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How the apparel industry in Sri Lanka fulfills the needs of the
Health & Hygiene care sector effectively by using Non-woven
fabrics
By
Dilshan Ramesh Bandara
“A dissertation submitted to the BRANDIX COLLEGE OF CLOTHING
TECHNOLOGY in partial fulfillment of the award of COLLEGE DIPLOMA IN
CLOTHING TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT.”

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Declaration
“No portion of the work referred to in this dissertation has been submitted in
support of an application for another diploma in this or any other university or
other institution of learning.”

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Acknowledgement
I would never have been able to finish my dissertation without the guidance of Mrs. Nilanthi
Gamage and my parents. I would like to thank Brandix College of Clothing Technology for
the opportunity given me to do a dissertation for the partial fulfillment of the award of
College Diploma in Clothing Technology and Management.
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Mrs. Nilanthi Gamage, for her
excellent guidance, caring, patience, and providing me with lot of details & with an excellent
atmosphere and for doing research. . I would also like to thank Prof. Rohana Kuruppu for
guiding my research and helping me. I would like to thank Dr. Lasanthika Ranagnee who let
me experience the research in the hospital premises with practical issues beyond the
textbooks and patiently supported my research. Special thank goes to my cousin brother,
Damith Chathuranga, senior executive Smith & Nephew who was always willing to help and
give his best suggestions. It would have been a lonely lab without him. Many thank to
Mr.Samantha Kumarasena, Chief executive officer in National Cleaner production Center.
My research would not have been possible without their helps. I would also like to thank my
Amma and Appachchi who were always supporting me and encouraging me with their best
wishes.

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Contents
Acknowledgement ……………………………………………………………………….03
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………..08
Chapter 01- Introduction………………………………………………………………..09
1.1 Global textile industry in relation to hygiene & medical care...................09
1.2 Sri Lankan textile industry in relation to hygiene & medical care…….. 13
1.3 Background of the study………………………………………………….. 14
1.4 Problem statement………………………………………………………… 15
1.5 Objectives of the study……………………………………………………. 15
1.6 Limitations………………………………………………………………… 16
Chapter 02- Literature survey……………………………………………………….. 17
2.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………….. 17
2.2 Definition & classification of non woven………………………………… 17
2.3 Non woven manufacturing process………………………………………..21
2.4 Non woven properties & applications…………………………………….33
2.5 Non woven personal hygiene materials & products……………………..39
2.6 Non woven medical textiles………………………………………………..51
2.6.1 Developing non woven antiviral surgical gown………………..53
2.6.2 Non woven surgical masks………………………………………61
2.7 Non woven recycling………………………………………………………62
Chapter 03- Methodology…………………………………………………………….64
3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………….64
3.2 The research problem…………………………………………………….64
3.3 Collection of data from the factories & hospitals……………………....64
3.4 Designing of the questionnaire…………………………………………..65
3.5 Collection of data from the questionnaire………………………………65
3.6 Distribution & collection of the questionnaire………………………….65
3.7 Data collection & data analysis………………………………………….65

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Chapter 04- Collected & Analyzed data………………………………………..66
4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………..66
4.2 Data collection from the factory…………………………………….66
4.3 Data collection from the Hospitals…………………………………..68
Chapter 05- Conclusions & Recommendations………………………………...73
5.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………...73
5.2 Conclusion…………………………………………………………….73
5.3 Recommendations…………………………………………………….74
References………………………………………………………………………...77

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List of tables
Table 1 – European produced nonwoven deliveries by end use ..................................13
Table 2 – Non woven applications............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.8
Table 3 – Biodegradable fibre properties.....................................................................48
Table 4 – Surgeries done in Avissawella General HospitalError! Bookmark not defined.8
Table 5 - Surgeries done inKahawatta Base Hospital Error! Bookmark not defined.9
Table 6 - Surgeries done in Ratnapura General HospitalError! Bookmark not defined.9
Table 7 – Comparison between diposable & reusable textiles in health sector .....Error!
Bookmark not defined.0

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List of Figure
Chart 1 – World end use consumptionof technical textileError! Bookmark not defined.0
Chart 2 – consumption of medical textiles ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.3
Chart 3- Sri lankan population growth....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.5
Chart 4 – Classification of non woven......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chart 5- Dry laid non wovens.................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.3
Chart 6- Airlaid web formation.................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.4
Chart 7- Carding......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.5
Chart 8- Hydro-entangling by water jets ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.6
Chart 9- Hydroentangling .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.7
Chart 10- Needle punching ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.8
Chart 11- Calender rollers............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chart 12 –Theremally bonded fibres ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.9
Chart 13- two different methods of adhesive bondingError! Bookmark not defined.0
Chart 14- wet laid machinery..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.1
Chart 15- Spun bond equipment .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chart 16- melt blowing ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.3
Chart 17- Absorbant pad manufacturing.................... Error! Bookmark not defined.2
Chart 18- Parts of a absorbant pad............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.3

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Chart 19 – Synthetic polymer consumption............... Error! Bookmark not defined.6
Chart 20 – bBiodegradable aliphatic polymers.......... Error! Bookmark not defined.8
Chart 21- Non woven surgical gown front view........ Error! Bookmark not defined.6
Chart 22 – Non woven surgical gown cuffs............... Error! Bookmark not defined.6
Chart 23- TiO2 nano particles.................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.9
Chart 24- non woven untreated fabric....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.9
Chart 25- nano treated fabric ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.9
Chart 26- fabric forming ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.1
Chart 27- Sales of MD Centimos in 2014 & 2015..... Error! Bookmark not defined.6
Chart 28- Sterile machine .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.0
Chart 29- Surgical garments in theatre ...................... Error! Bookmark not defined.0
Chart 30 – Non woven fabric price............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.4
Chart 31- Non woven surgical face mask making machineError! Bookmark not defined.5
Chart 32- Non woven waste recycling machine ........ Error! Bookmark not defined.6

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Abstract
Health care sector is not only here in the country but also in every nook corner of the world
getting developed by leaps & bounds. Medical textiles are one of the most important,
continuously expanding and growing fields in technical textiles. The medical textile industry
has been improving existing products and creating new ones with new materials and
innovative designs. Some of these new products are being designed for less invasive surgical
procedures, infection control, and accelerated healing. Surgical apparel is used to provide
optimal level of protection by reducing the transfer of bacteria from the skin to the surgical
staff. Economies are now supporting and providing various programs in order to promote the
production and consumption of medical textiles. Population growth, aging populations and
the construction of new medical facilities are a driving force for this industry. Some markets
have also introduced diverse programs aimed at significant improvements in the healthcare of
the country’s population.
Population growth, aging populations and the construction of new medical facilities are a
driving force for this industry. Also the domestic demand for medical textiles is growing in
Sri Lanka, but the sector is still dependent on imports due to the non-availability of the
fabrics used in making these products or the lack of manufacturing technologies to
manufacture these technical textiles.
Domestic demand includes:
• Baby diapers
• Adult incontinence diapers
• Feminine hygiene Products
• Surgical disposables (masks, scrubs, gowns, booties, head coverings)
• Disposable wipes
In my research I give foremost to the non woven surgical gowns and as well as I go through
what are the better methods of manufacturing them and fulfill the needs of the theatre room.

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Chapter 01
Introduction
1.1 Global textile industry in relation to hygiene & medical care.
Hygiene is a set of practices performed for the preservation of health. According to the World
Health Organization (WHO), "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to
maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases”.
Hygiene is a term which most related to our day to day life style. In order to maintain a good
and healthy life without any infections or any diseases, this hygiene is a must. There are
several types of hygiene are available. For the feminine hygiene, baby and adult hygiene; the
textile industry plays a major role. Feminine hygiene products also called as menstrual
products, are personal care products used by women during menstruation, vaginal discharge,
and other bodily functions related to the vulva. Sanitary napkins (American English) /
Sanitary towels (British English), tampons, menstrual cups and feminine wipes are the major
categories of feminine hygiene products. Majority of them are made by non woven. Further
details are discussed in the chapter two.
Incontinence is a major problem faced by elderly patients. The condition is embarrassing and
inconvenient, intruding on their self-respect and their ability to freely plan trips away from
the house. Adult diapers can provide the protection needed to deal with this condition. So
there are non woven diapers are available in the market to fulfill their demand. There is a
wide variety of incontinence products for men and women that can help by offering reliable
protection. They are at the foundation of dealing realistically and dependably with the
condition, which rebuilds confidence and improves the quality of life for the elderly patients
affected. There are a wide range of adult diapers, including overnight diapers and adult
diapers for daytime use. The level of absorbency varies according to the seriousness of the
problem. People can have light, medium or heavy amounts urinary leakage, and you can buy
products for each level.

