Ahmad A Pesaran of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory presented to CALSTART member companies on battery technologies for plug-in electric, hybrid electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles in April 2011.

1. Choices and Requirements of Batteries for EVs, HEVs, PHEVs A CALSTART Webinar Ahmad A. Pesaran National Renewable Energy Laboratory April 21, 2011

3. U.S. Department of Energy National Labs Los Alamos National Laboratory Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Sandia National Laboratory Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Idaho National Laboratory Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Argonne National Laboratory Brookhaven National Laboratory National Energy Technology Laboratory Savannah River National Laboratory Oakridge National Laboratory Science Fossil Energy Nuclear Energy Nuclear Security Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy NREL is the only DOE National Laboratory dedicated to renewable and energy efficient technologies NREL is operated for DOE by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy (Midwest Research Institute and Battelle)

5. Center for Transportation Technologies and Systems Emphasis on light, medium, and heavy duty vehicles

6. NREL Energy Storage Projects NREL projects are aimed at supporting the major elements of DOE’s integrated Energy Storage Program to develop advanced energy storage systems with industry meeting DOE’s targets for electric-drive vehicle applications.

8. Spectrum of Electric Drive Vehicle Technologies Size of Electric Motor (and associated energy storage system) Size of Combustion Engine Conventional ICE Vehicles Micro hybrids (start/stop) Mild hybrids (start/stop + kinetic energy recovery) Full hybrids (Medium hybrid capabilities + electric launch ) Plug-in hybrids (Full hybrid capabilities + electric range) Electric Vehicles (battery or fuel cell) Medium hybrids (Mild hybrid + engine assist ) Axes not to scale

9. Hybrid Electric Vehicle Configurations

10. Plug-In Vehicle Configurations

11. Examples of Light Duty Electric Drive Vehicles in the Market

14. Battery Choices: Energy and Power Source: www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/facts/2010_fotw609.html NiMH proven sufficient for many HEVs. Still recovering early factory investments. Lithium ion technologies can meet most of the required EDV targets in the next 10 years.

15. Qualitative Comparison of Major Automotive Battery Technologies Key Attribute Lead Acid NiMH Li-Ion Weight (kg) Volume (lit) Capacity/Energy (kWh) Discharge Power (kW) Regen Power (kW) Cold-Temperature (kWh & kW) Shallow Cycle Life (number) Deep Cycle Life (number) Calendar Life (years) Cost ($/kW or $/kWh) Safety- Abuse Tolerance Maturity - Technology Maturity - Manufacturing Poor Fair Good

16. Li-Ion energy and power performance in the market has surpassed NiMH Source: Reproduced from A. Fetcenko (Ovonic Battery Company) from the 23 rd International Battery Seminar & Exhibit, March 13-16, 2006, Ft. Lauderdale, FL. 95 Ah EV module used in Toyota RAV 4 NiMH Specific energy ranging from 45 Wh/kg to 80 Wh/kg depending on the power capability. Panasonic EV Ovonic

17. Projections for Automotive Batteries Hiroshi Mukainakano, AABC Europe 2010

19. Lithium Ion Battery Technology – Many Chemistries Voltage ~3.2-3.8 V Cycle life ~1000-5000 Wh/kg >150 Wh/l >400 Discharge -30 to 60 o C Shelf life <5%/year Source: Robert M. Spotnitz, Battery Design LLC, “Advanced EV and HEV Batteries,” Many cathodes are possible Cobalt oxide Manganese oxide Mixed oxides with Nickel Iron phosphate Vanadium oxide based Many anodes are possible Carbon/Graphite Titanate (Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 ) Titanium oxide based Silicon based Metal oxides Many electrolytes are possible LiPF 6 based LiBF 4 based Various solid electrolytes Polymer electrolytes Ionic Liquids

20. Electrochemical Window in Lithium Ion Batteries

21. Characteristics of Cathode Materials Mixed metal oxide cathodes are replacing cobalt oxide as the dominant chemistry Mn 2 O 4 around for many years – good for high power; improvements in high temperature stability reported recently. LiFePO 4 is now actively pursued by many as the cathode of choice for vehicle applications - safe on overcharge - need electronics to accurately determine SOC - may require larger number of cells due to lower cell voltage Other high voltage phosphates are currently being considered Theoretical values for cathode materials relative to graphite anode and LiPF 6 electrolyte * Sources: Robert M. Spotnitz, Battery Design LLC, Material Δ x mAh/g Avg. V Wh/kg Wh/l LiCoO 2 (Cobalt) * 0.55 151 4.00 602 3073 LiNi 0.8 Co 0.15 Al 0.05 O 2 (NCA) * 0.7 195 3.80 742 3784 LiMn 2 O 4 (Spinel) * 0.8 119 4.05 480 2065 LiMn 1/3 Co 1/3 Ni 1/3 O 2 (NMC 333) * 0.55 153 3.85 588 2912 LiMn x Co y Ni z O 2 (NMC non-stoichiometric) 0.7 220 4.0 720 3600 LiFePO 4 (Iron Phosphate) * 0.95 161 3.40 549 1976

