A brief exploration of the many environmental considerations that come into play as an electronics product or design goes from cradle to grave.

1. Real World Considerations
in the Design of Electronic Products
Environmental
Considerations
http://www.comingalongside.org/Environmental_Consequences/

2. Environmental Constraints in
Engineering Design
Environmental constraints in an engineering design are about:
Designing to the operating environment
Designing to external (environmental) regulations
Designing to these constraints is required, not optional!
Environment
constrains
must constrain impacts on

3. often hurts the environment
Other Environmental Considerations in
Engineering Design
Impacts to the Environment or limits imposed by the
environment extend far beyond what is required for “good”
design. A wide range of negative impacts on air, water, soil, and
other detrimental impacts to the environment and to human
health should be considered in ethical engineering design.

4. Natural Resource Extraction
Manufacturing/Production
Distribution
Use/Consumption
Disposal
Part 1: Gold & Conflict Minerals
The Price of Extraction
Some Environmental Considerations in the
Design of Electronic Products

5. The Natural Resource: Gold
Where is Gold Used?
1. Plugs and Sockets,
2. Computer Backplates,
3. Printed Circuit Boards,
4. Integrated circuits,
5. Switches and Relays
6. Many Other Contacts
Natural Resource Extraction and
Electronic Products
Did you Know?
The Electronics Industry uses over 350 tons of gold annually,
and ranks third in gold use after jewelry and coins.

6. The Natural Resource: Gold
Did you Know?
The more high-end the electronics, the more reliability is expected, and the more
gold is used in those electronics.
Why Gold?
1. Low contact resistance
2. Very malleable & ductile
3. Great corrosion resistance
4. High thermal conductivity
(dissipates heat quickly)
Natural Resource Extraction and
Electronic Products

7. The Natural Resource: Gold
Did you Know?
According to the Dodd-Frank Act of 2010 --
Public companies in the U.S. are required to
disclose use of conflict sourced minerals
What's the Problem?
Gold mining has been linked to illegal armed
and militia activity in several areas of the
world, resulting in human rights violations
(including child labor) and limiting the
ability of developing communities to
emerge from poverty.
Natural Resource Extraction and
Electronic Products

8. The Natural Resource: Gold – A Conflict Mineral
Did you Know?
A list of companies that honor the Conflict-Free Gold Standard can be found here:
http://www.gold.org/about-us/our-members
What's the Solution?
Purchasing gold from
companies that source from
mines that meet the Conflict
Free Gold Standard ensures
that gold purchased is either
from conflict-free areas or from
conflict-affected areas where
mining gold has positive socio-
economic effects.
Natural Resource Extraction and
Electronic Products

9. The Natural Resource: Other Conflict Minerals
Did you Know?
Tin, Tantalum, and Tungsten are also Conflict Minerals for which the Conflict Free
Sourcing Initiative provides resources to source & access conflict-free minerals.
What's the Solution?
Other conflict materials whose
overall volume is a lesser
amount may not have highly
visible and accessible conflict-
free standards to follow –
leaving it up to the team and
organization using these
materials to acquire these
materials responsibly.
Natural Resource Extraction and
Electronic Products

10. Natural Resource Extraction
Manufacturing/Production
Distribution
Use/Consumption
Disposal
Part 2: Semiconductor Manufacturing
The Price of Water Usage
Some Environmental Considerations in the
Design of Electronic Products

11. What's the Problem?
As engineering designs
get smaller and more
integrated, as
technology continues
to depend on
increasingly smaller
components and
devices - the
manufacturing
processes required to
produce components
must be cleaner and
cleaner, thus making
greater and greater
demands on water
during manufacturing.
Did you Know?
Making one square meter of printed circuit
board can use up to 1.5 cubic meters of water.
Manufacturing of
Electronic Products

12. What's the Problem?
Every step in the semiconductor fabrication process requires cleaning to ensure that
particles and impurities do not disrupt or destroy the functionality of the integrated
circuit. Cleaning requires rinsing. Rinsing requires water.
A semiconductor fabrication plant can consume over 4 million gallons of water a day.
Did you know?
There are dozens of
semiconductor fabrication
facilities in the world, many
in places like Arizona where
water is scarce, creating
tension and conflict with
local communities over water
usage.
Manufacturing of
Electronic Products

