2. Introduction
The validity of results and quality of research depends to a large extent on the quality of the
data collection instruments/tools/questionnaire.
Much of the data in medical research is collected using Interviews and administering
questionnaires.
Therefore designing a good ‘questionnaire’ is an important part in the development of a
research proposal.
There are various types of questions used to collect the data; some of them are as follows:
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3. Open Ended Questions
Open-ended questions give the respondent freedom to answer and the responses are recorded in the
respondents’ own words.
Such questions are useful for obtaining in-depth information on: facts with which the researcher is not
very familiar, opinions, attitudes and suggestions of informants, or sensitive issues.
Examples - What were the reasons to stop alcohol?
What did you do when you came to know that you have HIV infection?
What habits do you believe increase chances of coronary heart disease?
What is your opinion on the Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY)/ Maternity Benefit Scheme in India?
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5. Experiencing (Through Observation and Field Notes)
Observation is a technique that involves
Systematically selecting, watching and recording behavior and characteristics of living beings,
objects or phenomena.
Scientific inquiry using observational methods requires disciplined, trained and skilled
observer.
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6. Qualities of a good observer
include:
Paying attention, seeing what to see, and hearing what to hear as per the objectives of the
research question
Good practice in writing descriptively
•Acquired expertise in recording field notes
Knowledge of how to separate detail from trivia without being overwhelmed by the latter
Use of rigorous methods to validate and triangulate observations
Report the strengths and limitations of one’s own perspective, which requires both self-
knowledge and disclosure.
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7. The Purpose of Direct Observation
Describe the setting in order to understand the context.
Find out things that would normally be taken for granted by someone who is routinely
exposed to the setting.
Observe what people may be unwilling to talk about in the interview.
Confirm the perceptions reported by interviewees.
Provide the researcher with first-hand knowledge of the setting during the analysis and
interpretation stage.
The impressions and feelings of the observer become part of the data.
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8. Observational Methods
Participatory
Non-participatory, i.e. emic vs. etic perspectives
Solo vs. Team observations (participatory vs. collaborative approaches
Overt vs. covert observations(the argument goes, covert observations are more likely to find
out what is really happening than overt observations where people in the setting are aware that
they are being studied)
Variations in the duration of observations(1 hour, months)
Variations in the observational focus of the study
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9. Observation–Sources of Data
Physical setting
Social environment
Historical information
Planned program activities
Informal interactions and unplanned activities
Local or “Native” language of the program(include the exact language used by participants)
Nonverbal communication
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10. Observation–Sources of Data
Unobtrusive observations(Unobtrusive measures are those made without the knowledge of the
people being observed and without affecting what is observed.)
Documents review/using available information
Observing what does not happen
Observing oneself(conscious of the cultural, political, linguistic, ideological origins of his/her
own perspective and voice)
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11. Enquiry
Interviewing
An interview is a data collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents,
either individually or as a group.
Answers to the questions posed during an interview can be recorded by writing them down or
by tape-recording the responses, or the combination of both.
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12. Wording of questions
How a question is worded affects the interviewee response
Asking questions is an art
They should be genuinely open-ended, neutral, singular and clear.
A genuinely open-ended question minimizes the possibility of imposing predetermined responses, e.g. “How do
you feel about... ?” is open-ended whereas “How satisfied are you with ...?” already presupposes an answer
about satisfaction
Avoid questions that will lead to Yes/No answers, e.g., “Are you satisfied with ...?” Neutral questions refer to the
non judgementalism adopted by the interviewer.
Singular questions ensure that not more than one idea is contained in any given question.
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13. Wording of questions…
“How well do you know and like the staff in this clinic?” contains two ideas?
The clarity of questions is enhanced by asking simple, understandable, unambiguous
questions, using language and terminology that is familiar to the respondent.
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14. Wording of questions…
Why questions: One should take care about asking ‘why questions’. They imply causal
relationships, which may be complex to unravel and may make respondents feel defensive.
Think of other ways of asking what you want to know.
The final or closing question:
It provides the interviewee with the opportunity to have the final say, e.g. “That covers all I
wanted to ask. Anything you would like to add?”
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15. Global Ratings
Like interviews, global ratings are another form of self-reported data collection technique in
research
If a
researcher was interested in measuring attitudes toward a class in research methods, he or she
could develop a set of summary statements and then ask the participants to rate their attitudes
along a bipolar continuum.
On a scale of 1 to 5, please rate the extent to which you enjoy the fried foods.
1 2 3 4 5
Hate it not much Neutral to some extent Love it 15
16. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
Qualitative research methods with a small group of people (6–10) with similar backgrounds
who participate in the discussion for 1–2 hours.
