Knepper Dissertation Impact of Mindfulness Method YES! on Student Learning

Running head: IMPACT OF MINDFUL METHOD YES! ON STUDENT LEARNING 1

THE IMPACT OF THE MINDFUL METHOD YOUTH EMPOWERMENT SEMINAR (YES!)
ON STUDENTS’ SELF-EFFICACY, SELF-REGULATION, AND ACADEMIC
PERFORMANCE FOR BECOMING COLLEGE-AND CAREER-READY
by
Jeffrey Mark Knepper
A Dissertation Presented to the
FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
August 2015
Copyright 2015 Jeffrey Mark Knepper

IMPACT OF MINDFUL METHOD YES! ON STUDENT LEARNING
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Acknowledgements

This study would not have been conceived or executed without the care, knowledge and
selfless offerings of many individuals. First I would like to acknowledge my family whose
inspiration and supportive love allowed this opportunity to manifest and come to fruition.
Secondly I want to acknowledge with deep gratitude His Holiness Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, whose
teachings and undying commitment to offer every individual the opportunity for a stress-free and
violence-free life, inspired and guided this study. Next my dissertation chair, Dr. Patricia Tobey,
whose masterful guidance and selfless sense of service to others, skillfully imparted her
knowledge and wisdom that inspired and nurtured me through this process which at times
seemed unfathomable. To my dissertation co-chair, Dr. Patrick Crispen, for his knowledge and
always welcomed sense of humor that helped lighten the load towards my study and Education
Doctoral success. I especially want to acknowledge and thank, Dr. James Gaskin, for voluntarily
providing the most practical tools on how to conduct a Structural Equation Model analysis.
Lastly I want to acknowledge the USC Rossier Staff and Faculty, specifically Dr. Hortensia
Amaro and Dr. David Black for offering their expertise in the field of mindfulness, as well as
fellow Educational Doctoral students of USC all for their continued support and encouragement
along this educational adventure for being an agent of change in the field of education.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements 2

List of Tables 5

List of Figures 6

Abstract 8

Chapter One: Overview of the Study 9

Background of the Problem 10

Statement of the Problem 14

Purpose of the Study 19

Significance of the Study 24

Limitations and Delimitations 24

Definition of Terms 27

Organization of the Study 32

Chapter Two: Literature Review 34

Mindfulness 39

Origin of Mindfulness 39

Application of Mindfulness in the West 41

Conceptualizing Mindfulness 43

Neuroscience Research on Mindfulness 45

Mindfulness Applied to Education 48

Mindfulness and Self-Regulation for Learning 50

Future Mindfulness Research Needed 55

Conceptualizing Self-Regulation 55

Social Cognitive Theory of Self-Regulation 56

Effects of Poor Management in Self-Regulation 66

Summary and Conclusion 68

Chapter Three: Methodology 71

Sample and Population 76

Instrumentation 79

Existing Data 79

Performance Data 79

Pre- and Post-Surveys 80

Data Collection 85

Collection of Pre-existing Data 86

Collection of Student Performance Data 86

Collecting the Pre-, Post-, and Follow-up Survey Data 86

Data Analysis 87

Chapter Four: Results 90

Descriptive Statistics & Demographic Variables 91

Analysis of Statistical Consistency 93

Mindfulness Reliability 93

Short Self-Regulation Questionnaire Reliability 94

Self-Efficacy Reliability 95

Analysis of Research Questions 96

Research Question 1 96

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Research Question 1a 101

Research Question 1b 104





Structural Equation Modeling 121

Preliminary Model 125

Exploratory Factor Analysis 129

EFA Model Revision 132

Confirmatory Factor Analysis 134

Structural Equation Model 138

Qualitative Results 141

Analysis of Open-Ended Questions 146

Self-Reported Focus in the Classroom 146

Self-Reported Goals Setting in the Classroom 148

Self-Reported Confidence in the Classroom 150

Self-Reported Learning in the Classroom 151

Summary 154

Chapter Five: Discussion 155

Summary of Findings 160








Limitations 171

Implications for Practice 172

Recommendations for Research 174

Conclusions 177

References 180

Appendix A: Mindful Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS) 202

Appendix B: Short Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SSRQ) 203

Appendix C: Self Efficacy Questionnaire (SE) 204

Appendix D: Pre, Post, and Follow-up Survey 206

Appendix E: Survey’s Open-Ended Questions. 212

Appendix F: Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation 213

Appendix G: USC IRB Approval Notice for Expedited Review 214

Appendix H: USC IRB Youth Assent-Parental-Permission Consent Form (English) 216

Appendix I: USC IRB Youth Assent-Parental-Permission Consent Form (Spanish) 219

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List of Tables
Table 1: Grouping Descriptive by Grade 91

Table 2: Mindfulness Pairwise Comparisons for Treatment group with
Bonferonni Adjustment 99

Table 3: Self-Regulation Pairwise Comparisons for Treatment group with

Table 4: Self-Efficacy Pairwise Comparisons for Treatment group with

Table 5: Mindfulness & Self-Regulation Pairwise Comparisons with

Table 6: Descriptive Statistics for Research Question 2 110

Table 7: Mindfulness & Self-Efficacy Pairwise Comparisons with

Table 8: Descriptive Statistics for Research Question 2a 115

Table 9: Mindfulness & GPA Pairwise Comparisons with Bonferonni Adjustment 119

Table 10: Descriptive Statistics for Research Question 2b 119

Table 11: Model Fit Metrics for CFA 135

Table 12: Convergent and Discriminant Validity 136

Table 13: Mediation Values for Structural Equation Model (SEM) 140

Table 14: Model Fit Metrics for Structural Equation Model 141

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List of Figures
Figure 1: Foundational Structural Equation Model Hypothesis 88

Figure 2: ANOVA Analysis Control Group Profile plot for MAAS Estimated Marginal Means
Over Three Different Time Periods (Pre, Post, Follow-Up) 100

Figure 3: ANOVA Analysis Treatment Group Profile Plot for MAAS Estimated Marginal
Means Over Three Different Time Periods (Pre, Post, Follow-Up) 100

Figure 4: ANOVA Analysis Control Group Profile Plot for SSRQ Estimated Marginal

Figure 5: ANOVA Analysis Treatment Group Profile Plot for SSRQ Estimated Marginal

Figure 6: ANOVA Analysis Control Group Profile plot for SE Estimated Marginal

Figure 7: ANOVA Analysis Treatment Group Profile Plot for SE Estimated Marginal

Figure 8: MANCOVA Analysis Profile Plot for MAAS Estimated Marginal Means
Over Two Different Time Periods (Post, Follow-Up) 111

Figure 9: MANCOVA Analysis Profile plot for SSRQ Estimated Marginal Means

Figure 10: MANCOVA Analysis Profile Plot for MAAS Estimated Marginal Means

Figure 11: MANCOVA Analysis Profile Plot For SE Estimated Marginal Means

Figure 12: MANCOVA Analysis Profile Plot For MAAS Estimated Marginal Means

Figure 13: MANCOVA Analysis Profile Plot For GPA Estimated Marginal Means

Figure 14: The Mindfulness Conceptual Relationship in its Most Basic Form 126

Figure 15: The Mindfulness Conceptual Relationship with Disturbance and Error Added 127

Figure 16: Preliminary Hypothesized model used for Exploratory Factor Analysis 129

Figure 17: Revised Hypothesized Model Used for Exploratory Factor Analysis 132

Figure 18: Revised Confirmatory Factor Analysis 137

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Figure 19: Structural Equation Model 138

Figure 20: Control and Treatment group bar chart for Question 56 143

Figure 21: Control and Treatment Group Bar Chart for Question 57 144

Figure 22: Control and Treatment Group Bar Chart for Question 58 144

Figure 23: Control and Treatment Group Bar Chart For Question 59 145

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Abstract
Because self-regulation has been documented as the main cause of K-12 students’ lack of college
and career readiness, mindfulness interventions that augment self-regulation, self-efficacy and
academic performance may offer support. This study evaluated the effects of the Youth
Empowerment Seminar (YES!), a biophysical workshop for adolescents that teaches breathing
practices, meditation and other mindful practices to regulate stress, emotions, and attentional
focus on self-regulation, self-efficacy and academic performance. Approximately 339 Middle
school students (11-14 years of age) in the United States participated in YES! during their
physical education classes and continued weekly follow-ups over a two month period. Students
in a control group attended their usual curriculum and were tested in parallel. ANOVA and
MANCOVA analysis was used to determine significant growth in the variables. The causal role
of YES! on students’ self-efficacy, self-regulation, and academic performance was studied using
path analysis procedures. Additionally four open-ended questions were used to gather rich data
for explaining the phenomena. ANOVA analysis determined that the YES! program had a
significant impact on mindfulness and self-regulation from post to 1-month follow-up after
appropriate cultivation of mindfulness. A SEM causal path best-fit analysis found a direct effect
of mindfulness on academic performance was significant only when the mediators, self-
regulation and self-efficacy, are absent but when the mediators are present the direct effect
becomes insignificant and the indirect effect from mindfulness through the mediators to
academic performance becomes significant. The results suggest that YES! can promote
mindfulness, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and academic performance that increased directly
with longevity of practices and subsequent increased cultivation of mindfulness.