13. What's the Problem?
Making water clean enough to clean chips has to remove:
• Organic and inorganic compounds
• Particles
• Dissolved gases and more
And involves ion exchange, electro-deionization, reverse osmosis, degasification,
microfiltration, ultrafiltration, and ultraviolet irradiation
Did you Know?
1500 gallons of city water
are needed to make 1000
gallons of ultra pure
water.
Manufacturing of
Electronic Products

14. What's the Solution?
For an engineer involved in the manufacturing of electronics:
1. Convert wet processes to dry processes in the manufacturing process itself
2. Optimize processes to reduce water usage
3. Recycle spent, ultrapure water
Did you Know?
Even after use, ultrapure water is cleaner than city water
Manufacturing of
Electronic Products

15. Electrical and electronic engineers are uniquely positioned to reduce component
count in electronics designs because of their capacity to redesign & optimize circuits.
What's the Solution?
For a design engineer:
Avoid over-specifying the design. Remain within the true requirements of operation
to minimize the total number of electronic components in a design or product.
?
Manufacturing of
Electronic Products

16. Did you Know?
Cell phones now consume more integrated circuits than computers
What's the Solution?
For a design engineer:
Incorporate modular/semi-modular designs to increase device/product lifetime.
Manufacturing of
Electronic Products

17. Natural Resource Extraction
Manufacturing/Production
Distribution
Use/Consumption
Disposal
Part 3: From Factory to Consumer
The Price of Transport
Some Environmental Considerations in the
Design of Electronic Products

18. What's the Problem?
The environmental impacts of transporting raw materials from their source to the
point of manufacture and from the point of manufacture to their point of use are
many, varied, and significant. While in many situations, the amount of impact is
proportional to the distance travelled, this is not always the case.
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

19. Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products
Did you Know?
Transportation burns most of the world's petroleum

20. What's the Problem?
Greenhouse gases are measured in carbon dioxide equivalents and include emissions
of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and ozone.
Did you Know?
Because they emit
greenhouse gases at
high altitudes,
airplanes have much
greater greenhouse
gas effects that
ground-based
transport!
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

21. What's the Problem?
Greenhouse gases are measured in carbon dioxide equivalents and include emissions
of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, and ozone.
Did you Know?
Nitrous Oxide is about 300X more potent than CO2 in greenhouse gas impact
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

22. Is shipping as good as its greenhouse gas emissions numbers make it out to be?
The Environmental Goodness of Transport by Shipping is murky. While air pollution
and greenhouse gas emissions are inherently low compared to ground and air
transport, ships contribute to unique and poorly quantified sources of pollution:
• Solid waste disposal at sea
• Dirty ballast water discharge
• Transport of non-native and invasive species
• Accidents and spills
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

23. What's the Bottom Line?
While transport by ship on
inland or oceanic waterways
looks good, data on what ships
do once they are out of port is
not as accurate as track and rail
data. Furthermore ship
transport must be used for large
volumes to be cost effective.
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

24. What's the Bottom Line?
Trucks are involved in far more
accidents, produce far more
noise, emit far more air
pollutants, and contribute far
more to the greenhouse effect
than rail transport.
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

25. What's the Bottom Line?
Airplanes carry less than 1% of the
world's freight. However:
• Greenhouse gas effects are greatly
amplified at high altitudes
• Air is highly polluted but poorly
understood during takeoff, climb-
out, taxi, touchdown, and idle modes
• The noise, congestion, and pollution
associated with airports is high
compared to other transportation
hubs
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

26. What's the Solution?
Reducing the environmental consequences of transporting everything from
materials to finished products is a matter of understanding how far away they travel,
how they are transported, how many suppliers are involved, how much packaging is
involved, and so on. Understanding the supply chain is the first step.
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

