, Aluminum can cement battery....................................................15
Figure 8: Powdered cement paste and rust on the inside........................................................................................16
Figure 9: Schematic Diagram of a circuit ​(Fitzpatrick, 2014)​....................................................................................17
Figure 10: Multimeter True RMS 115 Make Fluke, Internal resistance measuring device, Zeal Thermometer
Range ­10 to 110 Deg C and Zeal Hygrometer .....................................................................................................18
Figure 11: Cement battery produced in lab............................................................................................................18
Figure 12: Plot of OCV vs Number of days...........................................................................................................20
Figure 13 Diffusion of electrons in a specimen......................................................................................................21
Figure 14: Scanning​ ​Electron microscopy setup…................................................................................................21
Figure 15: Principle of EDS...................................................................................................................................22
Figure 16: Battery Type I ......................................................................................................................................23
Figure 17:Anode and cathode separated by the electrolyte……............................................................................24
Figure 18: Plan view of the battery and cracks development…….........................................................................24
Figure 19: SEM images of Cathode, Anode, electrolyte and the Anode................................................................25
Figure 20: Cathode layer at X50 and X1000 magnification...................................................................................26
Figure 21: Phase map plot for spectrum 1, Cathode...............................................................................................27
Figure 22​:​ Sum spectrum for cathode....................................................................................................................27
Figure 23: Electrolyte layer....................................................................................................................................28
Figure 24: Elemental analyses of the electrolytic layer..........................................................................................28
Figure 25:Electrolyte layer at X1000 Magnification..............................................................................................29
Figure 26 X1000 magnification of anode...............................................................................................................29
Figure 27: Distribution of zinc and manganese in the anode and cathode layers respectively………………......30
List of Tables
Table 1: Examples of different combination of electrode selection and output generation....................................7
Table 2: Materials and specifications for Type I...................................................................................................12
Table 3: Battery composition of each layer (Test I)..............................................................................................13
Table 4: Recorded data for OCV...........................................................................................................................19
Table 5: Materials for battery type II.....................................................................................................................16
Table 6: Percentage composition of battery (Type II............................................................................................19
AR30315­Dissertation 4 | Page

6.
1. Introduction
In recent times, energy and environmental crises have led to a global demand to find an alternative power
sources that can provide energy whilst also being low on carbon emissions.
Over the years, lead and other chemical batteries have been catering to the majority of our energy demands. All
the major industries and household power are backed up with such storage batteries. The advancement in
technology with time however, has enabled scientists and researchers to come up with alternative sources of
energy, such as cement­based batteries, to overcome the detriments of conventional lead acid batteries such as
lead poisoning, leakage, emission of toxic fumes, size constraint and portability (Smith and Parker, 2003).
1.1 Global warming and energy use
With the rise in concern pertaining to global warming and its adverse effects on the biodiversity of plants and
animals, scientists have been trying to explore a cleaner and a more abundant source of harvesting energy other
than the non­renewable fossil fuels (crude oil, natural gas, coal, oil shale and tar sands).​ ​According to the
Department for Energy and Climate Change (DECC), the UK currently generates approximately 86% of its
electricity through the use of non­renewable sources (Webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk, 2012). The UK
government has set a goal to reduce the carbon emissions by 80% by 2050 (Climate Change Act, 2008). The
targeted emission requires new ideas in various fields of study and cement batteries may help reduce the toxic
waste which is produced during the manufacturing and operation of lead acid batteries, by integrating the
concrete infrastructure with the principles of battery operation.
1.2 Aim
This study aims to research and subsequently develop a cement battery. Recently, batteries have been formed
from cement­matrix composites, with cement paste as the matrix, the pore solution in cement as the electrolyte
and various chemicals to act as the anode, cathode and conductive additives.
1.3 Current forms of battery
Batteries are categorized on the basis of their recharge­ability. This broadly results into the following
categories:
1. Primary cells​:
These are the batteries in which once the chemicals are exhausted, cannot be recharged again by applying an
opposite current across the terminal. They have to then be discarded or recycled. For instance, AAA, AA cells
used in TV remotes or the button cells used in watches.
2. Secondary cells​:
These cells can be recharged upon application of reversed current across the terminals. Due to their ability to get
discharged and recharged, they are very commonly used as storage cells. For instance, Li­ion batteries are used
in mobile phones and lead acid batteries are commonly used in households and industries to provide backup
power supply.
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7.
