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Coral Remediation
Coral Remediation
Coral Remediation
Coral Remediation
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Coral Remediation
Coral Remediation
Coral Remediation
Coral Remediation
Coral Remediation
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Coral Remediation
Coral Remediation
Coral Remediation
Coral Remediation
Coral Remediation
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Coral Remediation
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Coral Remediation

  1. Gaffney 1 Remediation of Coral Reefs in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Tech Report 405, Inc April 8, 2014 Connorlynn Gaffney
  2. Gaffney 2 Abstract Coral reefs are an integral part of the world ecosystem, but are in danger from human actions. Coral destruction is caused by changes in the environment which can lead to mass bleaching incidents. Bleaching is the process of expelling symbiotic zooxanthelle bacteria and weakens the coral leaving it susceptible to breakage and disease. In order to protect corals from the detrimental environmental impacts they have been subjected to, the United States created fourteen national marine sanctuaries which provide a safe haven for those corals in danger, one of which, is located in the Florida Keys. Introduction Coral reefs are a vital piece of the earth’s ecosystem, but due to changing atmospheric conditions they are steadily declining in health and population throughout the world. The decline of coral reefs has lead to the establishment of various governmental procedures in an attempt to aid in the protection and preservation of the remaining reef systems including the creation of the National Marine Sanctuary Program in the United States.Under this program, there are numerous federally designated sanctuaries located along the coasts of the United States, including the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary which is located off the coast of Florida and Mexico. The coral reefs in this community face various threats such as; trawling, damage from boat anchors, ecotourism, poaching, and bleaching due to pollution, and increased salinity and ocean temperature from climate change. Although all forms of coral damage are important, bleaching is the most detrimental to coral populations. Coral bleaching is the process by which the coral expels Zooxanthelle algae from its
  3. Gaffney 3 tissues (NOAA). The zooxanthelle live symbiotically within the coral and help by feeding the corals through the process of photosynthesis (Littler 2006). Once expelled, the corals must work harder to obtain the same amount of food necessary for its life processes and growth. The coral can survive a bleaching event, but are significantly weakened require immediate remediation efforts if they are expected to recover. Not only are the corals required to work harder, but they also become more susceptible to mortality once bleached (Glynn 1996). Bleaching is caused by increased stressors in the environment; it can be something as slight as a one to two degree change in ocean temperature or salinity. With the increasing effects of climate change, coral bleaching is becoming more common and harder to counteract or prevent. Trawling is another form of coral damage, but is caused directly by human actions. Trawling is a process used by large fishing corporations. The process usually consists of dragging large, heavy nets across the ocean floor pulled along by a boat above the water, and aided by the use of wheels and large metal plates on the sea floor (Bottom Trawling). When dragging across the bottom of the sea, the nets destroy any life forms rooted to the bottom, and catch fish species other than the one’s intended. The excess fish are usually thrown back, but after that trauma they have a high rate of mortality. The combination of physical destruction of corals from the nets and the decrease in species on reefs both cause problems within the reef system as well as the ocean community as a whole. Similar to the process of trawling is destruction from anchors. Coral provides a stable holdfast for the anchors, but cuts from embedded anchors cause deterioration and prevents growth in the corals. Constant breakage of coral over time can cause irreparable breakage. Due
  4. Gaffney 4 to the slow growth rate of coral, any damage inflicted can take years to repair itself to the point it was at prior to the damage. Ecotourism can either help or harm the corals. If done correctly with the proper guidance, ecotourism can lead to greater appreciation and protection of corals, but without guidance tourists can cause damage to the reefs. Tourists do not always realize the detrimental effects of breaking pieces of coral or how delicate the structures are. Accidently bumping into corals can cause breakage which is difficult for the coral itself to repair. This is different than on land, if an individual bumps into a tree, the tree is fine and the person is generally hurt more than the tree itself, but coral is not strong in the same way the trees are. This is also where the problem with accidental poaching is encountered. Tourists’ breaking off pieces of the reef as souvenirs causes enough damage to kill the parent coral. In direct relation to accidental poaching, is intentional poaching which occurs when coral or wildlife is intentionally taken for sale or personal purposes. Pollution is caused by increased ecotourism and general wastes from every day human activities. Pollution can be in the form of manmade materials in the ocean or from processes such as run-off. Plastic bags can cause suffocation of corals and fish which depletes the oxygen supply stunting growth, and if depletion occurs over a long enough period of time, it will cause mortality. Run-off from farms containing fertilizers can also cause negative effects in the coral’s environment. While it will help add nutrients to the system and increase algae growth, too much can cause algae blooms which can block sunlight to reefs thus depleting the amount of photosynthesis and reducing available nutrients to corals.