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CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
The United States has adopted a national goal of being college- and career-ready by
2020 with the hopes of regaining its status as the world leader in college completion rate. The
United States led the world in college completion rate 50 years ago. Many research based
hypotheses have been generated to offer solutions for equipping our high school graduates to be
college- and career-ready with the abilities to apply key thinking and academic skills to a highly
evolved pupil-teacher relationship that highlights engagement, independent work, motivation,
and intellectual development (Conley, 2007; NRC, 2002; Roderick, Nagaoka, & Coca, 2009).
Conley (2007, 2008) has effectively managed to comprehensively capture the essence of college
readiness by distilling down the differing hypothesis into four facets: key cognitive strategies,
academic knowledge and skills, academic behaviors, and contextual skills and awareness.
Poor self-regulation has been documented as the main cause of K-12 students’ lack of
school readiness (Blair & Diamond, 2008). Consequently, the key facet that weaves throughout
the other three and hence holds foundational college readiness importance was academic
behavior. Conley (2008) posited “academic behaviors reflect a range of behaviors that reflect
greater student self-awareness, self-monitoring, and self-control of series of processes and
behaviors necessary for academic success.” (p. 16). Conley (2007) and Ritchhart (2002) stated
to acquire these skilled academic behaviors reside in the ability of an individual’s intellectual
character to self-regulate their own learning. Moreover self-regulatory factors have been found
to contribute independently to students’ academic attainment (Bandura et al., 1992).
Hence the key to obtaining our country’s college- and career-ready educational goal by
2020 lays in our students’ ability to self-regulate their own learning. However, one of the most
perplexing problems in education was how to effectively teach self-regulation skills and most

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importantly how to foster self-efficacy within the student to pursue self-regulation. This study
proposes that the answer to this paradox lie with the ancient practices for developing
mindfulness. Once mindfulness in a student has been cultivated, established and preserved, then
self-efficacy and the sub functions of self-regulation are activated, engaged, and maintained
within the student, which can be facilitated and developed further by the educator. The student’s
newfound ability to self-regulate their own learning due to cultivated mindfulness may provide
the essential foundation for achieving college- and career-readiness. This study explored the
impact of mindfulness on students’ self-efficacy and subsequent ability to self-regulate, and
academic performance to become college- and career-ready.
Background of the Problem
Led by President Barack Obama, the United States has adopted a national goal of being
college- and career-ready by 2020 with the hopes of the United States regaining its status as first
in the world for college completion (Foley et al., 2013). The Department of Education has
spearheaded this goal by granting 34 states and the District of Columbia waivers from the federal
education program, No Child Left Behind (NCLB), in exchange for adopting the college- and
career-ready standards, Common Core (U.S. Department of Education, 2013). Additionally,
forty-six states will vie for Department of Education funding through a program called ‘Race to
the Top’ that requires adoption of the Common Core State Standards in 2014-15, which are
designed for preparing college- and career-ready students (Foley et al., 2013). Subsequently,
congress has supported this national goal by passing the College Access Challenge Grant
Program with the intent to increase the number of low-income students who are ready for
college.

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Nonetheless the current reality of our country producing college- and career-ready youth
is grave. In 2006 the Gates Foundation commissioned a report conducted by Civic Enterprises
and Hart Research Associated entitled, ‘The Silent Epidemic; Perspectives of High School
Dropouts’ (Bridgeland, Dilulio, & Morison, 2006). In this report 69% of the 470 dropouts from
around the country stated that schools did not motivate them to work hard because classes were
boring and not relevant to their lives or career aspirations. As a result one of the leading causes
for students’ dropping out was feeling unmotivated and disengaged from high school, even
though 70% of the dropouts were confident they could have graduated if they had tried. Another
research study conducted by the National Research Council (2004) confirmed a similar weakness
in student motivation when upwards to 40% of high school students were disengaged from
learning, were inattentive, exerted little effort on schoolwork, and reported being bored in
school.
The lack of college-readiness was demonstrated by 41% of college students enrolled from
2005-2011 not finishing and obtaining a bachelor’s degree (National Center for Education
Statistics [NCES], 2013). In October 2012, 41.4% of the nation’s 16- to 24- year-olds were not
enrolled in high school or college. These alarming statistic point not only to ill prepared college-
ready youth, but also reflect the lack of career-readiness among high school dropouts. This lack
of career-readiness has been reflected with an unemployment rate of 30.1% for 16- to 19- year-
olds not enrolled in school (U.S Department of Labor, 2013).
These poor educational performance statistics places the United States 19th
out of the 23
countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in regards
to tertiary completion rates (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
[OECD], 2013). This completion rate gap is one of the most vexing problems in education

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today, considering the United States led the world in tertiary completion rates just 40 years ago
(Roderick et al., 2009).
Consequently, the United States Department of Education -- since taking on this major
six-year goal -- has defined the crux of the completion rate gap problem to lie with high school
students not being college- and career-ready. The U.S. Department of Education (2013) defines
college- and career-ready graduation requirements as “minimum high school graduation
expectations (e.g., completion of a minimum course of study, content mastery, proficiency on
college- and career-ready assessments, etc.) that include rigorous, robust, and well-rounded
curriculum aligned with college- and career-ready that cover a wide range of academic and
technical knowledge and skills to ensure that students leave high school ready for college and
careers.” (p. 1)
Many research based hypotheses have been generated to offer solutions for equipping our
high school graduates to be college- and career-ready with the abilities to apply key thinking and
academic skills to a highly evolved pupil-teacher relationship that highlights engagement,
independent work, motivation, and intellectual development (Conley, 2007; NRC, 2002;
Roderick et al., 2009). Conley (2007, 2008) has effectively managed to comprehensively
capture the essence of college-readiness by distilling down the differing hypothesis into four
facets: key cognitive strategies, academic knowledge and skills, academic behaviors, and
contextual skills and awareness.
Poor self-regulation has been documented as the main cause of K-12 students’ lack of
school readiness (Blair & Diamond, 2008). Moreover the need for self-regulation is paramount,
as self-regulation has been found to independently effect academic attainment (Bandura et al.,
1992). Consequently, the key facets that weave throughout the other three and hence hold

13

foundational college-readiness importance are academic behaviors which self-regulation is part
of. Academic behaviors are necessary for academic success and reflect greater student self-
awareness, self-monitoring, and self-control Conley (2008). Therefore, these skilled behaviors
reside in the ability of an individual’s intellectual character to self-regulate their own learning
(Conley, 2007; Ritchhart, 2002).
American educational leaders since the founding of our country have stressed the
importance of self-regulation as an individual’s ability to assume personal responsibility and
control of their own acquisition of knowledge and skill, considering one of education’s major
functions was the development of life-long learning skills (Zimmerman, 1990, 2002). Benjamin
Franklin applied self-regulation of learning when he taught himself to write by setting learning
goals and modeling, claiming the process improved his arrangement of thoughts. Contemporary
national leaders have reaffirmed the importance of personal initiative, an aspect of self-
regulation, such as Gardner (1963), former Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, who
suggested that “the ultimate goal of the education system is shift to the individual the burden of
pursuing his own education” (Zimmerman, 1990, p21). And former U.S. Secretary of Education
from 1981 to 1985, Terrel H. Bell (2014), stated “there are three things to emphasize in teaching:
The first is motivation, the second is motivation, and the third is (you guessed it) motivation."
(para. 1).
Today in education the significance of effective self-regulation for producing academic
success is emphasized as a foundational core element. For example, Lounsbury, Fisher, Levy,
and Welsh (2009) found that self-regulation was among the character strengths most associated
with academic achievement in college students. According to Lassiter (2011), one of the most
powerful habits of a college-ready and self-regulating student is the metacognitive ability to

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effectively analyze what he or she has to do and to do it automatically. Conversely, poor self-
regulation has been documented as the main cause for K-12 students’ lack of school readiness
(Blair & Diamond, 2008). Lastly Bandura et al. (1992) found that self-regulatory factors
independently affect academic attainment.
Hence the key to obtaining our country’s college- and career-ready educational goal by
2020 lays in our students’ ability to self-regulate their own learning. However, one of the oldest
and most perplexing problems in education is how to teach independent self-regulation within
the student. The key teachings that inspire a student to self-regulate are truly a mystery. This
study hoped to show how developing the ancient art of mindfulness enhanced self-efficacy and
self-regulation. And once mindfulness in a student has been established and maintained, then sub
functions of self-regulation are sparked within the student that can be facilitated and developed
by the educator. The student’s newfound ability to self-regulate their own learning due to
developed mindfulness may provide the essential foundation for achieving college- and career-
readiness. This study explored the benefits of mindfulness on students’ self-efficacy and
subsequent ability to self-regulate learning and achieves college- and career-readiness.
Statement of the Problem
The United States has established a goal to move from 18th to 1st in the world for college
completion rates by 2020 (Foley et al., 2013). This goal requires immense changes in education,
not only with the system but also teachers and most importantly our students. But, can our
students accomplish this? Do they have the self-efficacy or belief in themselves and the ability
to self-regulate and think about how they learn, considering self-regulatory factors are essential
to obtain academic achievement (Bandura et al., 1992). Moreover poor self-regulation has been
documented as the main cause of K-12 students’ lack of school readiness (Blair & Diamond,