Additionally there is hydrogen cell that is also called a fuel cell. It utilizes the chemical energy from a fuel such
as methane or ethanol and undergoes chemical oxidation to produce energy. Unlike storage batteries, fuel cells
require continuous supply of fuel to function. (Hydrogen for fuel cells, 2000).
1.4 Structure of dissertation
Firstly, a literature review will be presented; this includes an introduction to storage and cement batteries.
Fabrication attempts, working, applications and advantages of cement composite battery will be discussed. The
methodology and the results will then be presented. Finally, the results will be discussed and a conclusion will
be presented. Recommendations to further test and fabricate batteries will be proposed.
2. Literature review
For many centuries in the past, power requirements had been limited to providing light dusk to dawn. However
as technology developed and the industrial revolution began, power demands started increasing, advancement in
machinery for mechanization and factories for mass production demanded continuous power supply. The advent
of industrialization constantly led to innovation in the battery sector to provide better power supply.
2.1 Storage battery
A storage battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. It has three components: an
anode, a cathode and an electrolyte. The entire setup is typically contained in a plastic mold to avoid leakage. It
functions and relies on the dissimilarity between the two electrodes. The exchange of ions takes place through
the electrolyte. The electrode that gets oxidized is called the anode (addition of oxygen, removal of electron or
hydrogen atom) and the one that gets reduced is called the cathode (removal of oxygen, addition of electron or
hydrogen atom). (Kheterpal, Kapil and Dhawan, 2011).
Figure 1​: Lead acid storage batteries ​(Okaya Battery)
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8.
Also called an electrochemical cell, it is a secondary cell that comes in different shapes and sizes. It ranges from
small button cells used in watches to megawatt systems used in electricity generation and distribution. The
different combination of electrodes and electrolytes can generate a range of voltages according to applications.
The following table summarizes the above:
Table 1​:Examples of different combination of electrode selection and output generation
(Thermoanalytics.com, n.d.)
Type Voltage(V) Power
(W/kg)
Life
cycle
Lead–acid 2.1 180 5­8
Alkaline 1.5 50 <5
Nickel–iron 1.2 100 50+
Nickel–cadmiu
m
1.2 150
Nickel–hydroge
n
1.5 220 15+
Nickel–zinc 1.7 900
Lithium Cobalt
Oxide
3.6 1800 2­6
Lithium­ion
polymer
3.7 3000+ 2­3
Lithium iron
phosphate
3.25 1400 >10
Molten salt 2.58 150­220 <=20
2.1.1 Uses and applications
Storage batteries are regularly used in portable devices such as mobile phones, back up phone chargers, starter
batteries in cars, UPS for computers and other appliances. There has also been new development in the emerging
sector of hybrid electric cars such as those of Tesla Motors, Toyota and BMW. Furthermore, rechargeable
batteries have been used to harness the power of wind and water that move turbines and generate electricity.
2.1.2 Limitations
According to Environment, Health and Safety Online (EHSO), over 99 million lead­acid car batteries are
produced each year. On an average, a single lead acid battery contains 18 pounds of lead and one pound of
sulphuric acid (Ehso.com, n.d.)​. ​Secondary cells pertain drawbacks such as leakage and spillage of the harmful
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9.
chemicals. Toxic fumes may also emit during their lifecycle which can be injurious to human skin and cause
respiratory problems (Chemwiki.ucdavis.edu, 2014). Furthermore, the reactions within a battery rely on the
dissimilarity between the two electrodes via the exchange of ions through the electrolyte, requiring renewal of
chemicals overtime. Additionally, they have a flatter discharge curve and require proper disposal, containment
and chemical handling by professionals. Improper disposal of secondary cells can contaminate the ground with
heavy metals, which consequently adds impurities to groundwater and soil.
One of the recent experiments being carried out in the Scottish islands of Gigha, called 'The Gigha Watt Project',
aims at solving the problem of storing large amounts of electricity, generated by the islands’ wind turbines, in
sulphuric acid based batteries. The £2.5m project may require storage batteries containing up to 75,000 liters of
sulphuric acid. Since storing electricity on a large scale has limitations such as standard batteries losing their
charge relatively quickly (Mckie, 2013), experiments with sulphuric acid mixed with vanadium pentoxide have
been undertaken.