  5. Gaffney 5 Overview The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary is one of fourteen areas across the country designated as part of the National Marine Sanctuary program,which is a Federal Government initiative. The main objective of this program is to preserve and protect natural resources in certain coastal locations that support high levels of biodiversity. The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary was designated as a protected region in 1990, and covers an area of just under 3,000 square miles of water surrounding the islands of the Florida Keys. The main objective of this facility, and the overall objective of the Sanctuary program, is to protect the marine resources that exist within its’ boundaries. The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, however,also has a more localized goal of generating an interest in those marine resources amongst the local people. As a secondary goal, the Sanctuary attempts to facilitate an understanding of the importance of maintaining the biodiversity that is found in the area, as well as both the potential and realized impacts on the local residents. Figure 1. Map of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
  6. Gaffney 6 Aside from working with the local people, the sanctuary administers a wide variety of projects to benefit the local ecosystem. Most of their current efforts focus on the protection and conservation of the local Keys’ plants and animals, with special attention paid to the coral reef communities, as they are a critical component to the area’s ecosystem. Many of their projects attempt to protect the most coveted local plants of the area, including mangroves and seagrass, due to the significant role they play in the Keys’ ecosystem and economy. The Sanctuary monitors the quality and condition of the ocean water and the seafloor, as well as incorporate shipwrecks and artificial reefs to encourage species inhabitation. A resulting increase in species inhabitation would benefit the biodiversity and health of the sanctuary and ocean as a whole. The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary also offers visitors many recreational opportunities within its’ boundaries that encourage people to take an interest in the surrounding aquatic ecosystem. Some of the activities available include swimming, snorkeling, and fishing. These activities are offered in the theory that a positive ecotourism experience can lead to increased interest and support of coral reef systems. The sanctuary has many programs for the benefit of corals including; an Injury Assessment, Research & Monitoring, Coral Rescue, Coral Nursery, and Coral Restoration program, the latter of which is the most popular. During the restoration process, scientists work towards the goal of restoring the coral and surrounding area to a healthy condition as it would be without disturbance as quickly as possible. These efforts typically involve cleaning up debris from the site, and/or reattaching pieces of the coral with a special cement or epoxy that hardens underwater and eventually dissolves once the coral is secure again. Restoration efforts are a
  7. Gaffney 7 critical component to the activities performed at the Sanctuary due to the highly public nature of the reefs. Scientists monitor the sites for years after project completion in the hopes that they can gain valuable knowledge on the effectiveness of a various restoration techniques, as well as the long-term impact on the surrounding Keys’ area. The Sanctuary expands is restoration projects expand into the Artificial Reef program. An artificial reef is a structure of safe man-made materials placed on the ocean floor to attract marine species to the area. It encourages species inhabitation and coral growth. As partof this program, the Sanctuary utilizes previously sunken shipwrecks and other debris that reside on the seafloor within its boundaries which will not harm animals, but will provide a safe and porous surface for reef expansion. The Artificial Reef program at the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary is unique because no other designated National Marine Sanctuary is authorized to have such a program. Artificial Reef programs are discouraged at the other National Sanctuary sites due to the strict regulations in place regarding what is allowed to be on the ocean floor within the sanctuary boundaries. The Florida Keys Sanctuary was allowed to continue their programdue to the amount of shipwrecks and other objects in the sanctuary waters prior to its’ Federal designation as a protected region in 1990. The ecosystem (and the natural resources) of the Florida Keys area, and the tourism that it generates, holds a large stake in the local economy. Many people’s livelihoods depend on this location retaining its’ high level of biodiversity, though they might not even be aware of it. The culture, and the general atmosphere of the Keys, is famous for being a beautiful, tropical setting that is full of life which is important to the people in the Florida Keys.