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2008). Therefore the challenge becomes how do schools activate and engage self-efficacy and
self-regulation for learning in our students? This study posited a solution for rekindling self-
regulation, self-efficacy, and subsequently academic performance that is as old as humankind
itself? A solution that has proven to ignite the natural ability to observe one’s own mind and
emotions without reacting impulsively but with greater capacity to see relationships between
thoughts, feelings, and actions. This solution can enable one to dispassionately discern the
meaning and causes of experience and behavior through self-regulation of attention,
metacognition, and self-efficacy (Bhatia, Kumar, Kumar, Pandey, & Kochupillai, 2003; Bishop
et al., 2004; Flavell, 1979; Caldwell et al., 2010; Sutherland; 2014). The solution proposed by
this study is the implementation of mindfulness practices.
Mankind has practiced mindfulness for thousands of years and the essence of
mindfulness has been a core element of many eastern philosophies’ such as Buddhism, Taoism,
and Hinduism. It’s true origin is still a mystery; however, many humanitarian leaders claim its
presence has always been with us. Consider His Holiness Ravi Shankar, international
humanitarian and founder of the International Association for Human Values (IAHV, 2015)
whose programs have touched over 370 million people in 152 countries around the world to
reduce stress and develop leaders so that human values can flourish, and creator of this study’s
intervention—Youth Empowerment Seminar (YES!) and Sudarshan Kriya (SKY Breath) declared
mindfulness is when you are waiting for something to happen, instead of catching to the
happening, you put your attention into the waiting (Shankar, 2010).
Today, mindfulness is a broad concept with varying definitions. For the purpose of this
paper, Bishop and western mindfulness experts (2004) collaborated and determined an
operational definition of mindfulness, which is a nonelaborative, non-judgmental, present-

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centered awareness in which each thought, feeling, or sensation that arises in the attentional field
is acknowledged and accepted as it is. Bishop et al. (2004) further posited the attentional field,
which involves sustained attention, attention switching, and the inhibition of elaborative
processing, or worry-free consciousness, is the self-regulation of attention. In other words,
mindfulness brings the cognizant skill about one’s cognition and thus a metacognitive skill
(Flavell, 1979). Simply put, mindfulness is the ability of an individual to maintain a non-
judgmental, clearful awareness of one’s own thoughts, feelings, and emotions through self-
regulation of attention and metacognition. Moreover, Williams and Kabat-Zinn (2011) posit that
mindfulness practice can resolve the problematic challenge of self-regulation and self-efficacy
by un-clouding the already awakened and inherently wise mind filled with self-regulation
potential. The prevalent common theme defined for mindfulness is its similarity to a skill that
can be cultivated with practice (Bishop et al., 2004; Hinterberger, Kohls, Kamei, Feilding, &
Walach, 2011; Shapiro, Oman, Thoresen, Plante, & Flinders, 2008; Siegel, 2007).
A Vietnamese monk named, Thich Nhat Hanh, introduced mindfulness to the western
hemisphere first to Martin Luther King Jr. and later John Kabat-Zinn, who successfully applied
mindfulness to promote psychological health and well-being on a wide-scale through the medical
field as an effective therapeutically practice to promote psychological health and well-being
(Burke, 2009). The practices were found to decrease stress, anxiety, and depression (Shapiro et
al., 2008). Furthermore, the ability to regulate emotional reactions and cultivate a positive
psychological state was of particular interest (Shapiro et al.).
Intrigued by the phenomena of mindfulness practices, researchers began to analyze
mindfulness’s inner-workings. They uncovered a cognitive function enabled through
mindfulness that allowed a comprehension to be made of various objects. This cognitive ability

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became known as a central aspect of mindfulness as stated by Dreyfus (2011). Hence,
mindfulness became defined as the ability to modulate one’s attention, correcting the mind when
it wanders and bringing it back to the object. Therefore, a foundational structural pattern of self-
regulation was identified in clear comprehension and nonjudgmental ability within a framework
of a cognitive dimension (Bishop et al., 2004). This opened the door into the relationship
between cognition and mindfulness and subsequently begged for a more analytical observation
of the association and potential effect on self-regulation.
Hence, research turned towards neuroscience, which had begun to unlock the significant
neurological effects of mindfulness on learning and self-regulation. First, mindfulness
strengthened one’s ability to learn by establishing the rest-principle, which enhanced the strength
of synaptic connection which in-turn progressed and strengthened learning. Secondly,
mindfulness practice increase growth in the areas of the brain that direct attention, conduct
concept of self, and regulate stress. Lastly, neuroscience has detected the ability of mindfulness
to directly affect two of the three core elements of self-regulation as defined by Bandura (1991)--
judgment and reactivity. Subsequently this cultivates the non-reactivity through non-judgmental
brain functioning and creates a formative field for affective self-regulation to transpire.
The application of mindfulness to the education field has generated significant positive
evidence towards the general educational benefits of mindfulness for growth, development, and
positive functioning of learners (Howell & Buro, 2011; Hyland, 2009; Langer, 2009; Wisner,
Jones, & Gwin, 2010). These positive educational results on the implementation of mindfulness
in the classroom suggested the logical conclusion for incorporating mindfulness in all education
levels (Hyland, 2009). Moreover, the intent of this study was to expand the mindfulness

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envelope further into its effects on the mystery of self-regulation and its internal factor, self-
efficacy in the realm of educational learning.
The relationship between mindfulness and students’ self-regulation for learning has been
a relatively unexplored phenomena to date. In this review only four articles were found from a
multitude of mindfulness articles reviewed that address this relationship. Each study
implemented different mindfulness practices but all of them found a positive correlation between
mindfulness practices and increased self-regulation (Caldwell, Harrison, Adams, Quin, &
Greeson, 2010; Howell & Buro, 2011; Sibinga, Perry-Parrish, Chung, Johnson, Smith, & Ellen,
2012; Wisner et al., 2010). As a result of the limited promising findings and in hope to address
the nation’s educational challenge of poor self-regulation, this study analyzed the effects of
mindfulness on self-regulation and its internal factor of self-efficacy in student’s learning.
There are many varying definitions of self-regulation; however, Albert Bandura (1991)
posited what many consider today to be the cornerstone theory of self-regulation, entitled social
cognitive theory of self-regulation, (SCTSR) which Bandura et al. (1992) found contributed
independently to students’ academic attainment. For the purpose of this paper, SCTSR was the
theoretical concept driving the study’s analysis. SCTSR operates through three principal sub
functions: self-monitoring; judgmental; and self-reactive which are developed for self-directed
change (Bandura, 1986). The central concept driving the utilization of these three sub-functions
are self-efficacy. Each subcomponent of SCTSR can be positively associated to aspects of
mindfulness. These intrinsic relationships were explored through the existing literature available
on mindfulness and SCTSR.
Considering research on mindfulness practices and self-regulation effects are extremely
limited with only four studies to date, a gap in research was detected. Subsequently this gap in

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research was the grounds for this study. This paper proposed that providing the intrinsic links
between mindfulness, self-regulation, and self-efficacy through existing literature identified the
potential of developing mindfulness for more effective learning through abating and managing
the negative tendencies towards education that reside in many of our youth today. Additionally,
a positive correlation of mindfulness, self-regulation, and self-efficacy in education can forge a
new path for educational success in preparing college- and career-ready students by 2020.
Purpose of the Study
There have been substantial studies of the application of mindfulness in education with
respect to emotional self-regulation, building stress resilience, and building adaptive
interpersonal capabilities (Davidson & Kabat-Zinn, 2004; Dreyfus, 2011; Howell & Buro, 2011;
Hyland, 2009; Langer, 2009; Siegel, 2007; Wisner et al., 2010). However, there has been little
research -- if any -- with respect to the phenomenon of mindfulness’ influence on self-regulation
and it’ use in learning for academic achievement both inside and outside of the classroom.
Sibinga et al. (2012) stated that there is a need for additional research to explore the impact of
mindfulness on self-regulation, the duration of the effect, and related social, psychological, and
behavioral outcomes.
As a result, this study attempted to divulge the benefits of mindfulness towards self-
regulation and its internal factor, self-efficacy, towards academic attainment in high school
students. Bandura et al., (1992) stated self-regulatory factors contributed independently to
students’ academic attainment, which stress the importance of self-regulation. Bandura (1991)
further emphasizes the importance of self-regulatory systems as the core of causal processes,
determining the effects of external influences on an individual and providing the foundation for
purposeful action or forethought. Moreover Bandura et al. identified the self-regulation structure

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was operated through a set of three psychological sub functions: self-monitoring; judgmental;
and self-reactive which are developed for self-directed change (Bandura, 1986). The functioning
of this self-regulatory structure or system was centrally dependent on the self-efficacy
mechanism (Bandura, 1991). Self-efficacy is the belief an individual has about their capability
of appropriate self-functioning within internal and external situations (Bandura, 1991) -- simply
put, its one’s beliefs about their ability to do the task (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2003).
Additionally as stated by Bandura (1997) a learner’s motivation is essential for self-regulation
success. Motivation can be demonstrated through commitment to goals, self-expectant
outcomes, self-efficacy beliefs, and two subcomponents of self-regulation; self-monitoring, and
self-reactive states. Thus, utilizing the lens of social-cognitive theory of self-regulation helped
explain the phenomena of increased self-regulation usage in learning when a developed
mindfulness state is present and maintained.
The mindfulness influences on self-regulation as a phenomenon can be mutually
understood and experienced. Consequently, a concurrent mixed methods research design using
quantitative and qualitative approaches was used to depict the essential or invariant structure of
the mindful self-regulatory, self-efficacious and academic performance experience (Merriam,
2009; Creswell, 2013). Data was collected to inductively build towards the phenomenon and
understand how the phenomenon functions can be replicated in the future (Merriam, 2009). The
methods used are student self-reporting on-line surveys, progress report card grades,
demographic information (quantitative) and self-reporting on open-ended questions (qualitative)
to better understand the research questions. The research utilized quantitative methods along
with structural equation modeling (SEM) and qualitative methods to enhance the interpretation