Simultaneously however, working with vanadium pentoxide and sulphuric acid at such a large scale may have
hazards linked with it. Inhalation of the toxic fumes that may be released into the air, can have adverse effects
on lungs and heart (Cooper, 2007). Therefore investigation into alternative methods of generating and storing
electricity should be studied.
2.2 Cement battery
Cement has been in use for decades in nearly all major construction sites. With an average consumption, in the
UK, of 9.3 million tonnes of cement and 10.3 million tonnes of blended cement in 2012 (Highley, Lusty and
Cameron, date), its use highlights a country’s infrastructural growth. The cost and demand of fuel has reached
its peak. All the major industries and sectors of economy are highly dependent on energy and fuel to function
and develop. People’s lives are directly or indirectly affected by the limited sources of energy (Simon Obiero,
2011). In the advent of energy and environmental crises, it is imperative that alternative resource powered
electrochemical cells are explored and developed such as cement batteries.
2.2.1 Working
Cement batteries that utilize a cement­based electrolyte have been disclosed by Burstein and Speckert (2007)
and Sakai et al (2007). Cement particles when hydrated, break up into movable ions, which can be used to
conduct ions through a pore solution of itself. To create a potential difference across the battery, chemicals must
be introduced on the basis of their reactivity and ionic conductivity into each electrode.
Once the electrode potential is introduced, electrons are required to move from one electrode to the other to
produce current. Cement hydration products along with conductive additives such as carbon black provide the
ions through which electrons exchange can happen and hence increase the overall cell conductivity.
Hydration Reactions of cement:
(Tri­calcium silicate) 2C S HC S H CH 3 + 7 3 2 8 + 3
(Di­calcium silicate) S HC S H H 2C3 + 7 3 2 8 + C
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10.
These reactions form the hydration products overtime that lead to cement stiffening (loss of workability), setting
(solidification) and hardening (strength gain). Hence overtime, the cement battery solidifies to form a condensed
microstructure.
2.2.2 Applications and Advantages
1. Steel bars in the reinforced concrete structures may undergo bimetallic corrosion with time due to exposure
to air or moisture from the outside environment. The galvanic corrosion of the bars in the reinforced
structure can be used to harness energy to monitor the concrete structures’ health. Cement based batteries
which use the above principle to power up the low power sensors have been manufactured and are
undergoing further developments (Hodgkiss, 2010).
Improving the concept currently includes:
a) Developing a working power source from corrosion;
b) developing and powering a wireless sensor node and determining service life of the corrosion based
power source; and
c) Developing sensor network & optimizing power output
(Hodgkiss, 2010).
2. Some portable forms of cement battery have been made with
sufficient power to light up an LED, (see Figure 2) which indicates
huge advantage in the underdeveloped and developing countries,
where basic cement infrastructure is available but frequent power
cuts prevail. Providing alternative sources of energy to people may
insure improved conditions to live in.
Figure 2:​ An LED lit by portable cement battery
(Image from google)
3. Cement is a widely available construction material and it may institute a possibility of including buildings as
a potential source of power. It has been identified by Meng and Chung (2010) that cement batteries may be
integrated with structures, which may have better efficiency by serving dual purposes. The idea of
integrating both, science behind power generation and the cement/concrete structures in construction
industry, has huge advantages such as greater storage for power and adequate power when in emergency.
The greater electricity generation is due to no size constraint and possibly greater effective area of contact
between the electrolyte and the electrode (Bedini, 2011).
4. As a raw material, cement is a cheaper resource when compared to lead used in lead acid batteries; annual
average cost of cement was £113.7 per tonne in 2014​ ​(Gov.uk, 2015)​, whereas cost of lead was recorded to be
£1,524.05 per tonne​ ​(Lme.com, 2015).​ ​Moreover, lead being a hazardous substance to work with (Epa.gov,
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11.
n.d.), demands more cost to create better health and safety conditions to work in, thereby, further increasing
costs.
The focus on pore solution in cement is required because it enables us to integrate the structure and the battery
together. Moreover, there are environmental advantages of this integration such as cleaner alternatives and fuller
use of cement.
2.2.3 Previous Fabrication Attempts and Results
Many researchers developed different forms of conceptual cement batteries based on theoretical analysis. These
attempts are listed below:
1. Burstein and Speckert, (2007) used aluminum can as the anode and steel as the cathode. Pore solution in
cement, without the aggregate, was used as the electrolyte for the battery. Low current was recorded during
the discharge. The reactions in the battery led to the consumption of the aluminum can, rendering it useless.