  8. Gaffney 8 Understanding of the Problem Since 1990 when congress designated the Florida Keys a National Marine Sanctuary, a close partnership between the federal government and the State of Florida has developed Sanctuary planning methods and management plans (Suman 1997). There are several different organizations, committees, and groups thatare involved with the decision process when it comes to the well being of the Sanctuary and the surrounding community. These groups vary from the federal government all the way down to local committees with numerous others in between. The management plan and interagency memoranda of agreement visibly partitions government functions such as; enforcement, permitting, research, and education between Federal and State agencies (Suman 1997). The Florida Keys Marine Sanctuary represents a great example of integrated coastal zone management amongst varied agencies in an effort to protect the Sanctuary. Starting at the top of the decision authority ladder, the National Marine Sanctuary Actis a piece of legislation that provides the Sanctuary with a foundation for Federal and State Figure 2. A shipsunkinKeyLargo Floridashowsthe biodiversityonintroducedstructurestocoral reef systems.
  9. Gaffney 9 coordination in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (Suman 1997). The policy is to develop and implement coordinated plans for the protection and managementwith appropriate Federal, State, and local agencies as well as Native American organizations, International organizations, and other private and public interests groups concerned with the health and resilience of the Sanctuary (Suman 1997). After the National Marine Sanctuary Act, the Interagency ManagementCommittee has control. It is compromised of state agencies that head coastal zone management with the assistance of Federal authorities (Suman 1997). The Interagency Management Committee represents four key executive offices including the Florida Department of Natural Resources, the Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, the Florida Departmentof Community Affairs, and the Governor’s office (Suman 1997). Beneath the Interagency Management Committee is the Interagency Core Group, which gives a voice to Florida’s government in the creation of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (Suman 1997). Resource managers from Federal, State,and local agencies formed a Central Government Sanctuary Planning Body to prioritize management strategies that developed from public scoping meetings, coordinate management options, and develop coherent options for the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (Suman 1997). Following the Interagency Management Committee is the Monroe County government, whom, with assistance from the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, has focused their efforts on protecting benthic habitats,improving water quality, and implementing storm water and wastewater infrastructure (Sleaseman, 2009). Monroe County has also created no discharge zones, and manages sensitive land habitat to promote the well being of the Sanctuary
  10. Gaffney 10 (Sleaseman, 2009). Next in line is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) which participated in the development of the management plan and environmental impact statement (Morin, 2001). It also took the lead on responsibilities such as implementation of zoning, education & outreach, enforcement, regulation,and research (Morin, 2001). NOAA provides the bulk of funding for the ecological reserve, and special use areas within the Sanctuary (Morin, 2001). Last is the Sanctuary Advisory Council, which assists the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the development and implementation of management plans to ensure that the interests of all user groups are adequately represented in the Sanctuary planning process and implementation of the plan (Morin, 2001). The Sanctuary Advisory Council allows the public to participate in the management of the Sanctuary while also receiving education on the Sanctuary (Morin, 2001). Findings/Discussion The locals living around the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary are very active in the community and decision making process associated with the sanctuary by becoming a committee member. The committee members’ jobs range from advising the government both at the state and federal levels as to what the regulation should be for the sanctuary, to educating the public, and exploring ways the government can protect the reef community. The involvement of the public in the actual creation of regulations can be initiated in different ways, including consensus based approaches or the traditional top-down approach which consists of the government releasing the first draft of regulations. Once the first draft has
  11. Gaffney 11 been out for a given amount of time, the publics’ input is gathered through either written responses or a public hearing. Then, the government takes the public comments, redrafts the regulations and releases the final draft. Different approaches were taken in the creation of the Water Quality Protection Plan, the designation of No Discharge Zones with state lands in Monroe County and the sanctuary, and the addition of the Tortugas Marine Sanctuary to the Florida Keys Sanctuary. One of the more traditional top-down successes was the creation of the Water Quality Protection Program (WQPP). The WQPP was created atthe same time as the sanctuary. It was drafted by the Secretary of Commerce, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and the Environmental Protection Agency. Correction plans for pollution across the sanctuary were created and control measures were put in place. The plan also created a Water Quality Steering Committee which creates reports for Congress