27. What can Engineers do?
Wherever possible, engineers can reduce the environmental consequences of
transport by Sourcing materials, parts, and assemblies from more local sources.
Buying local goes
well beyond
shopping at the
local farmer's
market!
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

28. What can Engineers do?
Wherever possible, engineers can reduce the
environmental consequences of transport by
Choosing Rail over Road Transport.
Fewer Greenhouse
Gases, Less Air
Pollution, Less
Externalized
Infrastructure Costs
vs
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

29. What can Engineers do?
Wherever possible, engineers can reduce the
environmental consequences of transport by
Considering maritime (ship) transport
when practical constraints and
economies of scale allow it.
vs
Less Air Pollution
Fewer Greenhouse
Gases, but full range
of pollution is not
well known
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

30. What can Engineers do?
Wherever possible, engineers can reduce the
environmental consequences of transport by
reducing product weight or volume
while being careful not to add additional
environmental consequences from other
stages in the product life cycle.
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

31. What can Engineers do?
Wherever possible, engineers can reduce the environmental consequences of
transport by reducing packaging volume, or using more environmentally friendly
packaging.
Distribution and Transport of
Goods & Products

32. Natural Resource Extraction
Manufacturing/Production
Distribution
Use/Consumption
Disposal
Part 4: Consumer Electronics
Power Consumption
Some Environmental Considerations in the
Design of Electronic Products

33. What's the Problem?
Despite major advances in energy efficiency in U.S. homes, homes in 2015 consume
about the same amount of power as 1975 homes, mostly due to the increase in the
use of consumer electronics.
Source: Energy Information Administration (U.S.)
Power Consumption during Use of
Electronic Products

34. What's the Problem?
Consumer electronics are a
major contributor to
overall energy
consumption in the home -
about 12% of what the
average American
household consumes every
year.
Power Consumption during Use of
Electronic Products

35. What's the Problem?
Power consumed in
consumer electronics
devices varies widely,
making it critical to
understand how much a
device consumes as part
of the big picture before
deciding if and how to
address it - whether that
be as a consumer,
engineer, or both!
Power Consumption during Use of
Electronic Products

36. What's the Problem?
Vampire power (that power drawn when an electronic device is not in use) is an
unacceptably large portion of power consumed in the American home
Source: Data adapted from NRDC
https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/home-idle-load-IP.pdf
Power Consumption during Use of
Electronic Products

37. What's the Problem?
Vampire power from consumer electronics is the worst offender among energy
consumption vampires in the American home
Idle
Sleep
Off Source: Data adapted from NRDC
https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/home-idle-load-IP.pdf
Power Consumption during Use of
Electronic Products

38. What's the Solution?
As engineers or others associated with product design, we can reduce power
consumption in standby, sleep, or idle modes by:
• Calculating power consumption of different components within a device
• Identifying critical components (for standby, sleep, idle operation)
• Disentangling critical from non-essential components
• Designing for multiple levels of user-controlled, reduced power consumption
Did you know?
In a Desktop PC, the CPU can consume
between 55 and 150 W of power, while
the cooling fan consumes 6W or less
Power Consumption during Use of
Electronic Products

39. What's the Solution?
As engineers or others associated with product design, we can reduce power
consumption in standby, sleep, or idle modes by being creative – using sensors to
detect a user nearby or a user that is ready to use an electronic device.
User Detection
(using capacitive or other
form of proximity sensing)
Did you know?
A "user sensing" front-end can consume less
than 50mW, compared to 500mW or more
typical of sleep and standby modes in many
electronic devices.
Power Consumption during Use of
Electronic Products

40. What's the Solution?
As engineers or others associated with product design, we can reduce power
consumption by leveraging existing devices to reduce overall power consumption
Source: https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2016/cg_1.html
Did you know?
NASA is developing a module that
can readily connect to a
smartphone and be outfitted
with a range of gas sensors to
detect toxic or harmful gases in
the user's environment
Power Consumption during Use of
Electronic Products