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of results and provide a triangulated, multiple-perspective review of latent or un-measurable
variables.
The quantitative design allowed for comparisons to be made between several variables
such as independent, dependent, mediating, moderating, or control variables (Creswell, 2013).
The independent variable was the mindful intervention YES! to be discussed later in this study.
The dependent variables that depend on the independent variable are self-efficacy, self-
regulation, and academic performance via grade point average (GPA). The intervening and
moderating variables were determined as the intervention and surveys were applied and the
structural equation model implemented. The quantitative data analyzed was from pre-existing
student data, current student performance data, and a third set of data gathered from pre and post
mindfulness training surveys using a Likert scale based on mindfulness, self-regulation, and self-
efficacy measures.
Student self-reporting pre- and post-surveys were used to describe, explain, and compare
their knowledge, feelings, values, and behaviors through self-administered questionnaires to help
understand the effectiveness of mindfulness on self-regulation and self-efficacy in learning
(Fink, 2009). Students’ self-regulation was assessed through a pre- and post-mindfulness
training survey using the Short Self-Regulation Questionnaire developed by Brown, Miller, &
Lawendowski (1999) and approved by the National Institute of Health. To measure self-
efficacy, the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire, (MSLQ) self-efficacy scale was
used. The self-efficacy scale is a self-appraisal of one’s ability to master a task. Self-efficacy
includes judgments about one’s ability to accomplish a task as well as one’s confidence in one’s
skills to perform that task. The self-efficacy scale designed by Pintrich and DeGroot (1990)
demonstrated an internal consistency of Alpha .89 and consisted of nine items regarding

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perceived competence and confidence in performance of class work. The multivariate test for
self-efficacy was significant.
The final instrument used in the surveys to measure mindfulness was the Mindful
Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS), which assessed individual differences in the frequency of
mindful states over time (Brown and Ryan, 2003). The psychometric validity of MAAS was
verified by numerous studies (Black, Sussman, Johnson, & Milam, 2013; Johnson, Wiebe, &
Morera, 2013; Ledesma, Garcia, & Poo, 2014; MacKillop & Anderson, 2007; Mantzios, Wilson,
& Kyriaki, 2013; Morgan, Masuda, & Anderson, 2013).
The essential research questions formulated were based on the statement of the problem
and previously identified knowledge gaps in current research. The answers to the research
questions were collected from pre-existing data, performance data, and on-line survey
administered to all participating students. The research questions were as follows:
1. Was there a significant difference in students’ maturation levels of mindfulness
between the treatment and control groups over the duration of the study?
1a. Was there a significant difference in students’ maturation levels of self-
regulation between the treatment and control groups over the duration of the
study?
1b. Was there a significant difference in students’ maturation levels of self-
efficacy between the treatment and control groups over the duration of the study?
2. Was there a difference in the effect of mindfulness on self-regulation between
treatment and control groups while controlling for entry levels of self-regulation and
mindfulness?
2a. Was there a difference in the effect of mindfulness on self-efficacy between

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treatment and control groups while controlling for entry levels of self-efficacy and
mindfulness?
2b. Was there a difference in the effect of mindfulness on academic performance,
GPA, between treatment and control groups while controlling for entry levels of
academic performance, GPA, and mindfulness?
3. Were student’s level of mindfulness relative to the degree of impact on self-
regulation, self-efficacy and do those variables significantly impact student academic
performance?
The hypothesis was generated from these research questions and based on findings from
previously conducted research on the topic. Consequently, the hypothesis stated the application
of the mindfulness development program, YES!, will have a significant positive impact on
students’ self-regulation that is centrally dependent on self-efficacy, which in-turn will
significantly increase academic performance or GPA. The theoretical lens used to analyze the
hypothesis and research questions is the self-cognitive theory of self-regulation.
Social-cognitive theory of self-regulation offers insights into the phenomena not
previously considered. For instance why learners apply modeled behaviors or skills for learning
can be determined by perceived self-efficacy and self-regulation (Bandura, 2001). Social
cognitive theory gives sideline attention to these factors; however, today these concepts are
prominent and influential in social cognitive theory and in understanding learning. Since the
aspect of self-regulation in educational learning was this study’s central context, social cognitive
theory of self-regulation was used for a more in depth and holistic understanding of self-
regulation and how mindfulness may have affected it.

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Significance of the Study
The significance of this study hoped to reveal the positive correlation between a mindful
method practice YES! on students’ self-efficacy and self-regulated learning to increase academic
performance in preparing to be college- and career-ready students. More specifically this study
determined what sub functions of self-regulated learning are most positively affected by
mindfulness practices and their subsequent increase in academic performance. It was hoped that
a story emerged of students who developed a higher level of sustained mindfulness subsequently
increased their academic performance or GPA by increasing their self-efficacy and self-
regulation in the academic classroom. Additionally it was hoped this study supported Shapiro,
Brown, and Astin, (2011) findings that mindful education awareness can build stress resilience
and adaptive interpersonal capabilities for more effective learning through self-regulation.
The goal of this study was to find a strong positive correlation between a mindful method
practice that increased self-efficacy and self-regulated learning that in turn increased academic
performance, GPA, with an overall effect of creating better-prepared college- and career-ready
students. This positive relationship identified with the implementation of mindfulness in the
education setting hopefully implores educators, administrators, and policy-makers to embrace
and implement the mindfulness educational approach for systemically improving students’ self-
regulation to achieve our national educational goal to lead the world in college completion rates
by 2020.
Limitations and Delimitations
The study possessed limitation and delimitations that may affect or restrict the method
and analysis of research data. The limitations pointed to potential weaknesses that were unable
to be controlled or minimized in the study that may have threatened internal validity. There were

25

three scopes of limitations. The first scope of limitations involved the direct relationships of the
variables. Ruling out competing conceptualizations of inter-relationships between mindfulness
and self-regulation as well as self-efficacy was the first. Additional research is needed to rule
potential competing conceptualizations. The second limitation identified the longitudinal effect
of a mindful state on self-regulation, self-efficacy, and academic performance. Additionally
future research should be structured with greater cross-fertilization of research between
achievement related self-efficacy and self-regulation to positive psychology.
The second scope of limitations surrounded the methodological procedures for data
collection and the selection of sample population. First, the use of self-report surveys was based
from measuring mediators and moderators, which limited accuracy due to self-reporting.
Moreover, the use of non - self-reporting measures to verify validity of this self-reporting study
may have introduced a bias due to self-reporting and socially desirable answers that may have
inflated the associations between mindfulness and self-regulation as well as self-efficacy.
Secondly, a more diverse population would have been preferable to determine generalizations
among cultural groups; however, the study cannot be generalized for all middle school students
as the study was bounded due to a limited sample size of students from one school. Third, a
quasi-experimental design limited the study as not all subjects were randomly designed. Lastly,
a longitudinal academic performance corresponding to the development of mindfulness on self-
regulation and self-efficacy may provide more insight to self-efficacy and self-regulation’s
benefits.
The third scope of limitations involves the Structural Equation Model SEM). A path
confirmatory factor model of a path diagram was used to measure relationships between
observed values and latent values and determine best goodness of fit. The limitations with SEM

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are; the problem of omitted variables, the importance of lower-order model components, and
potential limitations of models judged to be well fitting (Tomarken & Waller, 2005).
The delimitations of the study were the characteristics that limit the scope and define the
boundaries. Studying the benefits of self-efficacy and self-regulation due to mindfulness was
chosen over studying only intrinsic motivational effects because self-regulation encompasses the
latter in addition to identifying other necessary self-regulatory skills. Moreover, self-regulation
was a key foundational element in the four pillars of college and career readiness (Conley, 2007
& 2008). Additionally, self-regulation was chosen due to the early success of identifying a
positive correlation between mindfulness and positive emotional regulation. This positive
emotional regulation plays an instrumental role in self-regulation and points to potential gain in
the latter.
Social cognitive theory of self-regulation, SCTSR was chosen to analyze the structure
and mechanisms of self-regulation including self-efficacy through reciprocal interactions of
internal factors, behaviors, and environmental conditions which continuously change. Thus,
SCTSR had the potential to identify shifts in self-regulation as states of environmental influences
affecting mindfulness, while other theories of self-regulation are limited to internal factors only.
Consequently, SCTSR provided the best theoretical framework to develop the research questions
and analyze the data through a lens of dynamic internal and external factors and their subsequent
effects.
In terms of sample population chosen, the middle school students were chosen over
primary students because their level of maturity was more suited for capturing a higher validity
of data responses. The analysis of data used triangulation, which can establish broad numeric
trends from quantitative research and identify the detail of qualitative research (Creswell, 2013).

27

The delimitations of the methodological procedures helped to narrow the scope and identify the
effects of the study more precisely.
Lastly the SEM’s delimitations allowed for latent variables growth to be modeled through
multi-level SEM path models. Additionally SEM offered the approaches for dealing with
missing data with violations of normality assumptions (Tomarken & Waller, 2005).
Definition of Terms
Academic Knowledge and Skills
Academic knowledge and skills consist of big ideas, key concepts and vocabulary that
create the structure of the various disciplines and subjects (Conley, 2008)
Attentional field
The attentional field is the ability of the mind to remain focused and unified on its object
(Dreyfus, 2011)
AVID
AVID, Advancement Via Individual Determination, is a global nonprofit organization
dedicated to closing the achievement gap by preparing all students for college and other
postsecondary opportunities. Established more than 30 years ago with one teacher in one
classroom, AVID today impacts more than 800,000 students in 44 states and 16 other
countries/territories. AVID trains educators to use proven practices in order to prepare students
for success in high school, college, and a career, especially students traditionally
underrepresented in higher education (AVID, 2015)
Clear Comprehension
A form of discrimination (prajna, panna) closely connected to mindfulness that enables
the mind to observe, comprehend and evaluate what needs to be evaluated. It is seen as the