The battery lost its performance as time progressed.
2. Sakai et al (2007) used zinc dust as the anode and manganese dioxide as the cathode in a continuous cement
matrix. Electrolytic layer was used as the interface between the two layers.
Figure 3:​ Section of continuous cement battery matrix, Type 1 (Meng and Chung, 2010)
3. John Bedini (2011)​ ​used copper coiled tube placed in a cement matrix mix (85% portland cement, 2% zinc
sulphide, 2% titanium oxide and 10% carborundum) that was enclosed by an aluminum can as the cathode.
It has been indicated that the design does work for a limited amount of time. The copper tube in the battery
allows for a greater contact between the electrode and the electrolyte and hence increasing its efficiency and
makes it last comparatively longer, even when the cement in the battery has been cured and set.
4. Setups other than the above mentioned, use cement in some form but are distinct from that of cement battery
with cement as the pore solution. For instance;
a. Charkley (1982) used cement as an additive to its zinc electrode and Matsuura et al (2003) used
Manganese dioxide in cement for curing enhancement.
b. "Asakura (2005) and Kawamata et al (2014) reported the use of zinc particles together with carbon
particles in cement for forming sacrificial anodes for the corrosion protection of steel" (Sciencedirect.com,
2011).
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12.
Figure 4:​ Sketch of Bedini's battery (TYPE II)
The research would focus on looking at both, Bedini's battery setup and also at Chung and Meng's battery
fabrication. The developed cement batteries will be tested for their output and lifetime. On the basis of the
observation and results, conclusion will be drawn and recommendations will be presented.
2.2.4 Possible Challenges
The idea of using cement battery within the structure may seem inviting and efficient, but there may be some
problems that may arise while using them for a long time and at a larger scale.
1. The corrosion of the reinforcement within the structure may take place as pointed out by Ouellette and Todd
(2014). The metals such as the reinforcement bars, zinc and manganese may get consumed and affect the
strength of the structure and performance of the battery.
2. The curing of the cement may render the slab casted battery ineffective in the longer run, as pointed out by
Meng and Chung (2010). The setup may only work when wet. Therefore the life cycle of the battery may be
very less.
3. The addition of carbon black and manganese dioxide might render the battery black in appearance.
4. The workability and the water to cement ratio are of immense importance. Pore structure and voids can
affect the output of the battery; more the voids, more would be the internal resistance of the battery, hence,
lesser the output.
3. Methodology
First part of the investigation will focus on constructing a cement matrix battery based on the research and
development of Meng and Chung (2010) and John Bedini (2011). Second part aims to test and study the battery.
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13.
3.1 Materials (Type I)
To fabricate some test batteries, specific chemicals were required. Ordinary portland cement was obtained from
Ultratech Cement, New Delhi, India. Zinc dust of the mentioned specifications (see table 2) was ordered from
Emplura™, It was used as a chemically active component in the anode.
Manganese dioxide powder of 82­85% purity was bought from Merck™, which was also used as the chemically
active component in the cathode. Carbon black from Vulcan™ was used as the electrically conductive element
in the battery. That was to increase the conductivity of the cell.
Vanisperse A, which is a lignin based additive, was used in the cathode and anode mix to improve the batteries
life. The mold, that was to hold the different layers of cement pour, was especially manufactured in a plastic
molding factory in Himachal Pradesh, India. The mold had characteristic dimensions of 80mm x 40mm, 80mm
x 14mm and 80mm x 8.5mm. The mold produced was cut into half, to ease the removal of the battery when set.
Figure 5​: (From L­R) Mold for cement battery casting, zinc powder, manganese dioxide powder
and carbon black
The following table summarizes the materials and their specifications:
Table 2: ​Materials and specifications for Type I
S. No. Material Grade and Characteristic
requirements
1. Portland Cement
2. Zinc dust 122 99.3% zinc, particle size: 7µ,
Density : 7.42 g/cm​3
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14.
3. Manganese dioxide
powder
MnO​2​: 82­85%,
quartz:1­3%, Barium
compounds: 1­2%.