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As well as the baby diapers also available with different features which are mostly
manufactured by non woven. In chapter two further discuss about how the diapers are made
and what features are obtained by using non woven fabrics.
The next segment is medical textiles; On the basis of DRA’s (David Rigby Associates)
research, over 1.5mn tons of textile materials, with a value of US$5.4bn, were consumed
worldwide in the manufacture of medical and hygiene products in 2000. This is predicted to
increase in volume terms by 4.5% per annum to 2010 to reach 2.4mn tons with a value of
US$8.2bn. This sector probably offers the greatest scope for the development of the most
sophisticated and highest value textiles for niche applications. World demand for disposable
medical supplies is forecast to expand 6.2 percent annually to $198 billion in 2016. Increased
enforcement of infection prevention standards, together with a growing number of hospital,
surgical, and outpatient procedures, will promote overall gains.
Fig.1
Technical textiles will find many different kinds of application with medical and hygiene
products in the healthcare sector. The diversity of applications encountered in medical and
healthcare products is quite remarkable, e.g. simple bandages, biocompatible implants and
tissues, antibacterial wound treatment material, prosthetics, and intelligent textiles.
World end-use consumption of technical
textiles in 2000
Hometech
Clotech
Buildtech
Agrotech
Geotech
Sporttech
Protech
Packtech
Mobiletech
Meditech

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Each of these categories covers a broad range of applications, and the many end- users with
their disparate requirements create opportunities for all kinds of textile such as fibres, mono-
and multi-filament yarns, woven, knitted, nonwoven, braiding and composite fabrics.
Medical textiles embrace all those textile materials used in health and hygiene applications in
both the consumer and medical markets. As such, it comprises a group of products with
considerable variations in terms of product performance and unit value. Because of the nature
of their application, many medical products are disposable items. Nonwovens account for a
high part of the sector overall in terms of tons of fibre used. Also, another feature of the
medical textile market will be the growing proportion of composite materials used in wound
management products. This will mean the combination of textiles with such materials as
films, foam and adhesives to form structures for the treatment of wound and healthcare
products. The increased use of textiles in composite applications will provide major growth
fibre consumption in terms of volume. The hitherto increase and forecast in world
consumption of medical textiles is presented in below figure.
Fig.2
European producers are world leaders in the market for technical/industrial textiles and
nonwovens, for example industrial filters, hygiene products or in the medical sector.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
1995 2000 2005 2010
1228
1543
1928
2380
1000,tons

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Although the textile sector is marked by small- and medium-sized enterprises and local
developments, it is important that research efforts take place in a more integrated way so as to
achieve a critical mass and be competitive on the global market. The European technical
textile sector should continue to develop highly specialised products.
European-produced nonwoven deliveries by end use
Classification % of total
Hygiene 33.1
Medical/surgical 2.6
Wipes, personal care 8.1
Wipes, other 6.7
Garments 0.8
Interlinings 2.1
Shoe leathergoods 1.9
Coating substrates 2.4
Upholstery/table linen/household 6.8
Floor covering 2.3
Liquid filtration 3.7
Air/gas filtration 2.4
Building/roofing 12.5
Civil engineering/underground 5.4
Automotive 3.9
Others/unidentified 5.3
Source: EDANA
Table.1
According to the 2015 market report Technical Textiles & Apparel by the US department of
commerce, their main exporter for the medical textile is Mexico. Mexico is the largest market
for medical textiles exported from the United States. For 2014, Mexico market share was 29
percent. Additionally, trade in this sector with Mexico is projected to increase 36 percent
from 2013 to 2016. In 2014, the Canadian market was the second largest market for U.S.
exports of medical textiles. The U.S. exported $150.7 million to Canada, which is a 4 percent

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increase from the $145.3 million exported to Canada in 2009. It is the 5th in the textile
market size with respect to other twelve textile application Recently a survey of medical
textiles conducted by the tata economy consultancy services has estimated the market size in
terms of value 17093 (Rs Mn) in 2005 and it would be 302018 (Rs Mn) Market size of
medical textile in India in the value terms (Rs Mn) 2005 is 338. It is estimated up to 575 (Rs
Mn) 2010 The forecast for the world medical textile consumption in volume and value terms
for 2010 is 2380 tonnes and 8238 (Mn USD) respectively
This is the case, for example, in medical textiles based on biomaterials, interactive and
intelligent textiles provided for textile sensors and improving test methods.
Categories of medical textiles include: § non-implantable materials
§ implantable materials
§ extracorporeal devices
§ healthcare and hygiene products.
1.2 Sri Lankan textile industry in relation to hygiene & medical care.
In Sri Lanka the growth of the population rate is high. That means the infant babies are more
in the society.

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There is tremendous growth and potential in the market for baby and child care products in
Sri Lanka. The baby and mother care market in Sri Lanka is experiencing an upward annual
growth rate of 1% average when compared to countries such as Japan which actually has a
minus growth rate. On account of that their needing and demands might competitive. Now a
day for the infant babies, the diapers are mostly used. This means that there is tremendous
potential for the industry.
Female population (% of total) in Sri Lanka was last measured at 51.75 in 2014, according to
the World Bank. These facts indicate that the female population is higher than when
comparing to the male population. However the higher population in female means their
requirements will be higher in the market. As an example feminine sanitary pads. Concerning
about female hygiene sanitary pads is a fast moving consumer good (FMCG) market in Sri
Lanka. As an Asian country with the traditional boundaries & the virginity issues the
tampons rarely used and they are not widely available. But for the women and those who do
sports and swimming use this for their convenience.
Considering about medical textiles regarding to our country is in a primitive position when
comparing to the other countries. Due to less R&D facilities we are unable to innovate new
things. But our management sectors in the hospitals reluctant to adopt new & efficient
products and systems. As an example non woven disposable surgical gowns very rarely are
being used by the government hospitals. But as a whole in surgical theaters in Sri Lanka
generally they use surgical gowns, Beddings, Sheets, Pillow cover, Uniforms, Surgical
hosiery which are made by cotton. Some use surgical gowns made by polyester. In chapter
two, further discussed about the medical textiles.
1.3 Background of the study
In my research my aim is to fulfill the needing and demands in the medical sector by
introducing non woven products and makes the health care sector more effective. And also
my other aim is to enhance more production in Hygienic textile products in Sri Lanka and we

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can dominate the international market also by giving more comfortable and effective hygienic
items to the customers. Also I’m supposing to introduce biodegradable non woven fabrics for
these hygienic products as they are disposed once they have been used. As we all aware non
woven fabrics are not manufactured in here, my foremost goal is to produce non woven fabric
here in our country. Afterwards we can satisfy the other sectors also who are using non
woven for their products, as examples; Automotive field, bag manufacturing, consumer &
Industrial wipes, Industrial & Commercial interiors, filtration materials etc. Big amount of
money is flowing through to foreign countries due to lack of non woven fabrics. On the other
hand my ambition is to recycle the used non woven items like surgical gowns, masks etc as
they are disposable. On account of that we can reduce the usage of raw materials which are
imported and used for manufacturing non woven fabrics. These all factors lead to a
sustainable development of the country and also it helps to save money by not flowing from
the country if we able to capture the international market it may help to obtain a good foreign
exchange towards the country.
1.4 Problem statement
According to the findings, non woven is very rarely used by the Sri Lankan manufacturers
and less amount of people are aware about non woven properties and their advantages when
using not only in apparel industry but also in other spheres too. We can adopt this non woven
as an alternative to sustainable development in our country. It is important to discover the
barriers which we have when establishing a market for the non woven products here in Sri
Lanka.
1.5 Objectives of the study
 Manufacture non woven fabric here in Sri Lanka without importing, and discover the
difficulties when manufacturing non woven fabrics.
 Prevention of the infection is the main objective here.
 Produce non woven comfortable, bio degradable hygienic textile materials such as
feminine sanitary pads, baby diapers & adults’ incontinence diapers.
 Produce non woven surgical garments with low cost but with improved properties.

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 Recycle the disposed surgical garments and produce new products from them.
 Obtain a good demand for non woven surgical garments in the medical sector
internally and export these products for the international market.
 Understand the market share of these products in the current market and identify the
competitors.
1.6 Limitations
As you know non woven fabrics are still not familiar with people and they have different
point of views towards this. It is hard to find specialists persons in this non woven subject.
Producing non woven material is a highly cost process. Manufacturing Medical textiles
means high risk, as they must be hygienic. However there are only few factories are available
who produce surgical garments. On account of that the researcher is limited to the available
resources. By the way management of the hospitals is reluctant to provide the details on post
infection after operations.

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Chapter 02
Literature survey
2.1 Introduction
This chapter reviews the past research on each topic area. All information and literature
reviewed are considered as secondary sources and obtained from published journals, books,
conference proceedings and reports, etc. Considering about the apparel industry in Sri Lanka
has come a long way for more than 75 years. But to my idea it is not developed as we think.
People interpret that with the liberalization of the Sri Lankan trade towards the end of 1977
the industry acquired an accelerated growth. But somehow or the other we acquired the
growth up to some extent. We did not tend to go for further. We always looked for the orders
from the foreign buyers. We must have to go for to the international market and build a brand
name in there. To my knowledge Amante the lingerie manufacturer company has done it.
Likewise here in this research I’m hoping to survey how we can dominate the international
market by non woven products how these products can be manufactured most effectively and
innovatively.
2.2 Definition and classification of non woven.
The nonwovens industry has drawn on the practices and know- how of many other more
well-established fields of polymer and materials manufacturing with a piratical disregard and
an eye to the most diverse range of end-use products. Many would define themselves by the
customers they serve, as being in the medical, automotive, hygiene or civil engineering
industries, for example.
The term ‘nonwoven’ arises from more than half a century ago when nonwovens were often
regarded as low-price substitutes for traditional textiles and were generally made from drylaid
carded webs using converted textile processing machinery. The yarn spinning stage is
omitted in the nonwoven processing of staple fibres, while bonding (consolidation) of the
web by various methods, chemical, mechanical or thermal, replaces the weaving (or knitting)

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of yarns in traditional textiles. However, even in the early days of the industry, the process of
stitch bonding, which originated in Eastern Europe in the 1950s, employed both layered and
consolidating yarns, and the parallel developments in the paper and synthetic polymer fields,
which have been crucial in shaping today’s multi-billion dollar nonwovens industry, had only
tenuous links with textiles in the first place. Therefore, the nonwoven industry as we know it
today has grown from developments in the textile, paper and polymer processing industries.
Today, there are also inputs from other industries including most branches of engineering as
well as the natural sciences. Certainly today, the nonwovens industry is reluctant to be
associated with the conventional textile industry and its commodity associations nor would it
want its products to be called ‘non papers’ or ‘non plastics’.
The term ‘nonwoven’, then, which describes something that a product is not, as opposed to
what it actually is, has never accurately represented its industry, but any attempts to replace it
over the years have floundered. The illusion created by this misnomer has been for some to
think of nonwovens as some kind of bulk commodity, even cheap trade goods, when the
opposite is often true. The nonwovens industry is highly profitable and very sophisticated,
with healthy annual growth rates in double digits in certain sectors and parts of the world. It
is perhaps one of the most intensive industries in terms of its investment in new technology,
and also in research and development.
According to ASTM D1117-80, non-woven fabric is defined as the fibrous assembly or film
whose fibers have been bonded together by physical, chemical, or mechanical means or
through the use of proper moisture or heat rather than by spinning, weaving, and braiding.
EDANA, (The European Disposables and Nonwovens Association) defines a nonwoven as
‘a manufactured sheet, web or batt of directionally or randomly orientated fibres, bonded by
friction, and/or cohesion and/or adhesion’, but goes on to exclude a number of materials from
the definition, including paper, products which are woven, knitted, tufted or stitch bonded
(incorporating binding yarns or filaments), or felted by wet-milling, whether or not
additionally needled. To distinguish wet laid nonwovens from wet laid paper materials, the
following differentiation is made, ‘more than 50% by mass of its fibrous content is made up
of fibres (excluding chemically digested vegetable fibres) with a length to diameter ratio
greater than 300’. Other types of fabric can be classified as nonwoven if, ‘more than 30% by
mass of its fibrous content is made up of fibres (excluding chemically digested vegetable
fibres) with a length to diameter ratio greater than 300 and its density is less than 0.40g/ m3.

