3. Introduction
Also known as saccharides (sakcharonG =
sugar or sweetness)
On the basis of mass, the most abundant class
of biomolecules in nature
Plants are considerably richer in carbohydrates
(30%) in comparison to animals (1%)
Primarily composed of elements: Carbon,
Hydrogen and Oxygen
The term “Carbohydrate” is derived from the
french: hydrate de carbone (hydrates of
Carbon)
4. Definition
Carbohydrates are the substances that yields polyhydroxy
aldehyde or ketones and their derivatives on hydrolysis.
Aldehyde
Ketone
5. Many but not all carbohydrates have the empirical formula
(CH2O)n where n≥3
Some carbohydrates such as rhamnose (C6H12O5), deoxyribose
(C5H10O4), glucosamine (C6H13O5N) do not satisfy the general
formula
Some non carbohydrate compounds such as formaldehyde
(CH2O), acetic acid (C2H4O2) and lactic acid (C3H6O3) also
appear as hydrates of carbon
6. Biomedical importance
sources of energy & storage form (glycogen, starch)
Precursors for many organic compounds: fats and proteins
Glycosides : Streptomycin antibiotic
Amino sugars: Erythromycin, carbomycin antibiotics
form structural tissues in plants and in microorganisms (cellulose,
lignin, murein)
participate in biological transport, cell-cell recognition, activation of
growth factors, modulation of the immune system
7. Components of cell membrane and cell receptors
Components of nucleic acids and blood group substances
Used as anticoagulant : heparin
Used as joint lubricant : hyaluronic acid
Estimation of carbohydrate derivatives; glucose, fructose, tumor
markers (CA 125, CA 19.9, CA 15.3) are often used in disease
diagnosis, monitoring and prognosis
8. Classification:
Monosaccharides (monoses or
glycoses)
Trioses, tetroses, pentoses,
hexoses
Oligosaccharides
Di, tri, tetra, penta, up to 9 or 10
condensation products joined by
glycosidic bonds
Polysaccharides or glycans
Homopolysaccharides
Heteropolysaccharides
9. MONOSACCHARIDES
Simplest group of carbohydrate
Carbohydrates that have a free carbonyl group have the suffix "-
ose." [Note: Ketoses (with some exceptions, for example, fructose)
have an additional two letters in their suffix; “-ulose” for example,
xylulose.]
Monosaccharides can be linked by glycosidic bonds to create larger
structures
Further classified based on the number of carbons and functional
group
15. Structure:
A carbon is chiral if it has four different groups
All monosaccharides except dihydroxyacetone has asymetric
carbon atom
Display in Fisher projection
CH2OH
H OH
CHO
CH2OH
OH H
CHO
D-glyceraldehyde L-glyceraldehyde
ENANTIOMERS
16. Structural representation of sugars
1. Fisher projection: straight
chain representation
2. Haworth projection: simple
ring in perspective
3. Conformational
representation: chair and
boat configurations
17. Pyranose and furanose ring
Pentoses and Hexoses cyclize to form furanose and pyranose
rings
Chiefly exists as ring form and not in open chain
For glucose in solution, more than 99% is in the pyranose form.
Open chain forms cyclize into rings:
18. Cyclization of aldoses: Pyranose
For aldoses, eg Glucose; C1 aldehyde in open chain reacts with the
C5 hydroxyl group to form and intramolecular hemiacetal resulting
pyranose
19. Cyclization of ketoses: furanose
For ketoses, eg fructose; C2 of keto group in open chain reacts with
the C5 hydroxyl group to form an intramolecular hemiketal resulting
furanose
20. Confirmation of rings
Pyranose and furanose rings are not
planner
◦ Pyranose: chair and boat
◦ Furanose: puckered
Pyranose: chair form more stable
◦ In Chair form, substituents on the ring
carbon atom have 2 orientations
Axial ( to average plane)
Equatorial (|| to average plane)
Furanose: puckered or envelope form
◦ C-2 endo
◦ C-3 endo
21. Isomerism
Greek : isos = equal ; meros = part
Originally applied by Jones J. Berzelius in 1827 to different
compounds with the same molecular formula and the phenomenon
was called Isomerism
2 types of isomers:
1. Structural isomers: same molecular formula but different structure
(carbon chain or functional group)
2. Stereoisomers: same molecular formula and structure but differ
only in spatial configuration
22.