28

central element of the practice of mindfulness for it provides the comprehension deriving from
paying close attention to experience. (Dreyfus, 2011)
College- and Career-Ready
College- and career-readiness is the minimum high school graduation expectations (e.g.,
completion of a minimum course of study, content mastery, proficiency on college- and career-
ready assessments, etc.) that include rigorous, robust, and well-rounded curriculum aligned with
college- and career-ready that cover a wide range of academic and technical knowledge and
skills to ensure that students leave high school ready for college and careers. (USDOE, 2013)
College Ready
College-readiness can be defined as the level of preparation a student needs in order to
enroll and succeed-without remediation-in a credit-bearing general education course at a post-
secondary institution that offers a baccalaureate program. (Conley, 2007)
Dispassion
A component of mindfulness where one observes thoughts and feelings as events in the
mind, without over-identifying with them and reacting to them in an automatic, habitual pattern
of reactivity (Bishop et al., 2004).
Discriminating Wisdom
Discriminating wisdom is the ability to discriminate skillful actions from unskillful
actions (Salzberg & Goldstein, 2001).
Emotional Regulation
Emotion regulation refers to the process by which individuals influence which emotions
they have, when they have them, and how they experience these emotions. (Gross, 1998)

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Metacognition
Metacognition construct entails an individual's ability to manage and monitor the input,
storage, search and retrieval of the contents of his own memory. It is further explained as any
kind of cognitive transaction with your environment, where a variety of information processing
activities may go on. It is the active monitoring, regulation and, orchestration of these processes
in relation to the cognitive objects or data referenced with respect to some concrete goal or
objective attainment (Flavell, 1971, 1976).
Mindfulness
A non-elaborative, non-judgmental, present-centered awareness in which each thought,
feeling, or sensation that arises in the attentional field is acknowledged and accepted as it is.
Bishop and colleagues (2004) further posit the attentional field, which involves sustained
attention, attention switching, and the inhibition of elaborative processing, or worry-free
consciousness, is the self-regulation of attention. In other words, mindfulness brings the skill of
cognition about one’s cognition and in this context can be considered a metacognitive skill
(Flavell, 1979). Simply put, mindfulness is the ability of an individual to maintain a non-
judgmental, clearful awareness of one’s own thoughts, feelings, and emotions through self-
regulation of attention and metacognition (Bishop et al., 2004). The prevalent common theme
defined in mindfulness is its similarity to a skill that can be cultivated with practice (Bishop et
al., 2004; Shapiro et al., 2008; Hinterberger et al., 2011; Siegel, 2007)
Mindfulness Meditation
Mindfulness meditation is the meditative act of cultivating awareness, acceptance, non-
judgment, and attention to the present moment (Hinterberger et al., 2011).

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Mindfulness Practice
Any practice that develops a mindfulness state or consciousness that can be seen to
consist of the important dimensions of self-regulation of attention and certain orientation to
experience (Siegel, 2007). Furthermore, mindfulness practices are programs of training for
reducing cognitive vulnerability to reactive modes of mind that may otherwise heighten stress
(Bishop et al., 2004)
Meditation
Meditation is a precise technique for resting the mind and attaining a state of
consciousness that is totally different from the normal waking state. Meditation is uplifting the
energy and mind and spreading it outward (Rama, 2013; Shankar, 2014)
In the educational field, the practice of meditation opens up the claustrophobic world of our
conditioning, revealing an array of options and allowing an individual to see clearly what’s going
on in their own mind and activating discriminating wisdom (Salzberg & Goldstein, 2001).
Non-Elaborative awareness
A mindfulness component that involves the ability to de-link from elaborative thought
streams about one’s experience and its origins, implications, and associations as they arise.
(Bishop et al., 2004)
Present-Centered Awareness
A mindfulness component that involves adopting a particular orientation toward one’s
experiences in the present moment. This orientation towards the present moment is
characterized by curiosity, openness, and acceptance (Bishop et al., 2004).

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Self-Regulation of Attention
A foundational component of mindfulness, where one brings awareness to a current
experience through observing and attending to the changing field of thoughts, feelings, and
sensations from moment to moment by regulating the focus of attention. This state leads to a
feeling of being very alert to what is occurring in the here-and-now (Bishop et al., 2004).
SKY Breath (Sudarshan Kriya)
Sudarshan Kriya® is a powerful yet simple rhythmic breathing technique that
incorporates specific natural rhythms of the breath, harmonizing the body, mind and emotions.
The technique eliminates stress, fatigue and negative emotions such as anger, frustration and
depression, leaving the mind calm, focused and the body energized, completely relaxed. Breath
is the main source of prana – the vital life-force energy. Prana is the very basis of health and
well-being for both, the body and mind. When the prana is high, one feels healthy, alert and
energetic. Sudarshan Kriya elevates the prana by flushing out more than 90% toxins and
accumulated stress, every day. Sudarshan Kriya harmonizes the rhythms of the body, mind and
emotions with those of Nature. Being in sync, we experience better health and joy, which in turn
brings harmony in our activities and relationships. Sudarshan Kriya facilitates physical, mental,
emotional and social well-being and is an integral part of the IAHV and YES! programs.
Sudarshan Kriya practitioners have reported better immunity, increased stamina and sustained
high-energy levels (Shankar, 2015)
Youth Empowerment Seminar (YES!)
The International Association for Human Values (IAHV) offers numerous programs to
millions of people from over 150 countries around the world for reducing stress and developing
leaders so that human values can flourish. The IAHV programs touch people in corporations,

32

veterans, disaster and trauma relief, women’s empowerment, prisoners, and schools (IAHV,
2015). Their program YES! for Schools is dedicated to providing youth with a healthy body, a
healthy mind and a healthy lifestyle by offering youth practical tools and life skills to manage
stress and emotions through meditation, breathing techniques, and yoga through the YES!
program. Two particular mindful techniques, SKY breath and focus meditation, have had
significant neurological results and will be discussed later. The experiential curriculum includes
stretching and exercise, targeted breathing techniques, life skills in conflict resolution, and life
lessons on human values such as responsibility, respect, friendliness, kindness and cooperation.
As students learn how to manage their stress in a healthy way, they exhibit greater confidence
and motivation to succeed in school and make healthy choices when faced with life’s challenges
(YES! for Schools, 2014).
Well-being
The indirect association between mindfulness and achievement-related self-regulation,
which facilitates self-regulation of behavior and thereby promotes well-being. (Howell & Buro,
2011).
Organization of the Study
Chapter 1 of the study has presented an introduction, the background of the problem, the
statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the research questions answered, the
hypotheses, the significance of the study, a brief description of the methodology, the
assumptions, limitations, delimitations, and the definitions of terms.
Chapter 2 was a review of relevant literature that provides the intrinsic links between
mindfulness and self-regulation as well as self-efficacy and identifies the potential of developing
mindfulness for more effective self-regulated learning to become college- and career-ready high

33

school graduates. The chapter addresses the following topics: origin of mindfulness; application
of mindfulness in the west; conceptualizing mindfulness; neuroscience research on mindfulness;
mindfulness applied to education; mindfulness and self-regulation for learning; and future
mindfulness research needed. The self-cognitive theory of self-regulation, SCTSR, was the
theoretical lens applied to the study to study the benefits of mindfulness through its sub
functions.
Chapter 3 presented the methodology used in this study and explains how the initial
gathering of the quantitative data helped shape the qualitative interview questions making the
study more significant. The chapter also explained population and sampling procedure, the
instruments and their selection or development, as well as, information on validity and reliability.
Each of these sections concludes with a rationale, including strengths and limitations of the
design elements. The chapter goes on to describe the procedures for the mixed methods data
collection and the plan for data analysis.
Chapter 4 presented the results of the study. Chapter 5 discussed and analyzed the results,
culminating in conclusions and recommendations.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

Today the main cause for students’ lack of school readiness is poor self-regulation in the
classroom (Blair & Diamond, 2008). Given that emotional regulation is a necessary element in
the process of self-regulation as stated by Howell and Buro (2011), and the significant
emergence of mindfulness and its emotional regulation benefits have been significantly
documented; moreover, it is especially important to consider the effects of mindfulness on
students’ ability to self-regulate their own learning (Broderick and Metz, 2009; Khalsa, Hickey-
Schultz, Cohen, Steiner, & Cope, 2012; Mendelson, 2010; Metz, Frank, Reibel, Cantrell,
Sanders, & Broderick, 2013; Schonert-Reichl & Lawlor 2010; Wisner, 2013; Wisner et al., 2010)
To that end, this chapter explores the comprehensive preexisting literature related to the canon of
research on both mindfulness, self-regulation, and self-efficacy while highlighting self-regulation
and self-efficacy’s intrinsic relation to and influence of mindfulness.
The United States has established a goal to move from 18th to 1st in the world for college
completion rates by 2020 (Foley et al., 2013). This goal requires immense changes in education,
not only with the system but also teachers and most importantly our students. But, can our
students accomplish this? Do they have the self-efficacy or belief in themselves and the ability
to self-regulate and think about how they learn, considering poor self-regulation has been
documented as the main cause of K-12 students’ lack of school readiness (Blair & Diamond,
2008)? Therefore the challenge becomes how do schools activate, foster, and engage self-
regulation and self-efficacy for learning in our students? This study posited a solution for
rekindling self-efficacy and self-regulation that is as old as humankind itself? A solution that has
proven to ignite the natural ability to observe one’s own mind and emotions without reacting
impulsively but with greater capacity to see relationships between thoughts, feelings, and actions