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This definition, which forms ISO 9092:1988 and EN 29092, was most likely coined prior to
the enhancement of plastic film layers which have become broadly indistinguishable from
fabrics in modern multi-component or composite nonwovens. INDA, North America’s
Association of the Nonwoven Fabrics Industry, describes nonwoven fabrics as ‘sheet or web
structures bonded together by entangling fibres or filaments, by various mechanical, thermal
and/or chemical processes. These are made directly from separate fibres or from molten
plastic or plastic film.’ Nonwovens are engineered fabrics that can form products that are
disposable, for single or short-term use or durable, with a long life, depending on the
application. In practice, the life of a nonwoven product can be measured in seconds, minutes,
hours or years but the design and engineering requirements of these fabrics are often complex
and challenging regardless of the intended product life. Nonwovens are engineered to provide
specific functions to ensure fitness for purpose. These properties are combined to create the
required functionality, while achieving a profitable balance between the expected product life
and cost. Nonwoven technology also exists to approximate the appearance, texture and
strength of conventional woven and textile fabrics and in addition to flat monolithic fabrics,
multi-layer nonwoven composites, laminates and three- dimensional nonwoven fabrics are
commercially produced. In combination with other materials nonwovens provide a spectrum
of products with diverse chemical and physical properties. This is reflected in the large
variety of industrial, engineering, consumer and healthcare goods into which nonwoven
fabrics are incorporated. The conversion of nonwoven role products into finished products is
a further important component step in the process and can also affect final product properties.
The classification of non-woven fabrics
 First, spun-lace non-woven fabric
Spun-laced process is high-pressure micro flow injection into a layer or layers of fibrous web,
so that the fibers are twisted together, so that the web can be strengthened and have a certain
strength.
 Second, a non-woven fabric
Thermal bonded nonwovens is defined in the web of fibrous or powder adding hot-melt
adhesive reinforcement material, web after heating melt cooling reinforcement into cloth.

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 Third, pulp air-laid nonwoven fabric
Air-laid non-woven fabrics can be called clean paper, paper non-woven fabrics. It is the use
of air laid pulp fiber plate technology will be opening a single fiber state, and then use the
airflow method of making fiber agglutination in a curtain net, web reinforcement into cloth.
 Fourth, wet nonwoven fabrics
Wet nonwoven fabric is placed in water medium fiber opening into single fibers, while the
different fiber raw material mixing, into the fiber suspension slurry, suspension slurry to web
forming mechanism, fiber in wet state into the net reinforcement into cloth.
 Fifth, spun-bonded nonwoven fabric
Spun-bonded nonwoven fabric is in the polymer has been extruded, stretched and form a
continuous filament, filament laying into the net, the web through the self bonding, thermal
bonding, chemical bonding or mechanical reinforcement method, make the web into a non-
woven fabric.
 Sixth, melt-blown nonwoven fabric
Melt blowing nonwoven process: polymer blend melt extrusion formation - - fiber - fiber
cooling - Net - reinforcement into cloth.
 Seventh, acupuncture Nonwovens
Acupuncture nonwovens is a dry non-woven fabrics, non-woven fabrics is the use of needle
puncture, the fluffy web reinforcement into cloth.
 Eighth, stitch-bonded nonwoven fabric
Stitch-bonded nonwoven is a dry non-woven fabric, stitch-bonded is the use of warp coil
structure on the web, a yarn layer, a non-woven material (such as plastic sheet, plastic such as
thin foils) or their combination for reinforcement, with made of non-woven.

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2.3 Non woven manufacturing process
Raw materials for the production of nonwovens
The three categories of raw materials used to produce a nonwoven fabric are:
* Fibers
* Binders
* Additives
Fibers
Fibers are the basic units of a nonwoven structure. Consequently, much of the utility
properties and performance of a nonwoven is due to the fibers used. A fiber has been defined
as any substance, natural or manmade, with a high length-to-width ratio and with suitable
characteristics for being processed into a fabric.
A wide range of fiber types, both synthetic and natural, has been employed in the production
of nonwoven products. It is very likely that every fiber known to mankind has been used in a
nonwoven structure at one time or another. However, commercially important nonwoven
fabrics have been limited to relatively few fiber types, in view of the large that are available.
The dominant fibers include polypropylene, polyester and rayon. Between them these three
fiber types made up a substantial part of the overall nonwoven market for fibers. In Western
Europe, for example, the three siteing for nearly 70% of staple fiber consumption by the
nonwovens industry. Polyester is the most frequently used fibres in the United States; olefin
and nylon are used for their strength, and cotton and rayon are used for absorbency. Some
acrylic, acetate, and vinyon are also being used.
Binders
For many years, almost all nonwovens required a chemical binder in order to provide any
measure of structural integrity. In addition, the binder was called upon to contribute and
convey numerous properties that were necessary for the effective performance of the fabric.
In the very early stages of nonwoven development, different types of natural resins and glues
were used to bond nonwovens. Later on, synthetic binders were developed to meet the

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structural and performance requirements of nonwoven fabrics.
Adding a latex binder can be a cost-effective way of consolidating a fiber web and achieving
specific properties. It often results that adding a latex binder can be done at a lower cost than
using a special binder fiber. In many cases, there can be a combination of chemical binder
with mechanical and thermal bonding techniques, affording the finished fabric properties that
would be impossible to achieve otherwise. Furthermore binder systems can accept pigments
and dyes, so they can often help in adding colour to nonwoven fabrics.
Additives
Many non-fibrous materials are used in the manufacture, bonding and finishing of nonwoven
webs. Many of these are applied in one form or another to the preformed web usually after
bonding and as a secondary process.
Additive materials which are properly classified as raw materials are those added to the fibre
or filament structure during web laydown and might include thermally active powders and
absorbents.
Manufacturing process
Nonwovens are textile fabrics consisting of separated fibres which are arranged properly by
means of enduse-oriented technologies. In order to guarantee service- ability of the finished
product, they are bonded. For this reason the choice of fi- bres and possibly bonding
materials is of special importance: This relates to fibre raw materials and fibre dimensions.
As a rule they have a greater share in creat- ing the specialities of the nonwovens than this is
the case in textile fabrics made of yarns. The bonding agents can also have an impact on the
quality of the non- wovens. Virtually all kinds of fibres can be used to produce nonwoven
bonded fabrics.
The choice of fibre depends on;
– the required profile of the fabric and
– the cost effectiveness

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To produce nonwoven bonded fabrics
– chemical fibres of both cellulosic and synthetic origin as well as
– natural fibres and
– inorganic fibres are mainly used
One way to categorise nonwovens is by their methods of manufacture. Nonwovens can be
divided into three distinctive groups: those produced by dry-laid methods; wet-laid methods;
or spun melt processes. Information of manufacture, properties and end uses are contained in
the next three sections.
One of the major advantages of nonwoven manufacture is the speed at which fabric can be
produced, especially when compared to the production rates of knitted or woven fabrics. The
effect of this is the reduction in the cost of manufacturing.
Dry-laid nonwovens
Dry-laid nonwovens are formed from staple fibres. These fibres are then processed to create
fibrous webs which have little mechanical integrity. The webs are then bonded either by
mechanical, thermal or chemical means. Sometimes a secondary bonding process will also
be applied (Fig. 5)
Figure 5 - Overview of dry-laid nonwoven manufacturing

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Fibre selection and opening
Fibre selection and opening is the first stage of the nonwovens process. More information
can be found at
Dry-laid web manufacture
There are two different methods of dry-laid web manufacture. The method used depends on
the desired fibre orientation, the method of bonding to be used (it is difficult to successfully
mechanically bond short fibres) and the fibre length (Fig. 4).
Figure 6 - Air-laid web formation processes
Air-laid
Air-laid technology produces a randomly orientated fibrous web.
Airlaid short fibres of 1-15 mm and particles are dispersed in air by various means. A
common method employs rotating blades, which produces a “cloud” of fibres within the
airlay chamber. The fibres are then transported through the air toward a permeable conveyor
belt under which suction is applied. This helps to gather the fibres onto the conveyor surface,
where the web is formed (Fig. 5).