23. Stereoisomerism
Stereoisomers: Same molecular formulae, same connectivity;
same constitutional isomer. Different spatial orientation of the
bonds.
Two kinds of Stereoisomers:
◦ Enantiomers: stereoisomers which are mirror objects of each
other. Enantiomers are different objects, not superimposable.
◦ Diastereomers: stereoisomers which are not mirror objects of
each other.
If a molecule has one or more tetrahedral carbons having four different
substituents then enantiomers will occur. If there are two or more such
carbons then diastereomers may also occur.
24. Diasteroisomers
Diastereomerism occurs when two or more
stereoisomers of a compound have different
configurations at one or more (but not all) of
the equivalent (related) stereocenters
They are not mirror images of each other
When two diastereoisomers differ from each
other at only one stereocenter they
are epimers.
Each stereocenter gives rise to two different
configurations and thus increases the
number of stereoisomers by a factor of two.
25. Stereoisomers
2 types: Geometric and Optical
1. Geometric or cis-trans (Latin; cis = same, trans = across) arises
from peculiar geometry of compounds having double bond within
the carbon chain
These structures have different chemical and physiologic properties,
fumaric acid is physiologically active.
27. The designation of a sugar isomer as the D form or the L form is
determined by its spatial relationship to the parent compound of the
carbohydrates
The orientation of the -H and -OH groups around the carbon atom
adjacent to the terminal primary alcohol carbon (carbon 5 in glucose)
determines whether the sugar belongs to the D or L series.
When the -OH group on this carbon is on the right, the sugar is the D
isomer; when it is on the left, it is the L isomer.
Most of the monosaccharides occurring in mammals are D sugars, and
the enzymes responsible for their metabolism are specific for this
configuration.
28. Optical Activity
A property exhibited by any compound whose mirror images are
non-superimposable
Asymmetric compounds rotate plane polarized light
When a beam of polarized light is passed through a solution of
optical isomer, it will be rotated either to the right or left
◦ Dextrorotatory (+): compounds that rotate the plane of polarized
light to right (dexterL = right)
◦ Levorotatory (-): compounds that rotate the plane of polarized
light to left (laevusL = left)
◦ Measurement uses an instrument called a polarimeter (Lippich type)
29. Polarimetry
Magnitude of rotation depends upon:
1. the nature of the compound
2. the length of the tube (cell or sample container) usually
expressed in decimeters (dm)
3. the wavelength of the light source employed; usually either
sodium D line at 589.3 nm or mercury vapor lamp at 546.1 nm
4. temperature of sample
5. concentration of analyte in grams per 100 ml
31. Racemic mixture
When equal amounts of D and L isomers are present, the
resulting mixture becomes optically inactive
Such mixtures are known as Racemic mixture or DL mixture or
Conglomerate
Optical inactivity is due to cancellation of charges by equality in
dextro and levorotatory activities.
This process of conversion into the recemic modification is known
as racemisation
32. Mutarotaion
Mutarotation is defined as the change in the specific optical
rotation representing the interconversion of and forms of D-
glucose to an equilibrium mixture
Also termed as multirotation or dirotation
change spontaneously through the formation of intermediate open
chain
hemiacetal ring is opened and reformed with change of position of –
H and –OH
All reducing sugars (except a few ketoses) undergo mutarotation
33. The equilibrium mixture contains 63% beta anomer, 36% alpha
anomer of glucose and 1% open chain (glucofuranose forms)
In aqueous solution, the beta form is more predominant due to its
stable configuration
Specific optical rotation []20
D
34. Tautomerization
Process involving shifting of a
hydrogen atom from one carbon
to another forming enediols.