35

and to dispassionately discern the meaning and causes of experience and behavior through self-
regulation of attention and metacognition (Bishop, et al., 2004; Flavell, 1979). This study
proposed mindfulness as that solution.
Mankind has practiced mindfulness for thousands of years and has been a core element of
many eastern philosophies’ such as Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism. Its true origin was still a
mystery; however, many humanitarian leaders have claimed its presence has always been with
us. Consider His Holiness Sri Sri Ravi Shankar (2010), international humanitarian and spiritual
leader, stated mindfulness is when you are waiting for something to happen, instead of catching
to the happening, you put your attention into the waiting.
Today, mindfulness is a broad concept with varying definitions. For the purpose of this
paper, Bishop and western mindfulness experts (2004) collaborated and determined an
operational definition of mindfulness, which was a nonelaborative, non-judgmental, present-
centered awareness in which each thought, feeling, or sensation that arises in the attentional field
was acknowledged and accepted as it was. Bishop and colleagues (2004) further posited the
attentional field, which involves sustained attention, attention switching, and the inhibition of
elaborative processing, or worry-free consciousness, was the self-regulation of attention. In
other words, mindfulness brings the skill of cognition about one’s cognition and in this context
can be considered a metacognitive skill (Flavell, 1979). Simply put, mindfulness is the ability of
an individual to maintain a non-judgmental, clearful awareness of one’s own thoughts, feelings,
and emotions through self-regulation of attention and metacognition.
A Vietnamese monk named, Thich Nhat Hanh, introduced mindfulness to the western
hemisphere first to Martin Luther King Jr. and later John Kabat-Zinn, who successfully applied
mindfulness to promote psychological health and well-being on a wide-scale through the medical

36

field as an effective therapeutically practice to promote psychological health and well-being
(Burke, 2009). The practices were found to decrease stress, anxiety, and depression (Shapiro et
al., 2008). Furthermore, the ability to regulate emotional reactions and cultivate a positive
psychological state was of particular interest (Shapiro et al., 2008). The benefits of the practice
resulted in further explorative research, which gave birth to mindful based stress reduction
(MBSR) and later mindful based cognitive therapy (MBCT). Today these therapies are widely
used to reduce psychological morbidity associated with chronic illness and to treat emotional and
behavioral disorders (1998).
Intrigued by the phenomenal success of mindfulness practices, researchers began to
analyze its inner-workings. They uncovered a cognitive function enabled through mindfulness
that allowed a comprehension to be made of various objects. This cognitive ability became
known as a central aspect of mindfulness as stated by Dreyfus (2011). Hence, mindfulness
became defined as the ability to modulate one’s attention, correcting the mind when it wanders
and bringing it back to the object. Moreover, a foundational structural pattern of self-regulation
was identified in clear comprehension and nonjudgmental ability within a framework of a
cognitive dimension (Bishop et al., 2004; Bandura, 1991). This opened the door into the
relationship between cognition and mindfulness and subsequently begged for a more analytical
observation of the association and potential effect on self-regulation and its internal factor, self-
efficacy.
Neuroscience has begun to unlock the significant neurological effects of mindfulness on
learning and self-regulation. First, the development of mindfulness laid a neurological positive
foundation by providing the rest principle (Hinterberger et.al, 2011, Taylor et.al, 2013).
According to Sinclair (2014), during the rest principle the synaptic connections get stronger

37

when they are rested right after use. Using the synapse over and over again without rest can
cause extinction, amnesia or reverse learning. By producing a restful state with mindfulness
practices and provided the synaptic connection was not overused, the synapse can reach a new
level of strength, higher than before. Consequently, learning can become stronger and progress,
rather than digress, which was the case when neurological connections are weakened, taxed or
unrested (Sinclair, 2014). Hence, the rest principle associated with mindfulness has set the stage
for a strong neurological foundation for self-regulation to operate in. Moreover, neuroscience has
detected the ability of mindfulness to directly affect two of the three core elements of self-
regulation as defined by Bandura (1991) -- judgment and reactivity. Siegel (2007) found that
mindful development may directly influence non-reactivity by altering the connections between
prefrontal cortex and limbic zones. Thus, non-reactivity was cultivated through non-judgmental
brain functioning and creates a formative field for affective self-regulation to transpire. Recently
Sutherland (2014) reported the National Center for Complimentary and Alternative Medicine
discovered mindfulness practitioners had more gray matter (brain cells) in the following areas:
superior partial cortex, involved in directing attention; the hippocampus, a region critical to
dampening stress; the precuneus and posterior cingulate cortex which are areas key to our
concept of self. The ability to direct attention and formulate a viable concept of self are both key
components of self-regulation and self-efficacy.
The application of mindfulness to the education field has generated significant positive
evidence towards the general educational benefits of mindfulness for growth, development, and
positive functioning of learners (Howell & Buro, 2011; Hyland, 2009; Langer, 2009; Wisner et
al., 2010). These positive educational results on the implementation of mindfulness in the
classroom suggest the logical conclusion for incorporating mindfulness in all education levels

38

(Hyland, 2009). Consequently, the mindfulness envelope can be pushed further into discovering
the potential beneficial of self-regulation.
The relationship between mindfulness and a students’ self-regulation for learning was a
relatively unexplored phenomena to date. In this review only four articles were found from a
multitude of mindfulness articles reviewed that address this relationship. Each study
implemented different mindfulness practices however all of them found a positive correlation
between mindfulness practices and increased self-regulation (Caldwell et al., 2010; Howell &
Buro, 2011; Sibinga et al., 2012; Wisner et al., 2010). As a result of the limited but few
promising findings and in hope to address the national’s educational challenge of poor self-
regulation, this study analyzed the effects of mindfulness on self-regulation and self-efficacy and
the subsequent impact of learning for students.
There are many varying definitions of self-regulation; however, Albert Bandura (1991)
posits what many consider to be the cornerstone theory of self-regulation, entitled social
cognitive theory of self-regulation, (SCTSR). Moreover SCTSR factors have been found to
contribute independently to students’ academic attainment, which supported this study’s
hypothesis (Bandura et al., 1992). For the purpose of this paper, social cognitive theory of self-
regulation was the theoretical concept driving the study’s analysis. Social cognitive theory of
self-regulation operates through three principal sub functions: self-monitoring, judgmental, and
self-reactive which are developed for self-directed change (Bandura, 1986). The central concept
driving the utilization of these three was self-efficacy. Each subcomponent of SCTSR can be
positively associated to aspects of mindfulness. These intrinsic relationships are explored
through the existing literature available on mindfulness and social cognitive theory of self-
regulation.

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Considering research on mindfulness practices and self-regulation effects are extremely
limited, since only four studies have been conducted to date, a gap in research was discovered.
Subsequently this gap in research was the grounds for this study. This paper proposed that
establishing the intrinsic links between mindfulness and self-regulation through existing
literature, identified the potential of developing mindfulness and as a result self-, self-efficacy for
learning by abating and managing the current lack of self-regulation residing in our youth and
their education today. Additionally, a positive correlation of mindfulness and self-regulation in
education can forge a new path for educational success in developing college- and career-ready
students by 2020.
Mindfulness
Origin of Mindfulness
Mindfulness was born from the art of meditation and the breath that has been practiced
for thousands of years. The mindfulness concept has been a core element of many eastern
philosophies’ such as Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism. Its true origin is still a mystery;
however, many humanitarian leaders have claimed its presence has always been with us.
International humanitarian and founder of the International Association for Human
Values, His Holiness Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, who has developed programs and initiatives
including YES!, has touched the lives of over 370 million people in 152 countries in only three
decades. Sri Sri has rekindled the traditions of yoga and meditation and has offered them in a
form that works in the 21st century. By reviving ancient wisdom, he has created new techniques
for personal and social transformation. These include a powerful technique called Sudarshan
Kriya® which has helped millions of people to find relief from stress and discover inner
reservoirs of energy and peace in daily life. Sri Sri has defined mindfulness quite simply,

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What is happening right now? (laughter) Sense of mindfulness, yes? I am not saying
anything and you are waiting to catch something. Are you aware of this? Instead of
catching something, put your attention into the waiting. This is mindfulness. It is
meditative awareness. Are you getting what I am saying? What happens when you are
mindful? Suddenly a shift starts happening within you. From the scenery, you are going
towards the seer. Now you are the seer and the scenery (Shankar, 2010, para. 2).
This state of mind Sri Sri described above has been referred to as Samadhi, the meditative
mindful state of mind. Patanjali (1963) stated that yoga means concentration or Samadhi and it
is possible in whatever the state the mind may be. He defined five states of the mind: restless;
stupefied or infatuated; distracted; one-pointed; and arrested. In the restless state of mind lies the
heart of the challenge and subsequent solution for self-regulation. The ancient sage Patanjali
stated “in a restless state of mind one does not have the patience or intelligence necessary for
contemplation of a super-sensuous subject and consequently cannot think or comprehend any
subtle principle.” (p.3).
The Dalai Lama depicted mindfulness as the state of mind when one becomes aware of a
background noise that was always there, or an inner force that awakens you moments before the
alarm clock does (Dalai Lama, 2009). Mindfulness has been recognized as the chief factor in the
practice of satipatthana, the most well-known system of Buddhist meditation (Bodhi, 2011). Sati
and sampajanna are the most frequent terms used to describe satipatthana. Sati means
mindfulness and sampajanna means clear comprehension, which serve as the bridge between the
observational function of mindfulness and development of insight that lead to self-regulation.
Consequently a mindfulness practice can quell a restless state of mind and resolve the
problematic challenge of self-regulation by un clouding the already awakened and inherently