41. What's the Solution?
As engineers or others associated with product design, we can reduce power
consumption by integrating multiple functions in a single device to reduce overall
energy usage.
https://shop.smartthings.com/#!/products/smartsense-multi
Did you know?
Samsung SmartSense detects
open/close movement, vibration
(orientation or angle) and
temperature all in one device
Power Consumption during Use of
Electronic Products

42. What's the Solution?
As engineers or others associated with product design, we can reduce power
consumption by designing intermediate modes of operation to conserve power.
Did you know?
Smart lighting systems for buildings not
only turn lights off when no one is
present but dim in proportion to the
amount of daylight present and can be
adjusted through remote (internet)
wireless control – creating multiple ways
to conserve power 24 hours a day, seven
days a week.
Power Consumption during Use of
Electronic Products

43. Natural Resource Extraction
Manufacturing/Production
Distribution
Use/Consumption
Disposal
Part 5: Electronic Waste
Air, Water, & Soil Pollution
Some Environmental Considerations in the
Design of Electronic Products

44. What is Electronic Waste?
A Working Definition of E-Waste
WEEE:
Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment
The Little Things:
Cell Phones, iPods
… and other consumer electronics
The Medium Things:
Tablets, Personal Computers
… and other home electronics
The Big Things:
Refrigerators, Televisions
… and other appliances
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons
Electronic Waste associated with
Electronic Products

45. How much Electronic Waste (E-Waste or WEEE) are we looking at?
What's the Problem?
Few companies consider the
environmental impact of their
electronic products after the
consumer has disposed of them.
Because of the global complexity of
the electronic waste stream (and
lack of control over that stream)
design and other engineers involved
in product design can feel helpless
to limit this impact.
Did you Know? E-Waste is expected to reach 65 million tons in 2017
http://www.step-initiative.org/
Image Source: https://www.statista.com/chart/2283/electronic-
waste/
Electronic Waste associated with
Electronic Products

46. Is there really an
environmental impact
problem?
Is E-Waste Fact or Folly?
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons
Electronic Waste associated with
Electronic Products

47. 0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Municipal Solid Waste Electronic Waste
MillionsofTons
2005
2013
In 2013, electronic waste made up 3.9% of total MSW
In 2005, this number was 0.8%
Maybe the E-Waste “Crisis” is just another hoax
Electronic Waste associated with
Electronic Products

48. Common Forms of Non-Electronic MSW
Isn’t
E-waste
mostly
recycled
just like
other
waste?
NO
0
20
40
60
80
100
Auto Batteries Office Papers PET Bottles
Percentage
Trash
Recycled
0
20
40
60
80
100
Televisions Computers &
Peripherals
Cell Phones
Percentage
Trash
Recycled
Common Forms of Electronic Waste
Maybe the E-Waste “Crisis” is real.
Electronic Waste associated with
Electronic Products

49. EPA Estimates of E-Waste Destination (2008/2010)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Televisions Computers &
Peripherals
Cell Phones
MillionsofUnits
Trash
Recycled
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Televisions Computers & Peripherals Cell Phones
MillionsofUnits
Trash
Recycled
MIT/EPA Estimates of E-Waste Destination (2010)
Clearly, there is a
rather wide
margin of error
Is E-Waste
data
accurate?
Electronic Waste associated with
Electronic Products

50. What makes E-Waste Worse than most MSW?
In the United States, it is estimated that
75% of heavy metals (lead, arsenic, mercury, etc.) in landfills
come from electronic waste
Volume of Waste
Other MSW
Electornic Waste
Toxicity of Waste
Electronic Waste associated with
Electronic Products

51. Not all E-Waste is Created Equal
Up to Five
Pounds of Lead
Contains
Lead and Arsenic
Not all E-waste is toxic
Contains
Cadmium
Contains
Copper
Contains
Ceramics
Contains
Aluminum
Electronic Waste associated with
Electronic Products

52. Is the
U.S. a
Bad
Actor?
In MSW,
YES!
Electronic Waste associated with
Electronic Products

53. Is the
U.S. a
Bad
Actor?
In E-Waste,
YES!
Electronic Waste associated with
Electronic Products

54. Source: MIT/NCER Report (2013). Quantitative Characterization of Domestic and Transboundary Flows of Used Electronics
http://www.step-initiative.org/files/step/_documents/MIT-NCER%20US%20Used%20Electronics%20Flows%20Report%20-%20December%202013.pdf
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products