Sugars with anomeric carbons
undergo tautomerization in an
alkaline solution
When glucose is kept in alkaline
solution for several hours, it
undergoes tautomerization to
form D-fructose and D-mannose
35. Epimers
Epimers are the compound having the same chemical formula but
differ in the spatial arrangement around a single carbon atom.
36. Anomers
Isomeric forms of
monosaccharides that differ only
in their configuration about the
hemiacetal or hemiketal carbon
atom are called anomers
and cyclic forms of D-glucose
are anomers
The hemiacetal (or carbonyl)
carbon atom is called the
anomeric carbon.
37. Physical properties of monosachharides
State:
Sugars are white crystalline in shape and with sharp melting
points, while polysachharides are white amorphous solids
Taste:
Sugars have sweet taste while polysachharides are tasteless
Solubility:
Sugars are soluble in cold water and hot alcohol.
Polysachharides are partially soluble in hot water.
39. Chemical properties of monosaccharide
Iodo compounds
◦ Aldose sugar when heated with conc Hydriodic acid (HI) losses
all of its O2 and converted into an iodo compound (glucose to
iodohexane)
Acetylation
◦ Acetylation with acetylchloride indicates the presence of –OH in
the sugar (5OH group of glucose results in a pentaacetate)
Heat
◦ Gluconic acid on heating produces lactones (cyclic structure
resembling pyranose and furanoses)
40. Osazone formation
Crystalline derivatives of sugars which are valuable in the
identification of sugars
Phenylhydrazine in acetic acid, when boiled with reducing sugars,
forms osazones
a crystalline compound with a sharp melting point will be obtained
D-fructose and D-mannose give the same needle shaped osazone
crystals as D-glucose
seldom used for identification; we now use HPLC or mass
spectrometry
41.
42. Oxidation
Aldoses may be oxidized to 3 types of acids
1.Aldonic acids:
aldehyde group is
converted to a carboxy
group
glucose - gluconic acid
galactose -galactonic
acid
mannose - mannoic
acid
2.Uronic acids: aldehyde
group is left intact and
primary alcohol at the
other end is oxidized to
COOH
glucose -glucoronic acid
galactose -galacturanic
acid
mannose -mannuronic
acid
3.Saccharic acids:
oxidation at both ends
of monosaccharide
glucose -
glucosaccharic acid
galactose -mucic
acid*
mannose -mannaric
acid
* Mucic acid forms
insoluble crystals which is
used for identification of
galactose
43.
44. Reduction
Monosaccharides are reduced to their corresponding alcohols by
reducing agents such as sodium amalgam
the resultant product is a polyol or sugar alcohol
◦ Glucose sorbitol
◦ Galactose dulcitol
◦ Mannose mannitol
◦ Fructose mannitol and sorbitol
◦ Glyceraldehyde glycerol
◦ L-ascorbic acid (vitamin C) is a sugar acid
◦ Glucoronic acid is involved in detoxification of bilirubin and other
foreign compounds.