41

wise mind filled with self-regulation potential and subsequently applied to the academic
environment (Williams & Kabat-Zinn, 2011).
Application of Mindfulness in the West
The western culture awoke to the mindfulness phenomena and its benefits in the 1970s
(Meiklejohn et al., 2012). A Vietnamese monk, Thich Nhat Hanh, introduced the concept of
mindfulness to Martin Luther King Jr. and later John Kabat-Zinn, who successfully applied
mindfulness to promote psychological health and well-being on a wide-scale. The initial
documented discoveries that emerged in the medical field were found as effective approaches to
promote psychological health and well-being (Burke, 2009). The practices were found to
decrease stress, anxiety, and depression (Shapiro et al., 2008). Furthermore, the ability to
regulate emotional reactions and cultivate a positive psychological state was of particular interest
(Shapiro et al., 2008).
The benefits of the practice resulted in further explorative research, which gave birth to
and mindful based stress reduction (MBSR) and later mindful based cognitive therapy (MBCT)
as stated by Burke (2009) and Black, Milam, and Sussman (2009). MBSR came into being in
1979 at the Stress Reduction Clinic at the University of Massachusetts (Williams & Kabat-Zinn,
2011). It was created by Jon Kabat-Zinn to help people cope with stress - psychological, and
chronic illness - physical, (Black, 2009; Hyland, 2011). The success of MBSR broadened into
other contexts and settings including work with chronic pain sufferers, cancer patients and those
with personality disorders and expanded into prisons, inner-city communities, medical education
and corporate training (Kabat-Zinn, 2006).
MBCT was the offspring of MBSR and designed to aid the prevention, intervention and
maintenance strategies of depression relapse, specifically in major depressive disorder (Baer &

42

Krietemeyer, 2006). The main emphasis of MBCT was for the patient to perceive the
challenging thoughts and emotions, as passing events of the mind and that do not reflect reality
nor reflect their true self (Crane, 2013). However, this disorder has been challenging for
depressed individuals as a negative perpetuating cycle has been established that brings feelings
of low self-esteem and self-blame, which can be triggered by one element (Williams, 2007).
MBCT has attempted to break this vicious self-destructive loop of thought and action by
introducing the healing power of non-judgmental awareness to these habitual and obsessive
patterns (Hyland, 2011). Fortunately MBCT and MBSR have proven effective to relieve the
suffering of the affected individuals with decades of evidence (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). In the past
decade, clinical trials using MBCT and MBSR have supported the anecdotal evidence. The two
therapies are now widely used to treat emotional and behavioral disorders and have proven to
mitigate stress and enhance emotional well-being (Astin, 1997; Kabat-Zinn, 1998; Shapiro,
Schwartz & Bonner, 1998; Williams, Kolar, Reger, & Pearson, 2001).
The growth of mindfulness in western society has been nothing short of astonishing.
From the early 1980’s until the late 1990’s, mindfulness based applications went along at a very
modest level under the guidance auspices of behavioral medicine. In the late 1990’s mindfulness
grew exponentially and continues today, evolving from behavioral or mind/body medicine to
clinical and health psychology, cognitive therapy, and neuroscience. In 2010, the National
Institute of Health funded over 150 research projects in mindfulness over the past five years.
This rate of growth was nothing short of astonishing and signals a phenomena convergence of
two different epistemologies and cultures, western empirical science and eastern contemplative
disciplines or meditation. There was an increasingly growing interest to explore the benefits of
mindfulness in primary and secondary education, higher education, the law, business, and

43

leadership (Williams & Kabat-Zinn, 2011). The application of mindfulness in education was a
promising new frontier that offers potential benefits to increase students’ learning through self-
regulation and the purpose of this paper.
Conceptualizing Mindfulness
Mindfulness was a broad concept with meanings that vary according to author and has
functioned in the west without an operational definition. Recently leading experts in the field of
mindfulness met to conjointly create an operational definition of mindfulness. The agreed upon
operational definition of mindfulness offered by Bishop et al. (2004) and used for the purpose of
this study was “broadly conceptualized, mindfulness has been described as a kind of non-
elaborative, non-judgmental, present-centered awareness in which each thought, feeling, or
sensation that arises in the attentional field is acknowledged and accepted as it.” (p.232).
To elaborate further, when one was in a state of mindfulness, thoughts and feelings are
observed as passing events in the mind that disengages the automatic, habitual reactive state.
This state of self-observation or dispassion was believed to enable one to respond to situations
with a reflective approach rather than an automatic reactionary response (Bishop, et al., 2004).
This dispassionate state or attentional field was composed of awareness endowed with various
aspects of mental factors of which some pertain to the affective domain and others are conative
or cognitive in nature (Dreyfus, 2011). The key aspect of attentiveness was mindful ability to
pay close attention and not ‘wobble’ away from an object, or the ability of the mind to remain
focused and unified on its object, which allows a cognitive function to be enabled allowing
various aspects of the objects encountered so to make sense of them. This cognitive ability plays
a central aspect of mindfulness as stated by Dreyfus (2011). Moreover, Bishop and colleagues

44

posit monitoring the stream of consciousness over time would likely lead to increased cognitive
complexity.
Nonetheless, mindfulness goes beyond attentiveness and retentive focus to the
development of clear comprehension or samprajnana. This was a form of mindful discrimination
that enables the mind to observe, comprehend and evaluate what needs to be evaluated. Simply
put, mindfulness was the knowing of what happens in one’s mind, body, breath and outside
objects. Therefore, as mindfulness was developed, the evolving proficiency of clear
comprehension was developed, which allows immediate detection of distractions and other
obstacles in the mind. Hence clear comprehension was the meta-attentive skill to monitor one’s
own mental states (Dreyfus, 2011). Simply put it was the ability to modulate one’s attention,
correcting the mind when it wanders and bringing it back to the object.
In this study one research question analyzed was if a specific mindfulness practice
benefits self-regulation. For that purpose, the main theoretical premise behind mindfulness as
stated above can be associated with the social cognitive theory of self-regulation. As stated by
Albert Bandura (1986), the three core sub functions of social cognitive theory of self-regulation
are: self-monitoring, judgmental, and self-reactive. The ability to maintain attention on a unified
field and engage cognition relies on one’s ability to self-monitor the attentional field and remains
present with a specific event or concept. When focused on an event in the attentional field,
mindfulness allows for a non-judgmental orientation towards thoughts and emotions that are
engaged from the experience. Lastly, mindfulness provided mindful discrimination, which
enabled the mind to observe, comprehend and evaluate what needs to be evaluated and provide
clear comprehension to produce a self-reactive state that promoted self-directive change as
opposed to reactionary change. The functioning of the social cognitive theory of self-regulation

45

system was determined to be centrally dependent on the self-efficacy mechanism (Bandura,
1991). These connective elements offered bridges between mindfulness and self-regulation,
which this study has explored further as stated by the research questions.
To further understand the passive inner process of mindfulness, Kabat-Zinn (1990)
offered seven key characteristics. The first was simply being with thoughts absent of judgment
or reactive. Second, patience with mindfulness works by not striving to worry too much about
external ends or goals so that our present perception was clear and available. Next was to
cultivate a beginner’s mind by not letting our past experience get in the way of our present
thoughts and perceptions. Fourth was the development of a basic trust in the importance and
value of our own thoughts, feelings, and experiences. Fifth, non-striving, which highlighted the
meditative practice of mindfulness’s goal to have no goal beyond itself, leaving itself free of
constant criticism and revision. Simply, one pays attention to activity or non-activity that the
mind was employed in at any given moment. The sixth characteristic was acceptance of the full
reality of the present, which allows for change and development. Lastly, to let go of any strong
or reoccurring thoughts whether they are good or bad. The mind’s tendency was towards
aversion of bad thoughts and desire for good thoughts. Hence in mindfulness the gymnastics of
the mind was abandoned or better put, let go of. Additionally Siegel (2007) correlated these
characteristics with strengths of character, and Jarden et al. (2012) discovered the increased
amount of time spent using these strengths of character had been found to correlate significantly
with mindfulness.
Neuroscience Research on Mindfulness
Neuroscience has begun to unlock the significant effects of mindfulness. First, the
development of mindfulness lays a neurological positive foundation by providing the rest

46

principle (Hinterberger et.al, 2011, Taylor et.al, 2013). According to Sinclair (2014) the synaptic
connections get stronger when they are rested right after use. Using the synapse over and over
again only weakens it. Hinterberger and colleagues found that the mindful practice of meditation
simulated the resting state when measured with electroencephalogram (EEG). This resting state
delivered by mindfulness practices implies that neurological synaptic connections become
stronger when allowed to rest briefly due to mindfulness practice. Consequently learning
became stronger and progressed, rather than digressed, which was the case when neurological
connections are weakened, taxed or unrested (Sinclair, 2014). More recently Sutherland (2014)
stated the National Center for Complimentary and Alternative Medicine discovered mindfulness
practitioners had larger gray matter (brain cells) in the following areas: superior partial cortex,
involved in directing attention; the hippocampus, a region critical to dampening stress; the
precuneus and posterior cingulate cortex which are areas key to our concept of self. Hence, the
rest principal and larger brain volume associated with mindfulness sets the stage for a strong
neurological foundation for self-regulation and self-efficacy to operate in.
Furthermore research on the YES! SKY breath has found intriguing neurological
findings. First a significant decrease in the stress hormone, cortisol, suggests regular practice of
SKY breath produces greater levels of relaxation and more importantly resiliency to stress
(Sharma et al., 2008). Secondly a significant increase in beta frequency range of SKY breath
practitioners was a typical brain state of attentive information processing (Bhatia et al., 2003). A
third benefit found of the YES! program was a significantly decrease of impulsive behavior in
low-income high school students (Ghahremani et al., 2013). Finally Agrawal and Mizuhara-
Cheng (2010) self-published a case study on the YES program’s focus meditation alleviated
abnormality of a student’s ADHD as assessed by the test of variance attention, TOVA, within