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Figure 7 - Carding

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Dry laid bonding methods
There are three different types of bonding, mechanical, thermal, and chemical. A variety of
different processes come under these different headings.
Mechanical bonding
Hydroentanglement (spunlace) the fibres are mechanically entangled together by high
velocity jets of water that are directed onto the web. The water pressure can be 20-600 bar.
The jets entwine, Twist? and rearrange the fibres to create bonding and in some cases to
introduce patterning effects. Patterns and apertures in the fabric are produced by altering the
design of the conveyor sleeve surface (Fig.8) more information can be found.
Fig.8

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Figure - Hydroentanglement: A diagram, B Machine, C end fabric

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Needlepunching with Barbed Needles
Fibres are mechanically entangled by the reciprocation of barbed needles through the web.
Sections of fibre are collected on the barbs of the needles (normally 3 barbs on each of the 3
edges of the needle) as they move up and down. This creates “pillars” of fibres in the
thickness of the web that hold the structure together. To stop the whole web moving up and
down with the needles as they reciprocate during the process, a stripper and a bed plate are
provided (Fig.10)
Figure 10 - Needle punch
Thermally bonded
Thermal Bonding of thermoplastic fibres (that soften and melt when heated) can be carried
out using heated calender rollers (Fig.8) or an oven, where hot air is convected through the
web to bond it. The fibres are effectively fused together by melting (Fig.9). The proportion of
fibres that are melted can be controlled to prevent the fabric from becoming too stiff or film-
like. The temperature used in bonding has to be selected according to the melting temperature
of the fibre.

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Figure 11- Calender rollers
Figure 12- Thermally bonded fibres
Adhesively bonded
Chemical Bonding of fibres involves adding a wet chemical adhesive (binder) to the web by
various means. One method is to saturate the web with the binder liquid by impregnation.
Drying and curing follow to stabilise the binder. The properties of the fabric depend on the
amount of binder that is added in relation to the weight of fibre, its physical properties and
how it is distributed within the web

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Figure 13 - Two differing methods of Adhesive bonding
Wet-laid nonwovens
The principle of wetlaying is similar to paper manufacturing. The difference lies in the
amount of synthetic fibres present in a wetlaid nonwoven. A dilute slurry of water and fibres
is deposited on a moving wire screen and drained to form a web. The web is further
dewatered, consolidated, by pressing between rollers, and dried. Impregnation with binders is
often included in a later stage of the process.
The strength of the random oriented web is rather similar in all directions in the plane of the
fabric. A wide range of natural, mineral, synthetic and man-made fibres of varying lengths
can be used.

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Figure 14 - Wetlaid machinery
Spunmelt nonwovens
In these processes webs are made directly from filaments spun from plastics in liquid form.
Spunbond
Spunbond: this is the most direct method of making a nonwoven. Continuous filaments, not
staple fibres, are spun (extruded) directly from polymer chip. Normally, polymers are melt-
extruded in the spunbond process. The formation of a web of continuous filaments deposited
on the conveyor belt is assisted by suction. The web is then bonded directly by various
means, normally thermal bonding (Fig. 12).

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Figure 15- Spunbond equipment
Meltblown
Meltblown is similar to spunbond but produces much finer filaments. The hot, molten, liquid
polymer is forced through nozzles to form a stream of polymer. At the nozzle tip, the
filaments are picked up by hot, high velocity air streams that stretch the filaments by drag
forces into very fine diameters. The filaments gradually cool as they travel across to the
collector. The use of suction at the collector assists in web formation (fig.13).

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Figure 16 – Melt blowing
Finishing treatments
There is an opportunity to meet the needs of the customer even more precisely by modifying
or adding to existing properties. A variety of different chemical substances can be employed
before or after binding, or various mechanical processes can be applied to the nonwoven after
binding.
Nonwovens can be made conductive, flame retardant, water repellent, porous, antistatic,
breathable, absorbent and so on - the list is a very long one. They can also, for example, be
coated, printed, flocked or dyed, and can be combined with other materials to form complex
laminates.
2.4 Non woven Properties and Applications.
Properties & Features
The versatility of nonwovens means that they can provide innovative, cost-effective and
sometimes unexpected answers to innumerable business challenges.
Innovative products and solutions can be created; problems can be solved; and needs met by
incorporating appropriate properties. These properties are often combined to create fabrics
suited for specific jobs, while achieving a good balance between product use-life and cost.
Specific properties can be achieved by selecting raw materials and methods or by applying

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finishing treatments to nonwovens, such as printing, embossing, moulding, laminating etc.
Properties include
 Abrasion resistant
 Absorbent
 Antistatic
 Biodegradable
 Breathable
 Colour fast
 Conductive
 Crease resistant
 Dense
 Drapeable
 Dry cleanable
 Durable
 Dust free
 Dyeable
 Elastic
 Filtration
 Flame resistant
 Foldable
 Glueable
 Heat sealable
 Impermeable
 Ironable
 Kind to skin
 Light
 Lint free
 Liquid repellent
 Long-lasting
 Mouldable
 Non-conductive
 Non-fading

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 Permeable
 Porous
 Printable
 Protective (bacterial barrier)
 Resilient
 Rot and mildew resistant
 Sewable
 Smooth
 Soft
 Stable
 Sterilisable
 Stiff
 Stretchable
 Strong
 Tear resistant
 Washable
 Weatherproof
 Weldable

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Non woven Applications

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Table 02

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2.5 Non woven personal Hygienic materials and products.
Two main characteristics of nonwovens make them particularly suitable for use in an
absorbent hygiene material: high bulk for imbibing and holding a large amount of fluid per
unit mass of material and the low cost of converting raw material into final product.
However, not-leaking is just a minimum standard. Several other properties that have
significant impact on the use of nonwovens in an absorbent hygiene material are
disposability, comfort, and ease of fabrication of the product. The product is usually
composed of a number of components, each supporting different but important functions.
These are to receive fluid, imbibe it rapidly, hold it for a period of time, keep the clothing
from soiling, keep the skin of the wearer dry, mask odor, be easily worn and removed, and be
conveniently disposed of. It is very important that the absorbing web layer with
superabsorbent powder or fiber is placed inside the composite. In addition to high
productivity and low cost, one of the key aims in designing hygiene materials is to reduce the
size or weight without compromising the fluid holding capacity.8 Additionally, concern is
now being raised about environmental consequences, longer life, biodegradability or ease of
recycling.
A disposable diaper consists of an absorbent pad sandwiched between two sheets
of nonwoven fabric. The pad is specially designed to absorb and retain body fluids, and the
nonwoven fabric gives the diaper a comfortable shape and helps prevent leakage. These
diapers are made by a multi-step process in which the absorbent pad is first vacuum-formed,
then attached to a permeable top sheet and impermeable bottom sheet. The components are
sealed together by application of heat or ultrasonic vibrations. Elastic fibers are attached to
the sheets to gather the edges of the diaper into the proper shape so it fits snugly around a
baby's legs and crotch. When properly fitted, the disposable diaper will retain body fluids
which pass through the permeable top sheet and are absorbed into the pad.
Disposable diapers are a relatively recent invention. In fact, until the early 1970s mothers had
no real alternative to classic cloth diapers. Cotton diapers have the advantage of being soft,
comfortable, and made of natural materials. Their disadvantages include their relatively poor
absorbency and the fact that they have to be laundered. Disposable diapers were developed to
overcome these problems. The earliest disposables used wood pulp fluff, cellulose wadding,
fluff cellulose, or cotton fibers as the absorbent material. These materials did not absorb very
much moisture for their weight, however. Consequently, diapers made from these materials

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were extremely bulky. More efficient absorbent polymers were developed to address this
issue.
Since the 1970s, disposable diaper technology has continued to evolve. In fact, nearly 1,000
patents related to diaper design and construction have been issued in the last 25 years.
Today's diapers are not only highly functional, they include advanced features such as special
sizing and coloring for specific gender and age, color change indicators to show when the
child is wet, and re attachable Velcro TM-type closures. These innovations have enabled
disposables to capture a large share of the diaper market. In 1996, disposable diaper sales
exceeded $4 billion in the United States alone. Proctor and Gamble and Kimberly Clark are
the two largest brand name manufacturers, and their sales account for nearly 80% of the
market. Private label manufacturers that produce store brands and generic diapers account for
most of the remaining 20%.
Raw Materials
Absorbent pad
The single most important property of a diaper, cloth or disposable, is its ability to absorb and
retain moisture. Cotton material used in cloth diapers is reasonably absorbent, but synthetic
polymers far exceed the capacity of natural fibers. Today's state-of-the-art disposable diaper
will absorb 15 times its weight in water. This phenomenal absorption capacity is due to the
absorbent pad found in the core of the diaper. This pad is composed of two essential
elements, a hydrophilic, or water-loving, polymer and a fibrous material such as wood pulp.
The polymer is made of fine particles of an acrylic acid derivative, such as sodium
acrylate, potassium acrylate, or an alkyl acrylate. These polymeric particles act as tiny
sponges that retain many times their weight in water. Microscopically these polymer
molecules resemble long chains or ropes. Portions of these chemical "ropes" are designed to
interact with water molecules. Other parts of the polymer have the ability to chemically link
with different polymer molecules in a process known as cross linking. When a large number
of these polymeric chains are cross linked, they form a gel network that is not water soluble
but that can absorb vast amounts of water. Polymers with this ability are referred to as
hydrogels, super absorbents, or hydrocolloids. Depending on the degree of cross linking, the
strength of the gel network can be varied. This is an important property because gel strength
is related to the tendency of the polymer to deform or flow under stress. If the strength is too