45. Sugar alcohols are very useful
intermediates Mannitol is used as an osmotic diuretic
Glycerol is used as a humectant and can be nitrated to nitroglycerin
Sorbitol can be dehydrated to tetrahydropyrans and tetrahydrofuran
compounds (sorbitans)
Sorbitans are converted to detergents known as spans and tweens
(used in emulsification procedures)
Sorbitol can also be dehydrated to 1,4,3,6-dianhydro-D-sorbitol
(isosorbide) which is nitrated to ISDN and ISMN (both used in
treatment of angina)
46. With strong mineral acids (furfural
derivatives)
Monosaccharides are normally stable to dilute acids but are
dehydrated by strong acids (elimination of 3H2O)
Change in OH groups towards and H away from aldehyde end of
the chain
Hexoses give 5-hydroxymethyl furfurals and pentoses give furfurals
when heated with conc acids
Reaction products with acids will condense with certain organic
phenols to form colorful compounds (eg; Molisch test and Bial’s
orcinol test)
47. With dilute alkalies
Sugars are weak acids and can form salts at high pH eg; 1,2-enediol
salt
Enediols are highly reactive sugars and are powerful reducing
agents
sugars which give this reaction are known as reducing sugars
This allows the interconversion of D-mannose, D-fructose and D-
glucose
The reaction is known as the Lobry de Bruyn-Alberta von
Eckenstein reaction
enediols obtained by the action of base are quite susceptible to
oxidation when heated in the presence of an oxidizing agent
copper sulfate is frequently used as the oxidizing agent and a red
precipitate of Cu2O is obtained
Strong alkalis cause CARAMELISATION(decomposition )of sugars
48. Tests for reducing sugar
Fehling’s solution : 25% KOH or 35% NaOH and 7% CuSO4
Barfoed’s reagent 7% Cupric acetate and 1% Acetic acid
(differentiate mono from disaccharide; mono more active
reducing agent)
Benedict’s solution: Na2CO3 ,CuSO4 and Sodium Citrate
Clinitest tablets are used to detect urinary glucose in diabetics
49. Benedict’s test
◦ Used to detect reducing sugars in urine
◦ Principle: Reducing sugars when heated in the presence of
alkali form enediol which reduce the cupric (Cu2+) ion present in
Benedict’s reagent to cuprous (Cu+) ion which gets precipitated
as insoluble red copper oxide
50. ◦ The colour of the obtained precipitate gives an idea about the
quantity of sugar present in the solution
51. Reaction with alcohol
The glycosidic OH group of mutarotating sugars react with
alcohols to form and glycosides or acetals
Glucose forms glucosides and fructose forms fructosides
They are formed by the reaction of the hydroxy group of the
anomeric carbon(hemiacetyl or hemiketal)with the hydroxyl
group of any other molecule with the elimination of water.
A glycosidic bone is formed
52. Glycosides
When the hemi-acetal group of a monosaccharide is condensed with an alcohol
or phenol group, it is called glycoside
Non-carbohydrate group is called aglycone
Don’t reduce benedict reagent because the sugar group is masked.
They may be hydrolysed by boiling with dilute acid so that sugar is free and can
reduce copper
Glucose + phloretin = Phloridzine - displaces Na+ from the binding site of 'carrier
protein‘ and prevents binding of sugar molecule and produces glycosuria
(causes Renal damage)
Galactose, Xylose + digitogenin = Digitonin – Cardiac Stimulant
Glucose + indoxyl = Plant indican – used as stain
53. Ester formation
Sugars, by virtue of the alcohol groups, readily form esters with
acids
Hydroxyl groups of sugars can be esterified to form Acetates,
phosphates ,benzoates etc
sugars are phosphorylated at terminal hydroxyl: Glucose -6-P or
ribose-5-P (Pentose phosphates involved in formation of nucleic
acids)
Metabolism of sugars inside the cells starts with phosphorylation at
terminal C1 hydroxyl group or at other places
54. Amino sugars
They are formed by replacing the OH group of monosaccharides by
amino group
Common amino sugars:
◦ Glycosamine: in heparin, hyaluronic acid, blood group substance
◦ Galactosamine: in chondroitin of cartilages and tendons
◦ Mannosamine: in glycoproteins; N-acetyl glucosamine and N-
acetyl galactosamine
55. Deoxy sugars
They are formed by the removal of an Oxygen atom usually from 2nd
Carbon atom (hydroxy group)
2’ deoxy ribose sugar is the ubiquitous deoxy sugar predominantly
found in DNA (often shown by Feulgen Stain)
6-deoxy-L-mannose is used as fermentative reagent in bacteriology