Particle size: 40 µ, Density:
5.02 g/cm​3
4. Carbon black Vulcan XC72R GP­3820 ,
Particle size: 30nm
5. Water reducer Glenium 300NS
6. Silicone Mold
(cylindrical)
12 mm dia , height: 1.5 mm
7. HDPE molds 80 mm x 40 mm
80 mm x 14 mm
80 mm x 8.5 mm
8. Moisture box 100% Relative humidity
3.1.1 Battery Composition (Type I)
Table 3: ​Battery composition of each layer
Material Anode
Layer
Cathode
Layer
Electrolyte
Layer
Cement (gm.) 48 93 15
Zinc (gm.) 14.4 ­ ­
MnO2 (gm.) ­ 37.2 ­
Vanisperse A
(gm.)
1 1.8 0.15
DM Water (ml) 16.8 + 2 33.6 +5 6
Carbon Black
(gm.)
1.2 3.7 0
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15.
3.1.2 Experimental procedure
1. HDPE molds were prepared. These were used to cast the cement battery of dimension 80 mm x 40 mm.
2. For the individual layers of the cement battery matrix, chemicals mentioned in table 3 were measured using
a weighing scale and weighing dish.
3. For anode, firstly, 48 gm. of portland cement was taken in a beaker. 14.4 gm. of zinc dust was also measured
but was first cleaned by filtering the zinc particles in acetic acid solution. The filtrate was then treated with
ethyl alcohol (volatile) to leave behind pure zinc dust, which was allowed to dry off in an oven.
Vanisperse A was added in the mixture along with 1.2 gm. of carbon black and 16.8 (ml) DM water. The
paste formed was not workable, therefore, 2 ml of DM water was additionally added. The paste then
obtained was of desired workability; paste was easily moldable and easy to work with.
4. Similar process was repeated for the cathode. 93 gm. of Portland cement was mixed with 37.2 gm. of
manganese dioxide. 1.8 gm. of Vanisperse A was added to the mix along with 3.7gm. of carbon black. 38.6
gm. of DM water was added to the mix to get the consistency and workability.
5. The electrolyte layer was formed using 15gms of Portland cement and mixing it with 0.15 gm. of Vanisperse
A. Further, 6 ml of DM water was used to mix the constituents.
6. The three layers were then put in the HDPE mold one by one. The layers were separated by putting a thin
layer of tissue in between to avoid cracking of the battery and mixing of the layers with each other. The
molds were lined with oil to ease the removal of battery from it once set. The first batch of battery obtained
stuck on to the mold and got destroyed. An alternative way to cast using the HDPE molds for it was worked
out by taping the entire mold before the cement matrix was poured in. This eased the removal of the battery
from the mold after 4 hours of setting.
Figure 6:​ Set cement mix in mold
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16.
7. Batteries were tested for their open circuit voltage for up to 40 days from manufacturing. Relative humidity
and temperature of environment were recorded as well.
3.2 Aluminum – cement battery (Type II)
The construction of this battery was based on the developments done by John Bedini.
Figure 7:​ (L­R) Schematic diagram of the Can setup, Aluminum can cement battery
3.2.1 Materials
The materials used are summarized in the form of a table below:
Table 4​: Materials for battery ​(Type II)
S no. Material
1. Aluminum Can
2. Portland Cement
3. Tin oxide
4. Zinc oxide
5. Copper tube
6. Carbon black
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17.
3.2.2 Experimental procedure
1. An empty aluminum can was taken and cut open.
2. Portland cement was added in a beaker. Carbon black, tin oxide and zinc sulphide were then added to the
mix in the following percentage composition:
Table 5:​ Percentage composition of battery (Type II)
Portland
Cement
Carbon
Black
Tin oxide Zinc
sulphide
85% 10% 2% 2%
3. Solid coiled copper tube was obtained from air conditioning wiring system. It was placed in the can and
the mix was added to it. The base of the aluminum can was insulated by keeping it on a piece of wood
4. The paste was allowed to set for a couple of hours.
Figure 8:​ Powdered cement paste and rust on the inside
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18.
3.3 Test Introduction
a) Open Circuit Voltage (OCV)
OCV is the voltage that is obtained from the battery when it is not under any loading, electrically. A digital
multimeter (see figure 10) was used to measure the OCV when the battery was ready after fabrication.
b) Internal Resistance Measurement
An electronic battery not only has a voltage across the terminals, called the emf ​, but also has some resistance
within itself which gives a decreased overall output voltage when an external load is present. This resistance
within the battery reduces the output voltage (V) to
V= ​­Ir;
where r is the internal resistance of the battery and I is the current flowing through it.
Figure 9:​ Schematic Diagram of a circuit ​(Fitzpatrick, 2014)
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19.