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high the polymer will not retain enough water. If it too low the polymer will deform too
easily, and the outermost particles in the pad will absorb water too quickly, forming a gel that
blocks water from reaching the inner pad particles. This problem, known as gel blocking, can
be overcome by dispersing wood pulp fibers throughout the polymer matrix. These wood
fibers act as thousands of tiny straws which suck up water faster and disperse it through the
matrix more efficiently to avoid gel blocking. Manufacturers have optimized the
combinations of polymer and fibrous material to yield the most efficient absorbency possible.
Nonwoven fabric
The absorbent pad is at the core of the diaper. It is held in place by nonwoven fabric sheets
that form the body of the diaper. Nonwoven fabrics are different from traditional fabrics
because of the way they are made. Traditional fabrics are made by weaving together fibers of
silk, cotton, polyester, wool, etc. to create an interlocking network of fiber loops. Nonwovens
are typically made from plastic resins, such as nylon, polyester, polyethylene, or
polypropylene, and are assembled by mechanically, chemically, or thermally interlocking the
plastic fibers. There are two primary methods of assembling nonwovens, the wet laid process
and the dry laid process. A dry laid process, such as the "meltblown" method, is typically
used to make nonwoven diaper fabrics. In this method the plastic resin is melted and
extruded, or forced, through tiny holes by air pressure. As the air-blown stream of fibers
cools, the fibers condense onto a sheet. Heated rollers are then used to flatten the fibers and
bond them together. Polypropylene is typically the material used for the permeable top sheet,
while polyethylene is the resin of choice for the non-permeable back sheet.
Other components
There are a variety of other ancillary components, such as elastic threads, hot melt adhesives,
strips of tape or other closures, and inks used for printing decorations.
The Manufacturing
Process
Formation of the absorbent pad
 1 The absorbent pad is formed on a movable conveyer belt that passes through a long
"forming chamber." At various points in the chamber, pressurized nozzles spray either
polymer particles or fibrous material onto the conveyor surface. The bottom of the

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conveyor is perforated, and as the pad material is sprayed onto the belt, a vacuum is
applied from below so that the fibers are pulled down to form a flat pad.
At least two methods have been employed to incorporate absorbent polymers into the
pad. In one method the polymer is injected into the same feed stock that supplies the
fibers. This method produces a pad that has absorbent polymer dispersed evenly
throughout its entire length, width, and thickness. The problems associated with
method are that loss of absorbent may occur because the fine particles are pulled
through the perforations in the conveyor by the vacuum. It is therefore expensive and
messy. This method also causes the pad to absorb unevenly since absorbent is lost
from only one side and not the other.
A second method of applying polymer and fiber involves application of the absorbent
material onto the top surface of the pad after it has been formed. This method
produces a pad which has absorbent material concentrated on its top side and does not
have much absorbency throughout the pad. Another disadvantage is that a pad made
in
Fig.17
this way may lose some of the polymer applied to its surface. Furthermore, this
approach tends to cause gel blocking, since all the absorbent is on the outside of the
pad. The moisture gets trapped in this outer layer and does not have a chance to

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diffuse to the center. This blockage holds moisture against the skin and can lead to
discomfort for the wearer.
These problems are solved by controlling the mixture polymer and fibrous material.
Multiple spray dispensers are used to apply several layers of polymer and fiber. As
the fiber is drawn into the chamber and the bottom of the pad is formed, a portion of
the polymer is added to the mix to form a layer of combined polymer and fiber. Then
more pure fiber is pulled on top to give a sandwich effect. This formation creates a
pad with the absorbent polymer confined to its center, surrounded by fibrous material.
Gel blockage is not a problem because the polymer is concentrated at core of pad. It
also solves the problem of particle loss since all the absorbent is surrounded by
fibrous material. Finally, this process is more cost effective because it distributes the
polymer just where it is needed.
 2 After the pad has received a full dose of fiber and polymer, it proceeds down the
conveyor path to a leveling roller near the outlet of the forming chamber. This roller
removes a portion of the fiber at the top of the pad to make it a uniform thickness. The
pad then moves by the conveyor through the outlet for subsequent operations to form
the competed diaper.
Preparation of the nonwoven
 3 Sheets of nonwoven fabric are formed from plastic resin using the meltblown
process as described above. These sheets are produced as a wide roll known as a
"web," which is then cut to the appropriate width for use in diapers. There is a web for
the top sheet and another for the bottom sheet. It should be noted that this step does
not necessarily occur in sequence after pad formation because the nonwoven fabrics
are often made in a separate location. When the manufacturer is ready to initiate
diaper production these large bolts of fabric are connected to special roller equipment
that feeds fabric to the assembly line.

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Fig.18
 4 At some point in the process, stretched elastic bands are attached to the backing
sheet with adhesive. After the diaper is assembled, these elastic bands contract and
gather the diaper together to ensure a snug fit and limit leakage.
Assembly of the components
 5 At this point in the process there are still three separate components, the absorbent
pad, the top sheet, and the backing sheet. These three components are in long strips
and must be joined together and cut into diaper-sized units. This is accomplished by
feeding the absorbent pad onto a conveyor with the polyethylene bottom sheet. The
polypropylene top sheet is then fed into place, and the compiled sheets are joined by
gluing, heating, or ultrasonic welding. The assembled diaper may have other
attachments, such as strips of tape or Velcro ™ , which act as closures.
 6 The long roll is then cut into individual diapers, folded, and packaged for shipping.
Byproducts/Waste
Diaper production does not produce significant byproducts; in fact the diaper industry uses
the byproducts of other industries. The absorbent polymers used in diaper production are
often left over from production lines of other chemical industries. The polymer particles are
too small for other applications, but they are well suited for use in diapers. In diaper

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production, however, considerable amounts of both nonwoven material and polymer particles
are wasted. To minimize this waste, the industry tries to optimize the number of diapers
obtained from every square yard (meter) of material. Furthermore, every attempt is made to
recover the excess fiber and polymer material used in the forming chamber. However, this is
not always possible due to clogging of filters and other losses.
Quality Control
There are several methods used to control the quality of disposable diapers, and most of these
relate to the product's absorbency. One key is to make sure the polymer/fiber ratio in the
absorbent pad is correct. Too much variation will impact the diaper's ability to soak up
moisture. Industry trial and error has shown that for optimal performance and cost, the fiber
to particle ratio should be about 75:25 to 90:10. Even more critical than this ratio are the size
and distribution of these particles. It has been established that particles with mass median
particle size greater than or equal to about 400 microns work very well with the fibers to
enhance the rate at which the fluid is transported away from the body. If the particles vary
much outside this range, gel blocking may occur.
There are several standard tests the industry uses to establish diaper absorbency. One is
referred to as Demand Wettability or Gravimetric Absorbance. These tests evaluate what is
are commonly referred to as Absorbance Under Load (AUL). AUL is defined as the amount
of 0.9% saline solution absorbed by the polymers while being subjected to pressure
equivalent to 21,000 dynes, or about 0.30 lb/sq in (0.021 kg/sq cm). This test simulates the
effect of a baby sitting on a wet diaper. If the diaper has an absorbency of at least 24 ml/g
after one hour, the quality is considered acceptable.
Other quality control factors besides absorbency are related to the diaper's fit and comfort.
Particular attention must be paid to the melt characteristics of the nonwoven fabrics used to
form the diaper's shell. If materials with different melting points are used, the material that
melts the quickest may become too soft and stick to the assembly apparatus. When the fabric
is pulled off it may be left with a rough surface that is uncomfortable to the user. Finally, the
alignment of the components must be carefully checked or leakage may result.
The Future
Disposable diaper manufacture is a high technology field which has consistently shown
innovation over the last few decades. Nonetheless, there are still a number of areas which

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require additional improvement. One such area is that of leakage reduction. It is likely that
manufacturers will develop improved elastic bands to hold the waist more tightly without
causing chafing or discomfort. It is also likely that current concern regarding the role of
disposable diapers in landfills will impact manufacturing and formulation. This concern may
to lead to the development of diapers which are less bulky and more biodegradable. These
hygienic products are disposed after once they’ve been used. On account of that if we use
biodegradable non woven for these hygienic it may be eco friendly.
Biodegradable nonwoven
The environmental impact of disposable products has become a major concern throughout the
world in recent years. These disposable products are usually produced from traditional
thermoplastic resins, such as polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), polyester (PET),
polyamide (PA) and polycarbonate (PC), which are not biodegradable. However, due to
increasing environmental consciousness and demands of legislative authorities, the
manufacture, use and removal of products made of traditional polymers are considered more
critically. The remedy to this problem could be found in the development of substitute
products based on biodegradability, and ideally from natural and renewable materials.
Natural fibres, such as cotton, kenaf, coir, jute, flax, sisal, hemp and wood, etc., are the first
choice due to their biodegradability. Some synthetic biodegradable fibres have also been used
for nonwoven applications, including cellulosics such as cellulose acetate, rayon, lyocell, etc.;
manufactured fibres such as polylactic acid (PLA), poly(caprolactone) (PCL),
poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB), poly(hydroxybutyrate covalerate) (PHBV), Biomax, Biopol,
polytetramethylene adipate-co-terephthalate (PTAT), etc.; and water solubles such as
poly(vinyl acetate) (PVA). Graph 1 illustrates how fibres based on fossil fuels have replaced
fibres based on biodegradable natural polymers over the last century according to the CIRFS
statistics on World fibre usage in all markets.

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fig.19
Roughly half of the 45 million tonnes of fibre consumed annually in the world are now made
from synthetic polymers.
While the tonnage of man-made cellulosics sold into European nonwovens has held
remarkably constant for 30 or more years, viscose rayon has participated hardly at all in the
massive growth of the industry and its market share is now a tenth of the 1970 figure.
Viscose rayon staple fibres were, in 1966, the cheapest man-made fibre. Now they are around
twice the price of the main synthetics without the ability to be easily spun-laid or thermally
bonded. At a time when the premium obtainable for biodegradability is almost non-existent,
they are currently out of contention as a source of economic biodegradable coverstock.
Man-made biodegradable aliphatic polyesters are however still based mainly on the industrial
polymerisation of monomers such as glycolic acid (PGA), lactic acid (PLA), butyric acid
(PHB), valeric acid (PHV) and caprolactone (PCL). These (Fig. 1) and their copolymers have
already found application in implants, absorbable sutures, controlled release packaging and
degradable films and mouldings 1.