55. Electronics
Recycling
Source: http://www.ewaste.com.au
Recycling Electronic Waste is
complex and involves:
• Sorting the waste into different
categories for materials recovery
and processing
• Reducing the waste in size to
enable further sorting
• Separating metals (copper,
aluminum, brass) from non-
metallic materials
• Extracting precious metals (gold,
platinum, silver)
• Separating plastic from glass
When done properly, these recycling
processes cause minimal harm, but..

56. Some estimate as much as 70% of the world’s electronic waste is “dumped” in China
Although it is a violation of the Basel Convention to export electronic waste to
developing countries, there is no effective way to track where our waste is going.
Informal
Economies
Poverty+ =
Cherry Picking
Low Recovery Rates
Decimated Ecosystems
Rudimentary Practices
Lack of Occupational
Health Safeguards
Public Health Crises
When recycling is done poorly or incompletely, it creates environmental problems.
Image Courtesy of Fairphone
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products

57. What happens to E-Waste when it is "Recycled"?
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons
Uncontrolled Dumping
Burning
Shredding & Dismantling
Leaching
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products

58. What happens to E-Waste when it is "Recycled"?
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons
Burning
• Generates fumes which pollute air
• Creates fly ash which induces
breathing and respiratory problems
Generates by-products which:
• Leach toxins into soils, surface water,
and ground water
• Generate harmful fumes
• Produce fine particles which can
travel long distances and cause long
term, negative health impacts
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products

59. Consequences to Environment and Ecosystem:
In addition to this incredible range of impacts on human health across wide geographical areas,
particles released by burning can contaminate soil on land and sediment in waterways which
influences food supplies, drinking water availability, biodiversity, and food chain integrity
Burning doesn’t just impact
those involved in improper
WEEE recycling, but can also
affect uninvolved people
hundreds or thousands of miles
away
Unregulated burning of electronic waste can result in (a) large particles that are respiratory
irritants to local communities, but are largely “stopped” by the upper respiratory tract; and (b)
small particles that can travel hundreds or thousands of miles away, causing respiratory
irritation and nose, throat, lung, and systemic health impacts over short and long term.
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products -- Burning

60. What happens to E-Waste when it is "Recycled"?
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons
Uncontrolled Dumping
Generates by-products which:
• Leach toxins into soils, surface water,
and ground water
• Generate harmful fumes
• Produce fine particles which can
travel long distances and cause long
term, negative health impacts
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products

61. What happens to E-Waste when it is "Recycled"?
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons
Shredding & Dismantling
• Produces fine particles which can
travel long distances and cause long
term, negative health impacts
Generates by-products which:
• Leach toxins into soils, surface water,
and ground water
• Generate harmful fumes
• Produce fine particles which can
travel long distances and cause long
term, negative health impacts
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products

62. Consequences to Human Health:
Dismantling and Shredding releases contaminated dust into the air and can be ingested by
workers and others in local communities containing these unregulated WEEE sites.
Chronic inhalation of dust can ultimately degrade and compromise the body’s
defense systems, making it more vulnerable to a wide range of diseases over the
long haul.
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products-- Dismantling

63. What happens to E-Waste when it is "Recycled"?
Image Source: Wikimedia Commons
Leaching (Hydrolytic Processes)
• Extracts precious metals and other
valuable materials from used electronics
• Produces effluent (liquid waste) which
can contaminate surface water and soil
• Generates harmful fumes
Generates by-products which:
• Leach toxins into soils, surface water,
and ground water
• Generate harmful fumes
• Produce fine particles which can travel
long distances and cause long term,
negative health impacts.
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products