3.3.1 Instruments used
Figure 10:​ (From top L­R) Multimeter True RMS 115 Make Fluke, Internal resistance measuring device, Zeal
Thermometer Range ­10 to 110 Deg C and Zeal Hygrometer (images from google)
Figure 11​: Cement battery produced in lab
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20.
3.3.2 Observations for OCV and Internal Resistance Measurement (Type I)
Table 6:​ Recorded data for OCV ​(​Type I):
No.
of
Days
Open
Circuit
Voltage (V)
Relative
Humidity
Temperature
1 0.498 84 14
2 0.468 70 13.5
3 0.475 52 13.6
4 0.475 58 16.2
5 0.475 79 18.2
6 0.479 53 16.7
7 0.494 62 19.4
8 0.389 70 18.4
9 0.412 67 17.2
10 0.395 100 21.2
11 0.216 92 16
12 0.196 73 17
13 0.202 68 18
14 0.121 76 20
15 0.186 83 16
16 0.192 86 12.5
17 0.175 62 13
18 0.186 73 14.4
19 0.186 78 17
20 0.192 68 15.4
21 0.196 61 16.9
22 0.196 86 16.5
23 0.194 69 16.2
24 0.194 63 18.2
25 0.195 68 19
26 0.194 48 20
27 0.194 54 20
28 0.194 68 19
29 0.194 58 17
30 0.192 88 17
31 0.191 73 13
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32 0.191 86 18
33 0.192 63 14.5
34 0.192 79 16
35 0.192 72 16.2
36 0.192 53 17
37 0.19 48 17
38 0.191 51 22
39 0.192 50 20
40 0.192 50 20
The values obtained for the OCV test showed that the battery output decreased with each day, with some
irregular drops in voltage (see figure 12).
Figure 12: ​Plot of OCV vs Number of days.
As for internal resistance, when the terminals of the battery were connected to the internal resistance device (see
figure 10), no reading could be obtained. The internal resistance was too low to be measured by that device.
3.3.3 Observation for OCV (Type II)
Similar experiment as in section 3.3.2 was performed for type II. The battery was unable to function because it
broke apart. It therefore did not generate any current.
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3.4 Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
3.4.1 Experiment Introduction
SEM is used to produce an image of an element/sample that needs to be studied at atomic levels.
This is done by placing the test sample in an electron microscope where a focused beam of electrons is fired on
its surface. It bounces back and creates images through the interpretation of the reflected signals. This
experiment gives us an insight to the surface topography.
​Figure 13:​ Diffusion of electrons in a specimen (Google image)
Figure 14: ​Scanning​ ​Electron microscopy setup (ehong.com)
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a. Secondary Electron Imaging (SE)
A beam of low intensity electrons is fired on the surface of the sample to produce some images. The low energy
electrons get readily absorbed at the surface and produce surface topography.
b.​ ​Backscattered Electron Imaging (BE)
The high­energy electrons get scattered by the atoms of the specimen. The image is created by BE due to
different phase compositions with respect to their individual atomic number of each element present in the
specimen.
c. X­Ray Microanalysis/Energy­dispersive X­ray spectroscopy (EDS)
The bombardment of the high­energy electrons on the specimen results in the escape of electrons from the
electron shell, which is replaced by an electron jumping from another shell to stabilize the atom. This results in
emission of X­Rays, which is used for elemental distribution analysis. The position of the peaks and intensities
can be plotted which are characteristic of particular elements.
Figure 15: ​Principle of EDS (Google image)
3.4.2 Sample Preparation and Experiment
The cement sample was fractured using a hammer blow to its middle. Both the halves were kept in vacuum to
get any moisture out from the sample.
1. The specimen was kept in electron microscope chamber for analysis.
2. Gaseous phase of water was introduced within the chamber.
3. The electron beam was fired at 20kV and at 60Pa pressure. Topographical image was studied along with the
shadow and combined view.
4. Magnification and focus were appropriately adjusted to get a shot of the anode, cathode and the electrolyte
layer at a high magnification.
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5. After getting a satisfactory image, it was analyzed using different area selections, called Spectrum.
6. Each spectrum area was scanned for presence of characteristic X­rays of different elements, its intensity and
distribution throughout the specimen.