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Fig. 20. Biodegradable aliphatic polyesters
With the interest in sustainability, efforts to produce biodegradable nonwovens should yield
some interesting possibilities for apparel. Since many of the garments today are destined for
the disposable market, biodegradable materials that can be manufactured at low cost should
be appealing for a number of applications. Garments made from such materials would also be
more comfortable, thus increasing the acceptance of nonwovens in apparel.
Biodegradable Fibre Properties
A comparison of readily available published data is provided in the Table below.
Property
CDP
PLA
Kuraray
PLA
Rayon Lyocell Polyester
Density
(g/cm3)
1.25 1.27 1.51 1.52 1.38
Melting
Point (°C)
120-
170
170 None None 260
Count
(dtex)
1.7
(e.g.)
1.7 1.7 1.7 1.7
Tenacity
(cN/tex)
50 25-45 20-25 40-45 35-65
Elongation
(%)
35 N/A 18-22 14-16 15-40
Moisture
Regain
(%)
0.4 -
0.6
0.48 13 12 0.4

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Market segmentation of absorbent diapers
Diapers Feminine hygiene Adult incontinence
Baby diapers Sanitary napkins Adult diapers
Nappies Feminine pads Briefs
Training pants Sanitary towels Insert pad and pant
Panty liners Bladder control pads
Panty shields Undergarments
Tampons Guards
Shields
Panty liners
Underwear
Underpads
Bed pads
Feminine hygiene
Feminine hygiene is a general term used to describe personal care products used by women
during menstruation, vaginal discharge, and other bodily functions related to the vulva.
Sanitary towels (also known as maxi-pads or napkins), panty liners, tampons, menstrual cups,
and feminine wipes are the major categories of feminine hygiene products.
Sanitary napkins
The functions of sanitary napkins are to absorb and retain menstrual fluid, and isolate
menstrual fluids from the body. Important and desired properties are: no leakage, no
unaesthetic appearance or color, no odor, no noise, stay in place, comfortable to wear (thin
body shape), and a high level of hygiene. The average sanitary napkin comprises 48% fluff

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pulp, 36% PE, PP and PET, 7% adhesives, 6% superabsorbent and 3% release paper. Options
are available for napkins with fluff, airlaid or double fluff core, in combination with panty
liners, additional core or materials, embossings,112 elastic cuffs, and with trifolders or single
wrappers. Sanitary napkin-making machines available in the market have production speeds
of around 500–1000 pieces per minute.
Panty shields
The function of panty shields is to protect underwear from vaginal discharge. Important and
desired properties are sufficient absorption capacity, discretion, comfortable to wear
(softness, body shape), and good hygiene. Pads and panty liners are mainly made of materials
such as wood pulp, nonwoven fabrics made from polymers (PE, PP), SAP, and adhesives of
natural and synthetic resins. These raw materials are chosen for their ability to absorb and
retain fluids, to avoid leakage and to provide comfort.113 Panty shield-making machines
available in market have production speeds of around 1500 pieces per minute.
Tampons
The most common type of tampon in daily use is a disposable plug that is designed to be
inserted into the vagina during menstruation to absorb the flow of blood. Its function is to
absorb and retain menstrual fluid inside the body. Important and desired properties are no
leakage, no odor, easy to insert, easy to remove, softness, comfortable to wear (dimensionally
correct), high level of hygiene; the tampon should also be discreet. Modern tampons are
mainly composed of cellulosic absorbent material, either viscose rayon or a mixture of these
fibers. In most instances, the absorbent core is covered by a thin, smooth layer of nonwoven
or perforated film helping to reduce loss of fibers and making the tampon easy to insert and
remove. The withdrawal cord that is necessary to remove the tampon is usually made of
cotton or other fibers and can be colored.
Adult incontinence
Incontinence is the lack of voluntary control of excretory functions; the term is a contraction
of a complete expression, such as ‘incontinence of urine’ or ‘incontinence of feces’. Adult
incontinence products (AIPs) need to combine performance, comfort, discretion and
aesthetics to fulfill all the needs of this emerging market. Comfort is a vital element for AIPs.
Part of comfort is fit the garment must fit snugly to prevent leakage, but should not bind or
chafe the skin of individuals wearing them all day. Skin health can be even more important

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for an adult user than for babies. Pulling liquid away from the skin is a top priority for an AIP
absorption rate and wicking action are essential.
2.6 Nonwoven medical textiles
The market for medical textiles is being driven by a number of factors;
 population growth rates, particularly in newly developing global regions,
 changes in demographics, including the ageing of the population in the Western
European market, § changes in living standards,
 attitude to health risks; increased awareness of the risks to health workers from health
threats from blood-borne diseases and airborne pathogens,
 the continuing dominance of the leading suppliers and brands (especially in the
consumer market),
 ongoing enhancement in product performance,
 the growing dominance of purchasing which demands increasing value for money,
 the increasing share of nonwovens on the medical world market in relation to
traditional textile materials.
These trends will be further fed by the increasing development of the medical textile market
and industry. So there is a vast capacity to cover in there. Somehow nowadays the nonwoven
textiles play a major role in the medical sector.
Nonwovens are extensively used in the medical field and in protection against biological
agents in other sectors. For example, they can be designed to deliver critical safety properties,
such as prevention against infections and diseases. With today’s multi-drug resistant strains
of bacteria and virus, nonwovens can help in the fight against cross-contamination and the
spread of infection in a medical or surgical environment. Because they are used only once
and incinerated after use, the need for handling is avoided and the spread of contaminants is
minimised.
Nonwovens are also increasingly a major component in the design of "smart" wound care
products, providing such functions as the creation of a moist wound healing environment,
with controlled vapour transmission, absorbency and low skin adhesion. New nonwoven

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materials with improved finishes including liquid repellent, virus proof and bacterial barrier
properties have also been developed for applications such as surgical masks, gowns and
drapes, especially in view of the high demands of the new European Standards, EN 13795.
Some examples of where nonwovens are used
 Surgical: disposable caps, gowns, masks, scrub suits and shoe covers
 Drapes, wraps and packs
 Sponges, dressings and wipes
 Bed linen
 Contamination control gowns
 Examination gowns
 Lab coats
 Isolation gowns
 Transdermal drug delivery
 Shrouds
 Underpads
 Procedure packs
 Heat packs
 Ostomy bag liners
 Fixation tapes
 Incubator mattress
 Sterilisation wraps (CSR wrap)
 Wound care
 Cold/heat packs
 Drug delivery (patches etc.)
The advantages of using nonwovens
 Protection against
 dry or wet contact
 air-borne particles
 Fully compliant with EU standard EN 13795
 Single-use = 100% certainty
 Custom-made for the operating theatre

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 procedure-specific design
 optimum wearer comfort
 strong yet light in weight
 optimal fluid absorbency
 exchange of air, body heat and moisture
 Excellent barrier properties
 Excellent uniformity
 Breathability
 Abrasion resistance and lint free
 Repellency
 Self-adherent edges
 Aseptic folding
 Engineered stability for ETO, plasma, radiation, or steam sterilisation
2.6.1 Developing antiviral surgical gowns using nonwoven fabrics for health care sector
Surgical gowns are widely accepted to protect the patient by reducing the shedding of
microorganisms from the skin and clothing of the operating team. Historically, gowns were
made of cotton and this gave rise to bacterial strikethrough and these gowns were shown to
be poor bacterial barriers.

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Healthcare workers' uniforms including surgical gowns are used as barriers to eliminate the
risk of infection for both doctor and patient. The prevalence of human immunodeficiency
virus, hepatitis B and C viruses in the patient population is very common.
Objectives
To develop antiviral surgical gown comprising of Polypropylene nonwoven as outer layer,
Polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE) film as middle layer and polyester nonwoven as inner layer
and the surgical gown with a basic weight of 70 g/m2.
Methods
The titanium dioxide (TiO2) nano dispersion was prepared with methylene blue and urea as a
reacting medium. These nano particles have an average size of 9 nm which was revealed by
High resolution transmission electron microscope. The nonwoven fabric pore size was
characterised by using digital image analyzer. The polypropylene nonwoven fabrics were
treated with nano dispersion by pad-dry-cure method and trilaminate fabric was formed using
fusing machine. The presence of nano particle on the surface of the non woven fabric was
confirmed by Scanning Electron microscope.
Results
The trilaminate surgical gown has passed ASTM 1671 viral penetration test which is
mandatory for healthcare facilities. The average pore size of inner, middle and outer layer
were found as 0.187, 0.4 and 0.147 micron respectively. The tensile strength of the
trilaminate fabric in both machine and cross direction was 145 N and 94 N respectively. The
tearing strength of the trilaminate fabric in direction I and II was 10 N and 4 N respectively.
The hydrostatic and index puncture resistance of the trilaminate fabric was 2930 mmwc and
58.8 N respectively. The moisture vapour permeability of the fabric was exhibited as 585.7
g/m2/day.