on the progress, modifications needed, and recommendations suggested of the sanctuary and water quality (Morin 2001).This group is made up of local government, federal government, and three concerned citizens and led to a decrease in water pollution as well as an increase in protection for the water in and around the sanctuary (Morin 2001). Another success of the sanctuary was the creation of No-Discharge Zones. The No Discharge zones were created in 2002 with help from the sanctuary,local and federal governments. The impetus for this action was the release of the Report of the Water Quality Protection Program in 1996 (Delaney 2003). This report blamed the dumping of wastes into the sanctuary for an increase in pollution in the area. Thus in 2002, the Florida state governor, with support from the Board of County Commissioners in Monroe County requested that the EPA designate the state waters as No-Discharge Zones (NOAA Press Release). This process only
  12. Gaffney 12 involved the public who sat on the Water Quality Protection Program Steering Committee,and the requests for public comment. The requests for public comment showed that the No Discharge Zones were supported by a vast majority of the public, 97 percent (Delaney 2003). This model needs to be taken up by other national marine sanctuaries, in order to ensure the best protection for the wildlife intended to be safe in these areas. Implications Due to the delicate nature of the marine life, the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary has implemented many regulations for the protection of the species living there. The enforced regulations put a limit on the interactions tourists and locals can have with the area protected by the sanctuary. Regulations forbid touching the coral or wildlife in anyway and go so far as to specify against moving, removing, taking, injuring, breaking, cutting, or possessing the coral and wildlife protected by the sanctuary. On top of regulations for personal interactions with coral and wildlife, the rules extend to cover pollution and boating regulations. Nowhere in the sanctuary can untreated sewage, trash, exotic species or electrical charges be released. These rules help to protect not only the small amount of ocean space covered by this sanctuary, but also the rest of the ocean by preventing the spread of pollution. The rules which effect people the most are in regards to boating and diving regulations. Vessels cannot be operated in a manner that could strike or injure coral, seagrass, or other immobile organisms which are attached to the seabed; this includes anchoring on living coral in water less than 40 feet deep, although anchoring on hard bottom is allowed (68B-42 F.A.C.). These regulations place a restriction on the public, but are for the benefit of the ocean community, and only apply to the area covered by the sanctuary. A full text version of the
  13. Gaffney 13 Sanctuary’s regulations can be found at www.ecfr.gov. Conclusion The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary is a supreme example of the type of protection that can be offered to wildlife of an area, especially when the local community is supportive. Programs such as this should be implemented in other areas to the protection, rehabilitation, and maintenance of natural wildlife.
  14. Gaffney 14 References Bottom Trawling. Greenpeace International. Greenpeace. Retrieved March 20, 2014, from http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/campaigns/oceans/bottom- trawling/. Doubilet , David . Artificial Reefs: Sunken Ships, Tanks And Other Underwater Paradises From National Geographic . N.d. Relics to Reefs , Key Largo .Huffington Post. Web. 7 Apr. 2014. Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Advisory Council. Office of National Marine Sanctuaries National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, (2011). Marine zoning and regulatory review shaping the future of Florida Keys marine conservation. Retrieved from website: http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/review/documents/zone- summary.pdf Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Website http://floridakeys.noaa.gov Franklin, Erik C. M/V JACQUELYN L: Coral Reef Restoration Monitoring Report, Monitoring Events 2004-2005, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Monroe County, Florida. Marine Sanctuaries Conservation Series NMSP 06-09. October 2006. PDF. Glynn, P. W. (1996), Coral reef bleaching: facts, hypotheses and implications. Global Change Biology, 2(6): 495–509. Littler, M. M., Littler, D. S., & Brooks, B. L. (2006). Harmful algae on tropical coral reefs: Bottom-up eutrophication and top-down herbivory. Harmful Algae, 5(5), 565-585. National Marine Sanctuary System. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,(2010). Strategy for clarifying enforcement needs and testing enforcement measures. Retrieved from website: http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/protect/pdfs/enforcement_strategy.pdf Sleasman, K. (2009): Coordination between Monroe County and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS), Ocean & Coastal Management, 52, 69–75. Suman, Daniel O. (1997): The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary: A Case Study an Innovative Federal/State Partnership in Marine Resource Management, Coastal Management, 25:3, 293-324 Suman, D., M. Shivlani and J. Milon. (1999): Perceptions and Attitudes Regarding Marine Reserves: A Comparison of Stakeholder Groups in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, Ocean & Coastal Management, 42, 1019-1040. What is coral bleaching? . (2013, February 21). NOAA's National Ocean Service.
  15. Gaffney 15 Retrieved April 6, 2014, from http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bl
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