4. Analysis and Discussions for OCV, Internal Resistance and SEM
4.1 Physical analysis and Discussion (Type I)
1. Several batteries were casted (refer section 3.1.1 and 3.1.2) using the same methodology however there was
slight variability in terms of workability of the mix of the battery. Two initial test batteries were produced
using the quantities mentioned in Table 3. The mix was poor in workability and the battery began to display
cracks fairly quickly as setting progressed. Eventually the battery stopped working.
2. The HDPE molds that were to hold the cement battery until it was hardened to be tested had difficulties
when it had to be separated from the battery. Initially, the mold was lined with oil to avoid sticking of the
battery, however this procedure failed and two batteries broke in the process of removal. Hence, the mold
was wrapped with an ordinary tape and then the cement layers were poured in, one by one.
3. The following image shows an operational battery:
Figure 16:​ Battery Type I
4. The above picture shows 3 different layers of cement based composite battery. The middle layer being the
electrolytic layer, whereas the top layer as the anode and the bottom as the cathode.
5. The battery layers were not strong enough at the electrolytic junction as the battery easily came apart (refer
figure 17). This may have been due to addition of tissue layers on either side of the electrolyte layer.
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Figure 17:​ Anode and cathode separated by the electrolyte
6. The plan view of the battery gives an insight to crack developments and surface irregularities after casting
process.
Figure 18:​ Plan view of the battery and cracks development
4.2 Discussion and Physical observation (Type II)
The battery setup (see Figures 7 and 8) may have failed to work because of:
1. Poor workability of the mix
2. Lack of cohesion and insufficient formation of strong chemical bonds between the mix particles.
3. As the cement set, the contact area between the aluminum Can and the cement paste would frequently
become reduced. This was because of drying shrinkage of cement. Cracks started to appear due to the same
reason.
4. Due to humid conditions, the aluminum can began to rust from the inside. Also, cracks started to appear in
the cement mix. Eventually it lost cohesion and became powdered.
5. The loss of any movable ions in the mix rendered the battery useless.
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4.3 Discussions for SEM
The images taken from the SEM help illustrate the homogeneity, percentage composition, impurities and failure
surfaces. All three different layers of the battery were looked at using this method.
Figure 19:​ (From top left to right) SEM images of Cathode, Anode, electrolyte and the Anode
The series of images in Figure 19 show the ‘Combined’ imaging produced using SEM. It also displays the
different spectrum areas that were selected to understand the composition, elemental distribution or
homogeneity and element intensities within the chosen spectrums.
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a. Cathode:
Figure 20:​ (left­right) Cathode layer at X50 and X1000 magnification
At lower and higher magnification (see Figure 20), a cathode containing manganese dioxide was photographed.
In the left image, fracture surface was seen and the presence of three round shaped particles was detected.
Whereas a closer look at X1000 reveals that after the battery had fully set (after 3 months), most of the particles
had reacted with each other and formed a dense network, decreasing the movement of ions with time.
On analyzing the different spectrum areas marked in image 19, X­ray map data was turned into Phase map data
and the following plot was obtained.
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Figure 21​: Phase map plot for spectrum 1, cathode
Figure 21 displays peaks caused by X­rays given off as electrons return to the K electron shell of calcium and all
the other elements.
The peaks of different elements help us obtain chemical characterization and their relative intensities in the area
of analysis. A sum spectrum was also obtained for all the spectrum areas to obtain an average of all spectrums.
Figure 22: ​Sum spectrum for cathode
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b. Electrolyte:
Figure 23: ​Electrolyte layer
Figure 24​: Elemental analyses of the electrolytic layer
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​Figure 25​: Electrolyte layer at X1000 Magnification
c. ​Anode:
Figure 26:​ X1000 magnification of anode
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GGB and fly ash
Text
Hydrated cement product
Zinc particles
Hydrated cement product
GGB/Fly ash

31.
On observing the anode at a magnification of X1000, large reacted products were detected. The paste had
completely hardened and the intricate network of dense products illustrated why the battery was losing
conductivity overtime. Many crystals of zinc (sharp long structures) were spotted. Fly ash and GGB
(spherical­shaped particles) were also observable, which are commonly found in cement as admixtures.
The SEM images were further analysed using ImageJ software for the distribution of particles within the
different layers of the battery. The following images were obtained:
Figure 27​: Distribution of zinc (left) and manganese (right) in the anode and cathode layers respectively
The analysis showed that the particle distribution in the anode and cathode appeared to be fairly homogenous.