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Conclusions
The surgical gown exhibits antiviral property which can protect the health care people from
human immunodeficiency virus.
The Association of Operating Room Nurses recommended that the fabrics used for gown and
drapes must minimize the possibility of passage of bacteria from non-sterile to sterile areas.
The surgical gowns should also aid in resistance of liquid transmission, abrasion and
punctures. Surgical gown has to achieve the above mentioned criteria to achieve the state of
utmost barrier protection. According to these stipulations a surgical gown must meet the
following criteria: (a) blood and aqueous fluid resistance, (b) abrasion resistance to eliminate
bacterial penetration, and (c) lint free to reduce the number of particles in the air1.
Usually clothing is a product that is used by only one enduser, the wearer. However patient
gowns are unique because they have two types of endusers - the patients and the caregivers5.
The Hospital Association says that while the average visit to a community hospital has
become shorter due to an aging population, more and more people are being admitted into
hospitals. The cost of providing a modern healthcare system is also increasing year by year6.
Materials used in surgical gowns should function as protective barriers against the transfer of
micro-organisms, particulates and fluids to minimize penetration and the potential for
personnel contamination7.
Fluid resistance clothing needs to be used, if there is a possibility of splashing or spreading of
blood on the fabric. The impact of AIDS and other contagious diseases creates the need of
such protective clothing8. The protective material also needs to be water proof but breathable
to provide comfort to the user9. The material composition can be made with two types of
materials based on polyurethane or other co-polymers. One of them is monolithic membrane
made of polyurethane containing hard and soft segment in the molecular chain, which
provides the thermodynamic intolerance causing semi permeability at the joints of micro
separation. The second one is micro porous membrane which allows the body to transmit the
perspiration through the fabric10. Barrier fabrics are formed by sandwiching nonwoven webs.
The melt blown web provides a barrier impervious to bacteria and other contaminants11.
Surgical drapes are used to protect the patient from infection and also to keep the site of the
surgical incision from the risk of infection12.
Methods

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Non woven fabric is used as a material for developing surgical gown. Three layers of fabrics
were used. The outer layer polypropylene nonwoven fabric is used with basic weight of 30
g/m2 and middle with breathable polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE) film with 0.4 micron with
basic weight of 15 g/m2 and the inner layer as polyester nonwoven fabric with basic weight of
25 g/m2. Polypropylene is having a moisture regain of 0% and good liquid repellency. Hence
polypropylene is selected as outer layer for the surgical gown. Polyester is having a moisture
regain of 0.4% which helps in absorption of sweat when used for longer duration. Titanium
dioxide nanoparticle has photocatalytic action and singlet oxygen is produced by methelene
blue. There we can added a blood repellent layer to the gown in the front.(fig.21)
And the cuff is knitted for further safety;(fig.22)
Here we use Raglan sleeves for better comfort for the wearer.

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Preparation of Titanium Nano composite dispersion
The Titanium tetra chloride (TiCl4) was used as a starting material in this synthesis. 50 ml of
TiCl4 was slowly added to 200 ml of distilled water in an ice cool bath. The beaker was taken
from the ice bath to room temperature. The beaker was kept in magnetic stirrer to get a
homogeneous solution. Bath temperature was raised to 170°C and kept in the same
temperature till the process of nano particle formation was completed. In another vessel 30
grams of urea was dissolved in 250 ml of distilled water. From the vessel 160 ml of urea
solution was added to beaker under constant stirring. The solution turned into white colloid
without any precipitation. 25 grams of Methylene blue was added to the titanium nano
particles.
Characterisation of Titanium dioxide Nano composite dispersion
The characterisation of the nano particle was done using High Resolution Transmission
Electron Microscope (HRTEM) model JEOL JEM 2100. The HRTEM confirms the average
size of nano particles.
Characterisation of Nonwoven fabric pore size
A 5×5mm swatch was cut from the nonwoven felt. Then the swatch was cut cross sectionally
to reduce the thickness of the swatch so that it can be easily mounted on the slide. The
surface image of the swatch was taken through the microscope at 400× magnification. Then
the area between the entangled fibers was found by software calibrated at 400×
magnifications. The average area of 100 readings was determined.
Trilaminate fabric finishing procedure
The Polypropylene nonwoven fabric was coated with 1% nano dispersion with material to
liquor ratio of 1:20 and 0.5% Anionic binder. The nonwoven fabric was finished with pad-
dry-cure method. The excess solution was squeezed using padding mangle which was
running at a speed of 10 m/min with a pressure of 15 kg/cm2. After padding, the fabric was
dried naturally. The arrangement of three layers of non woven fabric is shown in figure 1.
Three layer of fabrics such as nano finished Polypropylene is an outer layer, breathable PTFE
film as a middle layer and polyester nonwoven fabric as inner layer were bonded together
using a fusing machine at a temperature of 210°C with fusing time of 10s.

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Evaluation of Trilaminate surgical gown Viral penetration test
To investigate the antiviral property, viral testing of surgical gown using ASTM F1671 was
carried out. ASTM F1671 is the method for testing resistance of materials used in protective
clothing for penetration by blood borne pathogens using bacteriophage. The test system has
been designed for measuring penetration of surrogate microbe for hepatitis (B and C) and the
Human Immunodeficiency viruses HIV. The surrogate Phi-X174 bacteriophage used in the
test method is similar to this virus shape and size.
Tensile and tearing strength
The Tensile strength ASTM D5034 grab test method was used for the determination of
breaking force and elongation of nonwoven fabrics. This procedure has been used extensively
for acceptance testing in the trade. ASTM D1424 test method is used for the determination of
tearing strength by the falling pendulum type apparatus. This test method covers the
determination of the force required to propagate a single-rip tear starting from a cut in a
fabric and using a falling-pendulum Elmendorf type apparatus.
Hydrostatic resistance test
The AATCC 127 method was used to measure the resistance of a fabric to the penetration of
water under hydrostatic pressure. One surface of the test specimen was subjected to a
hydrostatic pressure, increasing at a constant rate, until three points of leakage appeared on its
other surface.
Moisture vapour permeability test
The Moisture Vapour Transmission test was conducted according to ASTM E96 standard.
The cup method was used with the air at relative humidity of 50% and recommended water
temperature of 32.2°C. The moisture vapour permeability was measured in terms of
g/m2/day.

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Results
Characterization of Titanium dioxide nano composite dispersion using HRTEM
The morphology of TiO2 nanoparticle was revealed using HRTEM image shown in figure
23. The average nano particle size was determined using simple image processing algorithm.
The average diameter of the nano particle is 9 nm.
Figure 23
TEM image of TiO2 Nano Particle
Characterisation of nano finished fabric using SEM
The surfaces of nano treated nonwoven fabrics were observed by SEM. Figure 24 shows the
image of untreated fabric which shows clear rod like appearance. The nanoparticles are well
dispersed on the fibre surface as shown in figure 25. The nano particle agglomerates are seen
on the surface fibre. By using padding mangle for application of nano particle on the
nonwoven fabric, the nano particle penetrates into the fabric matrix.
Figure 24
SEM image of untreated nonwoven fabric
Figure 25
SEM image of nano treated nonwoven fabric

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Characterization of nonwoven fabric pore size
The average pore size of Polypropylene nonwoven fabric, Polytetrafluroethylene film and
Polyester nonwoven fabric was found as 0.187, 0.4 and 0.147 micron respectively. The Outer
layer polypropylene nonwoven fabric with smaller pore size increases the protection level.
The middle layer film provides breathability helping wearer to wear the gown for longer
duration
Evaluation of trilaminate surgical gown
The trilaminate fabric has passed the viral penetration test, which confirms that the gown has
protection against the hepatitis (B and C), Human Immunodeficiency Viruses and surrogate
Phi-X174 bacteriophage. The single layer gown does not provide protection against viruses
due to the absence of polytetrafluroethylene film and inner layer of polyester nonwoven
fabric. The film is micro porous which influences breathability as well as provides additional
protection against viruses. In this research work polypropylene outer layer has a pore size of
0.187 micron which is mainly considered for protection. The tensile strength of the fabric in
machine direction is 145 N which is greater than the cross direction of the sample which is 94
N. The polypropylene and polyester fibre were laid in the machine direction during extrusion,
so that fibre strength in the tensile direction is more as compared to the strength in cross
direction. The tearing strength of the fabric in the direction I was more due to same reason as
quoted above. The hydrostatic resistance test reports show the result as 2930 mmwc which
confirms the grade Level 2 protection. The index puncture resistance of the fabric was found
as 58.8 N. The moisture vapour permeability tests exhibited result of 585.7 g/m2/day which
also confirms the gown requirements. The gown has also good moisture vapour permeability
so that the health care people can wear the gown for long duration with comfort.
As the surgical gown is of light weight and comprised of breathable fabric it confirms the
user of the product that it is comfortable to use. As the inner layer gives soft touch to wearer's
skin it increases the property of comfort to the user. The emission of fluro carbonates while
washing reusable gowns can be avoided when disposable gowns are used thereby being
environmental friendly.
Only 2% hospital waste is contributed by disposable gowns. As the reusable gowns are to be
washed the hospital or external laundries drain contaminated wash water which is much

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hazardorous. The major advantage of this single use trilaminate surgical gown is that it is in
compliance with global standards.
2.6.2 Non woven surgical masks
A surgical face mask is also known as a procedure mask and purposely to be worn by health
care professionals during operation procedures. It helps to catch the bacteria shed in liquid
droplets and aerosols from the wearer's mouth and nose. Normal activities such as sneezing,
coughing, breathing and speaking may release oral, dermal and nasopharyngeal bacteria that
may cause post-operative infections. Microorganisms have varying characteristics that can
influence their potential ability to penetrate the facemask material including shape, size and
their surface characteristics. Some studies reported that variety of pathogens are encountered
in the hospital environment, a relatively limited number of hospital infections including
Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis, Candida albicans and
Staphylococcus aureus. Some studies reported that the rod shaped bacteria penetrate less than
spherically shaped bacteria of similar size. This review focuses on surgical face masks and
their classification based on the performance like filtration efficiency, pressure difference,
splash resistance etc
Manufacturing methods
The surgical face mask is produced using fabric forming technology as shown in Fig. 26.