24. Improvements in Phosphate-based Cathodes Valence Technology 18650 Cells 100 Wh/kg in cell 84 Wh/kg in U Charge module The battery with standard lead acid battery form factor includes a battery management system. Source: 2006 On line brochures from Valence Technology, http://www.valence.com/ucharge.asp Source: Andrew Chu (A123 Systems) from the 23rd International Battery Seminar & Exhibit, March 13-16, 2006, Ft. Lauderdale, FL. A123 Systems with 26650 Cells 100 Wh/kg Under R&D 3.2Ah Real Capacity 15mOhm Newer Phosphates Voltage Vs Li Iron 3.6 V Manganese 4.1 V Cobalt 4.8 V Nickel 5.1 V

28. Battery Material Myths and Practical Limitations “ Description” Issue MIT battery material could lead to rapid recharging of many devices - March 2009 www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2009-03/miot-mbm030909.php Fast charging lithium batteries might reach the market in 2 to 3 years. A small battery that could be fully charged or discharged in 10 to 20 seconds Prof. Ceder was on NPR pleading the media to stay away from unreasonable extrapolations – the observed enhancements in transport of lithium ions were limited to one component – the positive electrode; the other electrode continues to be plagued by the traditional issues. Breakthrough lithium battery charges to 90% in just 5 minutes www.gizmag.com/toshiba-scib-super-charge-lithium-battery/8506/ Full Recharge in < 10 Minutes http://www.toshiba.com/ind/data/tag_files/SCiB_Brochure_5383.pdf The titanate based negative electrodes did solve the lithium plating upon super-fast charge in the traditional carbon-based cells. The average cell voltage was reduced to 2.4 V (compare at 3.5 V for carbon-based); resulting in larger size batteries.

30. Chevy Volt Nissan Leaf Prius PHEV http://autogreenmag.com/tag/chevroletvolt/page/2/ http://inhabitat.com/will-the-nissan-leaf-battery-deliver-all-it-promises/ http://www.toyota.com/esq/articles/2010/Lithium_Ion_Battery.html http://www.caranddriver.com/news/car/10q4/2012_mitsubishi_i-miev_u.s.-spec_photos_and_info-auto_shows/gallery/mitsubishi_prototype_i_miev_lithium-ion_batteries_and_electric_drive_system_photo_19 i-MiEV Ford Focus Fiat 500 EV http://www.metaefficient.com/cars/ford-focus-electric-nissan-leaf.html http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/79578/20101108/sb-limotive-samsung-sdi-chrysler-electric-car.htm Battery Packs in Some EDVs

31. Relationship between Car Makers and Battery Makers © Nomura Research Institute, Ltd.

32. 2009 Recovery Act - Battery Manufacturing Expected to Lower the Cost Complete List available at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/recovery/pdfs/battery_awardee_list.pdf

33. 2009 Recovery Act – Electrification of Vehicles Expected to better understand value and cost

34. Battery Materials Update: No major change in commercial trends High Voltage Electrolytes (5V) using modified sulfones - ANL, Dow, Dupont have products under development Mixed metal oxide cathodes (> 200 mAh/g) Separators: Ceramic Reinforced High Temperature Stability (Energain from Dupont HTMI from Celgard) Binders: - Shift from fluoride-based binders - SBR and CMC increasingly popular Other Phosphates Voltage Vs Li Iron 3.6 V Manganese 4.1 V Cobalt 4.8 V Nickel 5.1 V

36. Battery Degrades Faster at Higher Temperatures Calendar (Storage) Fade Source: Bloom and Battaglia , 2008 Temperature (⁰C) Relative Power

39. Energy Need in Light-Duty Electric-Drive Vehicles 15-25 Wh 25-80 Wh 70-200 Wh 70-200 Wh Min in use energy needed * Energy for a ultracapacitor in combination with Li-Ion http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/energystorage/pdfs/45596.pdf EV: 20 -40 kWh Energy Storage Technology PHEV :5-15 kWh (50-90 Wh*) NiMH and Li-ion: Yes Ucap: Likely Ucap + VRLA: Possible Micro Hybrids (12 V-42 V: Start-Stop, Launch Assist) NiMH: No Li-ion: Yes Ucaps + high energy Li-ion : Possible Plug-in HEV (and EV) NiMH and Li-ion: Yes Ucaps: Likely if Fuel Cell is not downsized Ucaps + (NiMH or Li-Ion): Possible Fuel Cell Hybrids NiMH and Li-ion: Yes Ucaps: Possible Ucaps + (NiMH or Li-Ion): Possible Full/Med Hybrids (150 V-350 V: Power Assist HEV) NiMH and Li-ion: Yes Ucaps: Likely if engine is not downsized much Ucaps + VRLA: Possible Mild/Med Hybrids (42 V-150 V: Micro HEV Function + Regen)