64. Consequences to Environment and Ecosystem:
Cyanide salt and hydrochloric acids are commonly used for these leaching processes, which can
upset pH in water and soil, causing large disruptions in ecosystem health through loss of
biodiversity and loss of population in certain species.
What is Leaching?
Leaching is the process of
chemically processing circuit
boards (or similar electronics) to
separate desired materials (like
gold and other precious metals)
from the rest of the electronics.
Consequences to Human Health:
Mercury amalgamation is often used to extract precious metals, in a similar process to leaching.
Mercury poisoning through exposure to mercury during leaching and consumption of
contaminated water and food (especially foods higher up on the food chain) causes peripheral
neuropathy (loss of feeling in hands and feet) and long term damage to brain, kidneys, and lungs.
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products

65. E-Waste
What's the Solution?
While engineers can't limit
all environmental impacts
of e-waste, they can take
certain steps to reduce
toxicity of e-waste. For
example, specifying RoHS
(Restriction of Hazardous
Substances, an EU
directive) limits specific
and high risk, hazardous
materials in electronics.
Source: http://www.rohsguide.com/
Substances limited by RoHS
• Lead (Pb): < 1000 ppm
(solder, cable, sheeting,
glass of cathode-ray tubes)
• Mercury (Hg): < 100 ppm
(electrical and electronic
appliances, batteries, switches, thermostats, and
fluorescent lamps.
• Cadmium (Cd): < 100 ppm
(electronic equipment, batteries, and pigments)
• Hexavalent Chromium (Cr VI) < 1000 ppm
(decorative or protecting coatings in electronic
equipment)
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products-- Solutions

66. What's the Solution?
While engineers can't limit
all environmental impacts
of e-waste, they can take
certain steps to reduce
toxicity of e-waste. For
example, specifying RoHS
(Restriction of Hazardous
Substances, an EU
directive) limits specific
and high risk, hazardous
materials in electronics.
Source: http://www.rohsguide.com/
Substances limited by RoHS
• Polybrominated Biphenyls (PBB);
• Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDE)
<1000 ppm (flame retardants)
• Bis(2-Ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)
• Benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP)
• Dibutyl phthalate (DBP)
• Diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP)
< 1000 ppm
(softeners for PVC and wire insulation)
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products-- Solutions

67. What's the Solution?
To reduce the volume (amount) of the
waste stream, engineers can also
design and advocate for modular
designs. These modular designs allow
electronics to replace only what is
broken or what needs to be updated on
an electronic device or appliance.
For example, Google’s Project Ara would
allow users to buy and customize
numerous aspects of their smartphone
(memory, camera, processing, etc.) in a
modular design. Although the project is
now abandoned, the need for more
modular phones still exists!
Source: http://www.pocket-lint.com/news/127564-google-s-project-ara-modular-smartphone-everything-
you-need-to-know
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products-- Solutions

68. What's the Solution?
To reduce the volume
(amount) of the waste
stream, engineers can also
design a product for easy
service and maintenance.
For example, HP's Z1
computer is designed so that
everything from graphics to
hard drive can be replaced
without any tools.
Source: http://www8.hp.com/us/en/workstations/z1-g2.html
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products-- Solutions

69. What's the Solution?
To reduce the volume
(amount) of the waste
stream, engineers can also
design a product to last much
longer.
For example, some electronic
devices and appliances do
last a lifetime (or almost):
Thinkpad 42, toasters, alarm
clocks, kitchen aid mixers...
Why not add to the list?
Recycling associated with
Electronic Products-- Solutions

70. Natural Resource Extraction
Manufacturing/Production
Distribution
Use/Consumption
Disposal
Through available NGO resources, conflict
minerals can be sourced from conflict-free areas.
For those involved in designs involving
semiconductor or micro-fabrication, processes
can be optimized to reduce water usage
Efficiency, reduced power consumption,
standby, and sleep modes are essential.
Electronics can be designed to reduce the
volume and impact of the e-waste stream.
For high volume designs, more local sourcing
can make a big difference in distribution costs.
Some Environmental Considerations in the
Design of Electronic Products

71. Complete Educational Materials
(including assignments, quizzes, and
recorded lectures) on the topic of
Environmental Considerations
can be found at:
http://www.comingalongside.org/Environmental_Consequences/