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Even though, there are three fabrics forming technology, nowadays, most of the surgical face
masks are made up of non-woven with a view of disposing after use. Non-woven fabric
forming technology is cheaper than other fabric forming technology like woven or knitted.
Most of the surgical face mask manufacturers produce the surgical face mask using SMS
(Spunbond Meltblown Spunbond) technology. The typical material used to manufacture
surgical face masks are polypropylene with 20 gsm made using spunbond technology and 25
gsm polypropylene non-woven sheet made using meltblown technology. The surgical face
masks are made in different sizes like 17.5 X 9.5 cm for adult, 14.5 X 9.5 cm for child use
and 12 X 7 cm for infants. They are available in different color like white, blue, green, yellow
and pink
Benefits of non-woven based surgical face masks
Non-woven based surgical face masks are disposable. It is generally made up of three or four
layers, often with two filters that filter the material, 1 µ in size. Hence, it traps bacteria of that
size or larger. Face masks of this type can provide protection against bacteria for a minimum
of 4 h (Lipp and Edwards, 2002). Advantages of non-woven fabrics over woven fabric in
filtration are higher air permeability, higher bacterial filtration efficiency, no yarn slippage
and low manufacturing cost (Kothari, 2008). The non-woven technology guarantees better
barrier properties than cotton, polyester or even more advanced woven products. Besides,
disposable non-wovens (surgical face masks, gowns, drape etc.) are sterilized, packaged,
opened, used and then disposed. Hence, there is a less risk of contamination after using of
disposable non-wovens than reusable products either woven or knitted.
Non woven Recycling
Remnants of non woven material in various colours are run through a machine where they are
melted down into a liquid form. Plastic (Polypropylene) pellets are then mixed with the
liquid. All colour is extracted and dye in a coloured pellet form is then added to the mixture.
The liquid is then poured onto a flat surface where it is heated to a very high temperature and
becomes a large sheet of plastic or flexible resin polymer (not a “woven” fabric). The flexible
resin polymer is actually debossed to give the appearance of woven cloth. Lastly, the ready-
to-use non woven material is compressed with large rollers and cooled. The end result is non

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woven material made of reclaimed production waste with 25% recycled content. Our non
woven polypropylene comes in various gram weights including 75, 90, 100, 110 and 120 gsm
(grams per square metre). Generally speaking, the higher the gsm, the more durable the
fabric. We have full control of the manufacturing and recycling processes as we produce, sew
and recycle our non woven material. Material scraps are never wasted or discarded. Instead,
they are used over and over again. Closing the loop on what we use and dispose reduces the
carbon footprint by easing the strain on landfills.

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Chapter 03
Methodology
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter describes the current situation in Sri Lankan medical sector in relation to the
non woven medical textiles. For that here explains how the researcher found details about the
condition. Generally the researcher has done several interviews with different kind of persons
who are bound to this. These interviews have been done for the management sector of the
hospitals, doctors and also with entrepreneurs who intend to go for new business
opportunities. There we are able to get an idea about this industry and its future perspective.
Further the researcher provided a questionnaire to the factory and hospitals, via that it is easy
to understand the real circumstance prevails in the industry.
3.2 The research problem
The main problem is that people have less knowledge about the non woven fabrics and the
industry. When collecting data, management of the hospitals are very reluctant to give
information and statistical data on post infections. Lots of people don’t like to adopt new
effective things as they are already using a traditional system or a product.
3.3 Collect data from factories and Hospitals.
The researcher has visited the several hospitals and gathers information regarding to the
research. Hospitals were selected from the urban and rural different areas to get a general and
most reliable idea about the situation. There in the hospitals Doctors and the management
sector were directly interviewed and further discussed about their point of view towards the
non woven medical textile. In the interview, a set of open questions will be asked in a way
that the researcher will gather all the required information which is needed to build up the
general idea. Also the management of the factory which manufactured non woven surgical
garments was also interviewed and asked about their barriers when enroll in this industry and
their future goals. In the interview session researcher discussed all the relevant and required
sections of the study in order to get the sufficient knowledge about the research.

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3.4 Designing of the Questionnaire
The researcher made separate questionnaire for the hospital theatres and for the factory which
manufacture surgical garments which was designed in order to get every information
regarding to the subject. The questionnaire which was given to the hospitals, the main target
whom were doctors in the theatre room. And the other questionnaire was given to the surgical
garment factory.
3.5 Collection of data from the questionnaire
Questionnaires were given to the employees who are working in these places at several times
randomly. Especially the researcher’s target was to get the questionnaire done by the hospital
theatre employees. Because they are the end users of these surgical garments and they know
what consequences with these garments.
3.6 Distribution and collection of the questionnaire
Questionnaire was distributed within randomly selected employees in the theatre room of the
hospitals & the factory and requested them to mark the paper according to their ideas.
Marked questionnaires by the workers were collected the other day by the researcher.
3.7 Data Collection and data analysis
The gathered data was analyzed by the researcher and came in to a conclusion about the
current situation of the non woven surgical garments and its future perspective. Finally the
solutions and recommendations for the study were established through the analyzed data.

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Chapter 04
Collectedand Analyzed Data
4.1 Introduction
This chapter includes the data which have been gathered for the research and the analyzed
results of those data. The researcher collected data from the factory which is manufacturing
surgical gowns and from Avissawella General Hospital, Ratnapura General Hospital and
Kahawatta Base Hospital. I have interviewed the personnel involved in the health care sector
regarding the manufacture and use of surgical gowns. From the analysed data in the
questionnaire and from the data which was collected through discussion shows that all the
facts which are influenced to the surgical garments manufacturing and the usage of them.
4.2 Data collection from the factory
As I discussed before in the previous chapters the interviews, discussions and questionnaires
were given to the factory people. In the interview, a set of open questions were asked in a
way that the researcher would gather all the required information which is needed to build up
the general idea.
Shown below are the questions that were asked during the interview sessions;
1. How do you get the non woven fabric for the production?
2. Do you have any specific supplier? If it is, why?
3. Why don’t you prefer to manufacture non woven fabric by yourself?
4. What kind sewing machines are being used in the factory?
5. What kind of production system is being used in the factory & the reasons for that?
6. How do you undertake the orders, who are your buyers?
7. What is your price for a non woven surgical garment?
8. How do you manage to lead your business within the competitors who are importing
the surgical gowns?
9. Why don’t you intend to develop the surgical garment and dominate the international
market?

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10. What are your future goals and perspectives in this industry?
MD Centimos is a factory which manufactures non woven surgical gown and it caters to
several private hospitals in the Colombo area. This factory produces about 70, 80 pieces per
a typical day. They sell this surgical gown for the hospitals around Rs.500 & Rs.600. They do
not tend to sell or promote their product for the government hospitals because their legal
restrictions are strict. In this factory Make through system and Sectional system are being
used as there are less number of operators and this has to produce small quantity of garments
at a once. Below graph demonstrates their sales in 2014 & 2015.
Fig.27
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
2014
2015

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4.3 Data collection from the hospitals
As I previously mentioned same procedure has been done in here too. Questionnaires,
interviews and discussions have done to gather data from the operation theatre premises.
Shown below are the questions that were asked during the interview sessions;
1. Are you aware about non woven surgical gowns and masks?
2. At present what do you use to wear in the operation theatre room?
3. What is the procedure of after using a traditional cotton surgical gown?
4. How many operations are being done in a normal day?
5. How many post infections are being taken place after the operations?
6. What are your perceptions to be improved in this procedure?
No. Of surgeries had done during 07th of December to 13th December
 Avissawella General Hospital (table 04)
Name of the
surgery
monday tuesday wednesday thursday friday saturday sunday
Caesarean 21 19 29 27 32 28 26
TAH 2 0 1 2 3 1 0
Cataract 26 28 31 33 25 34 0
Orthopaedic
surgeries
38 25 27 34 19 27 33
Tooth extraction 138 146 129 158 129 146 0
Hernia repair 8 6 5 4 3 0 0
ERPC 28 30 33 37 21 19 21
Maxillae facial 1 0 3 4 3 2 0
No. Of post infections = 7

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 Kahawatta Base Hospital (table 05)
Name of the
surgery
monday tuesday wednesday thursday friday saturday sunday
Caesarean 17 19 16 11 19 16 14
TAH 2 1 0 3 1 2 0
Cataract _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Orthopaedic
surgeries
27 32 29 19 19 26 21
Tooth extraction 139 142 127 165 128 140 112
Hernia repair _ _ _ _ _ _ _
ERPC 12 15 9 17 8 11 10
Maxillae facial _ _ _ _ _ _ _
No. Of post infections =2
 Ratnapura General Hospital (table 06)
Name of the
surgery
monday tuesday wednesday thursday friday saturday sunday
Caesarean 25 21 32 33 28 29 27
TAH 2 2 3 2 4 3 1
Cataract 25 32 27 26 24 25 12
Orthopaedic
surgeries
35 37 29 33 30 27 29
Tooth extraction 145 128 134 178 129 156 0
Hernia repair 4 3 6 2 4 3 0
ERPC 19 21 26 20 18 21 13
Maxillae facial 1 3 3 3 2 1 0

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No. Of post infections =5
Fig.28
In government hospitals after an operation all
the re-usable cotton or linen surgical garments
are removed and send them to wash. In
Ratnapura & Avissawella Hospitals they out
source this laundry process. But in Kahawatta
Hospital they wash the surgical garments in
the hospital by using a washing machine. After
a surgery there are about 20Kgs of surgical
textiles all together. After the washing process
these garments are send to the CSSD (Central
Sterilized Supply Division), which is the unit
do all sterilization for operating theatres and
wards. Machines and the CSS division are
shown in the diagrams. This one machine is
cost about 5 million rupees and these machines consume more electricity.
fig.29

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Table 7.Comparison between disposable and reusable textiles used in healthcare
Properties Disposable non-woven
Reusable
Traditional
textiles
Micro-porous textiles
Mechanical resistance . .. …
Linting(reduction of particle
emission)
… . ..
Resistance to bacterial penetration … . ..
Resistance to liquid penetration … . ..
Flexibility … . ..
Drapeability .. … …
Comfort .. … …
.Minimum to…Best adopted
Results of various parameters of single layer versus Trilaminate surgical gown
Parameter (Unit) Standard Single layer
gown
Trilaminate
gown
Viral penetration test ASTM F 1671 Fail Pass
Tensile strength (N) ASTM D 5034:
2009
Machine direction 130 145
Cross direction (Grab) 86 94
Tearing strength 7 10
Direction I (Cross wise tear) ASTM D 1424:2009
Direction II 2 4

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Parameter (Unit) Standard Single layer
gown
Trilaminate
gown
Hydrostatic resistance
(mmwc)
AATCC 127:2003 1850 2930
Index puncture resistance (N) ASTM D 4833 46.5 58.8
Moisture vapour permeability
(g/m2/day)
ASTM E 96 634.3 585.7