40. Power Need in Light-Duty Electric-Drive Vehicles 3-5 kW 5-15 kW 15-50 kW 15-50 kW Range of Power needed * Energy for a ultracapacitor in combination with Li-Ion http://www.nrel.gov/vehiclesandfuels/energystorage/pdfs/45596.pdf EV: 80–120 kW Energy Storage Technology PHEV: 20-50 kW NiMH and Li-ion: Yes Ucap: Likely Ucap + VRLA: Possible Micro Hybrids (12 V-42 V: Start-Stop, Launch Assist) NiMH: No Li-ion: Yes Ucaps + high energy Li-ion : Possible Plug-in HEV (and EV) NiMH and Li-ion: Yes Ucaps: Likely if Fuel Cell is not downsized Ucaps + (NiMH or Li-Ion): Possible Fuel Cell Hybrids NiMH and Li-ion: Yes Ucaps: Possible Ucaps + (NiMH or Li-Ion): Possible Full/Med Hybrids (150 V-350 V: Power Assist HEV) NiMH and Li-ion: Yes Ucaps: Likely if engine is not downsized much Ucaps + VRLA: Possible Mild/Med Hybrids (42 V-150 V: Micro HEV Function + Regen)

42. USABC Available Energy is Defined when Power Requirements Are Met at Charge and Discharge Available Energy

43. Energy Storage Requirements for Micro Hybrids (At End of Life) http://www.uscar.org/guest/article_view.php?articles_id=85

44. Energy Storage Requirements for Micro Hybrids (At End of Life) Discharge Power: 6 kW for 2s Available Energy: 30 Wh at 1 kW rate Cycle life: 750,000 (150,00Miles) Weight and Volume Restrictions Calendar life: 15 years Mass produce system price: $80 ($13.3/kW) http://www.uscar.org/guest/article_view.php?articles_id=85

45. Energy Storage Requirements for Low Voltage Mild Hybrids http://www.uscar.org/guest/article_view.php?articles_id=85

46. Energy Storage Requirements for Low Voltage Mild Hybrids http://www.uscar.org/guest/article_view.php?articles_id=85 Discharge Power: 13 kW for 2s Available Energy: 300 Wh at 3 kW rate Cycle life: 450,000 (150,00Miles) Weight and Volume Restrictions Calendar life at 30⁰C: 15 years Mass produce system price: $260 ($20/kW)

47. For Medium or Full Hybrids, and Fuel Cell Vehicles http://www.uscar.org/guest/article_view.php?articles_id=85 At End Of Life

48. For Medium or Full Hybrids, and Fuel Cell Vehicles http://www.uscar.org/guest/article_view.php?articles_id=85 Available Energy = 300 Wh at C1/1 rate Calendar Life at 30 ° C = 15 Years Cycle Life (charge sustaining) = 300,000 cycles (150,000 Miles) Peak Power Discharge (10S) = 25 kW At End Of Life Cost for mass produce system = $500 ($20/kW)

49. A New USABC Requirements for Lower-Energy Energy Storage System Available Energy = 26 Wh Energy Window Use = 165 Wh The purpose is to enable and develop very high power Energy storage systems with potentially lower cost than high power batteries since fuel economy of Power Assist HEVs is still good with low energy ESS. www.uscar.org/commands/files_download.php?files_id=219

50. http://www.uscar.org/guest/article_view.php?articles_id=85

51. http://www.uscar.org/guest/article_view.php?articles_id=85 Available Energy = 11.6 kWh ( Δ SOC = 70%) Capacity (EOL) = 16.6 kWh Calendar Life at 35 ° C = 15 Years Cost for mass produce system = $3,400 ($300/kWh available energy) Cycle Life (charge depleting) = 5000 cycles Peak Power Discharge (10S) = 38 kW C-rate ~ 10-15 kW Cycle Life (charge sustaining) =200K-300K cycles 40 Mile EV Range

52. http://www.uscar.org/guest/article_view.php?articles_id=85

53. http://www.uscar.org/guest/article_view.php?articles_id=85 Available Energy = 40 kWh at C/3 rate Cycle Life (full charge depleting) = 1000 cycles (150,000 Miles) Peak Power Discharge (10S) = 80 kW Cost for mass produce system = $500 ($150/kWh) Calendar Life at 30 ° C = 15 Years

54. Summary DOE and USABC Battery Performance Targets Source: David Howell, DOE Vehicle Technologies Annual Merit Review DOE Energy Storage Goals HEV (2010) PHEV (2015) EV (2020) Equivalent Electric Range (miles) N/A 10-40 200-300 Discharge Pulse Power (kW) 25 38-50 80 Regen Pulse Power (10 seconds) (kW) 20 25-30 40 Recharge Rate (kW) N/A 1.4-2.8 5-10 Cold Cranking Power @ -30 ºC (2 seconds) (kW) 5 7 N/A Available Energy (kWh) 0.3 3.5-11.6 30-40 Calendar Life (year) 15 10+ 10 Cycle Life (cycles) 3000 3,000-5,000, deep discharge 750+, deep discharge Maximum System Weight (kg) 40 60-120 300 Maximum System Volume (l) 32 40-80 133 Operating Temperature Range (ºC) -30 to +52 -30 to 52 -40 to 85