The software was further used to calculate average percentage area covered by zinc and manganese particles in
each of the layers. In the anode, 27.91% of the total area was found to be distributed by the zinc particles
whereas in the cathode, manganese particles had a concentration of 19.31% of the total area of the cathode.
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5. Conclusion
This study aimed to research and consequently develop cement batteries in the laboratory. This was achieved by
executing a literature review on cement batteries and on various chemicals to help develop a workable cement
battery.
The result of the literature review indicated that primarily two types of cement batteries had been developed
previously. This included a continuous, slab casted, cement matrix battery having zinc (anode) and manganese
dioxide (cathode) particles along with carbon black as the conductive additive (Type I). Type II on the other
hand used aluminum can and copper as the electrode but cement as the electrolyte.
Several experiments were undertaken to study the output and consequently propose further tests. OCV, internal
resistance measurement and SEM were conducted to study any probable flaws and to acquire a better
understanding of the cured cement battery.
The results of the OCV test indicated that the test batteries did generate a potential difference across the two
terminals. The maximum average output was of 0.498V when no external load was applied (Type I). The
voltage decreased with time as the cement began to set naturally. Cracks started to appear as the time progressed
and the different layers of the cell came apart easily without much force being applied. This may have been due
to the presence of tissue layers on the top and bottom of the electrolytic layer. Internal resistance of the slab
casted battery was not measurable as it was too small and thus would require alternative experiments, such as
impedance spectroscopy, to study electrical properties of each of the individual layers. On the other hand, Type
II battery did not work at all. No voltage was measured, hence, it was discarded.
The SEM study revealed that the cement test battery had undergone complete hardening and had no movable
ions to make the battery layers conductive. The test was also used to check for homogeneity of the mix and this
analysis was done using ImageJ software and mapping of elements using INCA software. The analysis verified
that the mix was homogeneous and fairly consistent. The experiment was also carried out with an intention of
studying the pore size and its effect on the output, which aimed to ultimately improve the battery performance.
However this could not be done due to the sample being too large as well as a time constraint to further apply a
resin coat and then test the samples again under the electron microscope.
A conclusion can be drawn that the battery, overtime, loses the mobility of ions as the cement cures. The output
was less than what was expected due to surface point contact to extract the current from the cell. The absence of
a conductive mesh within the structure may have been a source of potential error. Although cement batteries
seem to work and generate voltage across the terminals, the output was very small to derive a sufficient amount
of current to light up an LED. However, Low power sensors could harness the power of cement batteries for
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powering circuits for various applications such as relaying information back for analysis for structural health
monitoring, both underwater and on land. Portable versions of cement batteries for low power use can also be
worked with to power up LED’s.
Cement batteries may offer more potential in future but require additional extensive research (refer section 6) to
be done in order to harness their full capability as well as bring to light and strengthen the evidence for their
probable drawbacks.
6. Recommendations
It was evident that the cement battery that was produced in the lab had small life cycle and output. Thus, for
further studies in this area it is recommended that:
1. Batteries are constructed with an electrode mesh in place within the cement pour while it is still setting. This
is because the contact wire may not adequately gather current from the entire anode or cathode. The metal
mesh would cater in collecting the current from the entire section as the cement sets in the cement matrix
battery. Therefore not just locally gathering up the current, but from the entire set cement. This may increase
the overall output even when set.
2. It is also advised to study effects of corrosion and changes in mechanical strength due to the presence of the
mesh, chemical additives (zinc and manganese dioxide) and the conductive additives (carbon black).
3. As the concrete mix that is used in construction always has presence of aggregates along with the cement, it
is advised to study the effects of aggregates in the matrix composition. This would result in real time figures
of battery output, which are likely to be further reduced due to their presence.
4. Recharge­ability of the batteries should be checked for. If replenishing the chemicals is possible through the
use of sunlight or addition of water.
5. Addition of chemically active compounds such as Calcium chloride and Sodium chloride in the matrix
composition may increase the mobility of the ions and hence its output.
6. Since the battery size was very small, it is counseled that the size be increased and the consequent output
generation and life cycle monitored.
7. Impedance spectroscopy could be performed for closer inspection of the individual layers of the battery. It
measures the ability of the circuit to resist the flow of current through it. The experiment is conducted by
applying an AC voltage across the sample and recording the observed current values. It would look at the
capacitive and inductive behaviour of the fabricated battery. Two plots can then be created, Bode plot and
Nyquist plot. The former is for the impedance characteristic and the latter for the inductive and capacitive
character.
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