The objective is to get high quality data in a social context where people can consider their
own views in the context of the views of others.
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17. FGD…
Two people need to conduct the focus group discussion–one who concentrates on
moderating/facilitating the discussion, and the other who concentrates on taking detailed notes,
and who also deals with mechanics, e.g. video cameras, tape recorders, and with any special
needs that arise, e.g. someone leaving early, or becoming distraught during the discussion.
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18. The advantages of focus group discussions
Cost effective: In an hour, one can gather information from eight people as opposed to just one person.
Interactions between participants enhance the quality of the data.
Participants tend to provide checks and balance for each other which reject false or extreme views.
The extent to which there is a relatively consistent, shared view or great diversity of views can quickly
be assessed.
They tend to be enjoyable for participants, drawing on their natural social tendencies.
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19. The limitations of focus group discussions are:
The number of questions that can be asked is greatly restricted in th group setting. The available response time for each individual is
constrained by
having to hear from everyone. A rule of thumb: “With eight people
and one hour for the focus group discussion aim to ask no more than
10 major questions”.
• Facilitating a focus group requires considerable group process skill
beyond simply asking questions. The moderator must manage the
discussion so that one or two people do not dominate it, and enable
those that are less verbal to share their views.
• Those who realize that their view is a minority perspective may not be
inclined to speak up and risk negative reactions.
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20. The limitations of focus group discussions are
Focus groups work best when people in the group, though sharing
similar background, are strangers to each other. The dynamics are
quite different and more complex when participants have prior
established relationships.
• Controversial and highly personal issues are poor topics for focus
groups.
• Confidentiality cannot be assured in focus groups.
• The focus group is beneficial for identification of major themes, but
not so much for the micro-analysis of subtle differences.
• Focus groups have the disadvantage of taking place outside the natural
setting where social interactions normally occur.
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26. Closed Ended Questions
Some of the closed ended questions are as follows:
a. Dichotomous questions:
Example: Have you ever had an accident? 1. Yes 2. No
Do you eat an egg everyday? 1. Yes 2. NO
b. Multiple-Choice Questions:
Example: How important is it to you to attend a lecture?
i. Extremely important
ii. Very important
iii. Somewhat important
iv. Not at all important 26
27. Cafeteria questions:
Example: People have different opinions about the use of estrogen replacement therapy for
women in menopause. Which of the following statements best represents your point of view?
i. Estrogen replacement is dangerous and should be totally banned.
ii. Estrogen replacement may have some undesirable side effects and needs caution in use.
iii. I am undecided about the use of estrogen replacement.
iv. Estrogen replacement has beneficial effect and needs to be promoted.
v. Estrogen replacement therapy is wonder cure that should be administered routinely to
menopausal women.
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28. Rank order Questions:
Example: Please indicate the priority of your life by putting the number in decreasing order (1 being the first, 2 being
the next and so on.
1. Wealth
2. Health
3. Friendship
4. Family
5. Relationship
6. Success
7. Promotions
8. Religion
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29. Force Choice questions
Example: Which statement more closely represents your view point?
1. I am meticulous in my planning.
2. I think, I don’t have good communication skills
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30. Rating questions:
Example: On 0–10 scale, measure your satisfaction level by encircling the number (0 being
extremely dissatisfied and 10 being extremely satisfied).
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Extremely dissatisfied extremely satisfied
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31. Likert scale
It is named after Rensis Likert, a social psychologist. It consists of several declarative
statements/ items that express the view point on a topic. Respondents are asked to indicate the
degree to which they agree or disagree
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34. Designing the Questionnaire/Interview Tool
State objectives and variables of the research study.
Formulate one or more questions that will provide the information needed for each variable.
Check whether each question measures one thing at a time.
Avoid leading questions.
Use proper wordings.
Ask sensitive questions in a socially acceptable way.
Design your interview schedule or questionnaire to be ‘informant friendly’.
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35. Designing the Questionnaire/Interview Tool…
Translation is needed if interviews are to be conducted in one or more local languages. The
questionnaire should be translated in order to standardize the way questions will be asked.
After having it translated, it should be retranslated into the original language by a different
person. One can then compare the two versions
for differences and make decisions concerning the final phrasing of
difficult questions.
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36. Avoid Pitfalls
• Double barreled questions:
Each question should contain only one concept. Use of words like “and/or” sometimes lead to
undesirable response.
Example: How many cups of coffee or tea do you drink per day? (it is better to break this
question in two, asking separately for coffee and tea).
Hidden assumptions: There should not be any preconceived assumptions for getting the
answer to a question.
The question and answer options do not match. It is important that the question matches the
options provided for the answer, a task that seems simple but is often done incorrectly
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