47

two weeks of administering the intervention and normality was retained throughout the entire 6-
month study while regularly continuing the focus meditation practice. These results suggested
SKY breath daily practitioners experienced decreased stress, increased stress resilience,
decreased impulsive behavior, and increased attentive information processing, which may be
linked to strengthening self-regulation, self-efficacy and academic performance.
Even though neuroscience has only begun to explore the phenomena of mindfulness, the
associative links to self-regulation have begun to surface. Davidson, Kabat-Zinn, Schumacher,
Rosenkranz, Muller, Santorelli, and Sheridan (2003) investigated the impact of mindfulness on
emotional regulation and found the practices changed neural functioning to help us be more
open, non-judgmental and non-reactive in responding to events and situations, which trigger
emotions. The positive effectiveness of mindful-based strategies on emotional based learning
was legitimized and reinforced by neuroscience research and data (Hyland, 2011). MRI and
EEG brain scanning have demonstrated that mindfulness meditation demonstrates a clear and
direct connection between meditation brain states and different types of emotions (Goleman,
2003).
As a result, to cultivate the non-reactivity through non-judgmental brain functioning
Siegel (2007) found the circuits in the brain that enable lower affect-generating circuits to be
regulated by the higher modulating ones; therefore, “mindful awareness may directly influence
non-reactivity by altering the connections between prefrontal cortex and limbic zones.” (p. 211).
Furthermore, Davidson (2000) and Siegel found that mindfulness produces long-term resilience
of emotional states as determined by establishing a calm and stable mind through integrating left
and right hemispheres of the brain. Brain scans of meditators supported this finding by
demonstrating movement towards the left prefrontal lobe, which denoted positive affective states

48

and away from the right prefrontal lobe, which was believed to mediate distress and
uncomfortable emotions (Siegel). These neurological finding supported the benefits of
mindfulness and established the operational facilities the two sub-functions of self-regulation,
judgmental and self-reactive through its neurological ability to establish non-judgmental and
non-reactive brain traits.
Mindfulness Applied to Education
The mindful phenomena sparked the interest for potential application into other fields
such as education (Duerr, 2004; Meiklejohn et al., 2012). There has been a wealth of evidence
about the general educational benefits of mindfulness for growth, development, and positive
functioning of learners presented (Howell & Buro, 2011; Hyland, 2009; Langer, 2009; Wisner et
al., 2010). Hyland stated that mindfulness could assist in fostering self-esteem, confidence or
emotional intelligence, engagement, and motivation. Recently studies in school settings have
reported that physiological coherence, which was a result of mindful practice, improved
cognitive performance (Hart, 2004). Moreover, Black and Fernando (2013); Napoli, Krech, and
Holley (2005); Schonert-Reichl and Lawlor (2010); and Wisner (2013) found that students were
able to focus and pay attention to their academic lessons more easily. Wisner (2013) reported
perceived student benefit of enhanced student engagement. In fact, Jha, Stanley, Kiyonaga,
Wong, and Gelfand (2010) found that implementing mindfulness could facilitate working
memory capacity. Moreover, mindfulness practices posted a modest positive effect on key social
and emotional learning skills (Metz et al., 2013; Schonert-Reichl & Lawlor), and mindfulness
practices have enhanced academic performance as documented by Barangan et al. (2007),
Beaucheim et al. (2008), (Burnett) 2009, Chang and Hierbert (1989), Crane (2009), Cranson et
al. (1991), Hanson (2009), Leon (2009), Siegel (2007). Finally, ten minutes of mindful

49

meditation practiced once a day or several times a week produced more successful students and a
calmer learning environment. These positive educational results on the implementation of
mindfulness in the classroom suggested the logical conclusion for incorporating mindfulness in
all education levels (Hyland, 2009).
Highlighting the crucial importance and immense potential of mindfulness integration in
education, Siegel (2007) posited ‘reflective thinking’ in the development of emotional wisdom
should be a fundamental part of basic education in so much as to call it the 4th
R of education.
The first three R’s of education; reading, writing, and ‘rithmetic (sic) were once considered
luxuries for a selective few. Siegel further posited the fourth R, reflective thinking, can be
implemented through a mindsight curricula theme. Mindsight was generated from the unifying
goal for all mindfulness practices in contemplative, psychotherapeutic, and educational contexts
to develop the ability to ‘name and tame’ the emotions experienced rather then being
overwhelmed by them. Its important to note here, Hyland (2011) stated a perceived hazard of
mindfulness was apathy, unhappiness and destructive emotions such as anger, self-loathing,
aggression, and depression as described by Goleman (2003). Conversely, Siegel posited that
mindsight developed the capacity to sense the mind in ourselves and in others, otherwise our
mental states may remain confused and inchoate, and the minds of others may be understated or
missing from our perspectives on the world. Furthermore, Howell and Buro (2011) revealed a
direct association between mindfulness and well-being. In other words considering the current
state of student apathy towards education as stated by Bridgeland et al. (2006), mindfulness
offers a clear path to reigniting student engagement in education and overall well-being.
Bush (2006) and Duerr, Zajonc, and Dana (2003) reported there was a growing interest
for integrating meditation into education. Students who have received mindful awareness

50

education have demonstrated a broad band of cognitive, social and psychological benefits that
have materialized in academic skills, executive functioning, and emotional self-regulation (Baer,
2003; Davidson et al., 2003; Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004; Meiklejohn et al.,
2012; Tang, Lu, Geng, Stein, Yang, & Posner, 2010; Zylowska, Ackerman, Yang, Futrell,
Horton, Hale, & Smalley, 2008). Moreover Bhatia et al. (2003) reported an increase in beta
activity of the left temporo-centro-pareital region with practitioners of the SKY breath that
matches the increased information flow in the same region during mental arithmetic, which
points towards a potential link between increased mindfulness and increased mental math
performance.
Mindfulness and Self-Regulation for Learning
The relationship between mindfulness and a students’ self-regulation for learning was a
relatively unexplored phenomena to date. However, the emotional regulation benefits of
mindfulness have been the most researched aspect of the mindfulness application to education.
A multitude of studies have overwhelmingly supported the effect of mindfulness practices on
improved emotional regulation.
Mendelson (2010) evaluated a yoga-based intervention program for underserved urban
population of 4th
and 5th
graders. Students reported decreases in involuntary stress responses,
including emotional arousal. Khalsa et al. (2012) found that a semester of yoga with rural high
school students increased their ability to control anger. Broderick and Metz (2009) implemented
the MBSR model with high school senior females and found significant decreases in negative
affect and increase in self-reported calm, relaxation, and self-acceptance, which directly affected
emotional regulation. A non-randomized control trial mindfulness program for 4th
through 7th
conducted by Schonert-Reichl and Lawlor (2010) showed improvements in self-reported

51

optimism, positive affect, externalizing behavior, and social-emotional competence. Metz et al.
(2013) implemented mindfulness practices on public high school students who demonstrated
large gains in emotional regulation skills including emotional awareness, access to regulation
strategies, and emotional clarity. Wisner (2013) study examined the perceived benefits of
mindfulness meditation for alternative high school students who reported enhanced emotional
coping. Similarly, Black and Fernando (2013) found an increase in self-control and improved
classroom behavior for elementary school children after mindful based intervention. Finally,
Wisner et al. (2010) found the intervention of mindfulness meditation interventions in school
settings led to improved emotional and behavioral self-regulation.
In conclusion, these studies overwhelmingly supported the effect of mindfulness
practices on improved emotional regulation. Considering, emotional regulation can only have a
causal effect on behavior regulation, which was a necessary element in the process of self-
regulation as stated by Howell and Buro (2011), these significant positive findings resulted in
emotional regulation points towards the next area to study, the effects of mindfulness on self-
regulation.
In this review only four articles were found from over one hundred reviewed that address
this relationship. Each study implemented different mindfulness practices but all of them found
a positive correlation between mindfulness practices and increased self-regulation (Caldwell et
al., 2010; Howell & Buro, 2011; Sibinga et al., 2012; Wisner et al., 2010).
Caldwell et al. (2010) studied the effects of mindfulness through movement-based
courses in college students on self-regulatory, self-efficacy, or the ability to motivate oneself to
keep trying difficult tasks. The research team found that mindfulness boosted self-regulatory
self-efficacy and increased self-regulatory capacity. The limitations of the study were twofold.

52

The first was attributed to better sleep increasing mindfulness and the resulting effects. The
second considered that mindfulness might be a normal developmental process in college
students. However, the overall positive correlation pointed to an increased ability to motivate
oneself to keep trying difficult tasks when mindfulness was practiced.
The second study conducted by Sibinga et al. (2012) researched the effects on stress and
coping abilities of middle school male youth engaged in MBSR mindfulness practice. The
control group study found that MBSR boys: had significantly less anxiety; less negative coping;
and their cortisol or stress hormone levels remained constant compared to the control group
whose cortisol levels increased. The results suggested that MBSR practiced for urban middle-
school male youth specifically enhanced self-regulatory practices, including improved coping
and emotional regulation. The result indicators demonstrated a calmer state of the mind, which
was more conducive for self-regulation.
The third study looked at three different meditation practices with adolescents in schools
and its effect on self-regulation, emotional coping, and self-esteem. Wisner et al. (2010) found
that meditation practices in the school setting helped to improve self-regulation capacities and
coping abilities. The qualitative data indicated that students found mindful meditation helped to
increase: self-regulation; to calm themselves; relieve stress; increased relaxation; and improved
emotional coping. Moreover, the study correlated increased self-regulation with improved
school climate, which enabled all students to have a better environmental opportunity to acquire
the skills to become college- and career-ready. According to the local control accountability
plan for California, school climate was one of the eight areas to be measured in determining
successful implementation of the Common Core State Standards for enabling students to be
college- and career-ready (Muhammad & Hollie, 2012). The limitation of the study rests on the

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