This document discusses nucleic acids, DNA, RNA, their structures and functions. It describes that nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides containing a sugar, phosphate and a base. The bases in DNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine, while in RNA thymine is replaced with uracil. It explains the primary and secondary structures of DNA including the double helix structure. It also summarizes the central dogma of biology regarding DNA replication, transcription and translation of DNA to mRNA to proteins. The document concludes with a discussion of mutations that can occur during DNA replication and an overview of cloning techniques.

1. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
The Nucleic Acids

2. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
Nucleic Acid
 a complex organic substance
present in living cell esp. DNA &
RNA whose molecules consist of
many nucleotides linked in a long
chain.
Functions:
• Transmission of hereditary
characters.
• Synthesis of proteins.

3. Nucleic Acid Components
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
A. Kinds of Nucleic Acid
1. RNA (Ribonucleic acid) – it is
located elsewhere in the nucleus
and in the cytoplasm.
2. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) – it is
located in the chromosomes of the
nucleus.
Nucleotides – building blocks of
nucleic acid chain. It is composed of
base, sugar and phosphate.

4. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
Base
• Base found in DNA & RNA are
basic because they are
heterocyclic amines.
• Two of these bases (adenine and
guanine) are purines and the
other three (cytosine, thymine &
uracil) are pyrimidines.
• DNA bases: A, G, C & T while RNA:
A, G, C & U.

5. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
Purines
Adenine
Guanine

6. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
Pyrimidines
Cytosine Uracil Thymine

7. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
Sugar
• Sugar component of RNA is ribose;
DNA is deoxyribose.
• The combination of sugar and
base is known as nucleoside.

8. Nucleic Acid Base Sugar Nucleoside
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
Adenine Deoxyribose Deoxyadenosine
Adenine Ribose Adenosine
Guanine Deoxyribose Deoxyguanosine
Guanine Ribose Guanosine
Cytosine Deoxyribose Deoxycytidine
Cytosine Ribose Cytidine
Thymine Deoxyribose Deoxythymidine
Uracil Ribose Uridine

9. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations

10. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
Phosphate
• This are phosphoric acid that
when this group is linked to the –
CH2OH group of nucleoside the
result is a compound known as
nucleotide.
• Sequence:
Nucleotide=base+sugar+phospate

11. Nucleic Acid Base Nucleoside Nucleotide
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
Adenine Adenosine Adenylate (AMP)
Adenine Deoxyadenosine Deoxyadenylate (dAMP)
Guanine Guanosine Guanylate
Guanine Deoxyguanosine Deoxyguanylate
Cytosine Cytidine Cytidylate
Cytosine Deoxycytidine Deocycytidylate
Uracil Uridine Uridylate
Thymine Deoxythymidine Deoxythymidylate

12. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
AMP
(Adenosine
Monophosphate)
ATP
(Adenosine
Triphosphate)

13. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
DNA & RNA
Components DNA RNA
Location Nucleus Nucleus &
Cytoplasm
Bases A, G, C & T A, G, C & U
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Structure Double helix Many structure

14. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
Structures
1. Primary structure
• Divided into parts:
a. Backbone of molecule – consist of
alternating deoxyribose and
phosphate groups.
b. Side-chain groups – consist of the
bases that are linked one to each
sugar unit and carry all
information necessary for protein
synthesis.

15. Nucleic Acid Primary Structure
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations

16. Nucleic Acid 2. Secondary structure (Double
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
helix)
• In 1953, James Watson & Francis Crick
established the 3D structure of DNA.
• The model of DNA established by
watson and crick was based on two
important pieces of information
obtained by other workers: (1) the
chargaff rule that (A&T) and (G&C)
are present in equivalent quantities.
(2) X-ray diffraction photographs
obtained by Rosalind Franklin and
Maurice Wilkins.

17. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
• Watson and Crick concluded that
DNA is composed of two strands in
double helix.
• In the DNA double helix the two
polynucleotide run in opposite
directions in 5’ to 3’.
• The sugar-phosphate backbone is on
the outside and bases are point
inward.
• The bases are paired according to
chargaff rule. The bases so paired
form hydrogen bonds with each
other thereby stabilizing the double
helix. They are called complimentary
base pairs.

18. Nucleic Acid Double Helix
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations

19. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
The Central Dogma

20. Nucleic Acid Replication
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
• The process begins when a helicase
(specialized enzyme) will unzip the
DNA double helix into two strands
which is the leading and lagging
strand.
• The leading strand has a 5’ to 3’
direction and direct synthesis of a
new strand of DNA through
complimentary base pairing. The old
strand then unites with the new
strand to reform a double helix
through the process of
semiconservative replication.

21. Nucleic Acid • In the lagging strand, the
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
synthesized of DNA strand is
in a short segments in a 3’ to
5’ direction. Thus, this short
segments placed on the
lagging strand are okazaki
fragments and are ultimately
joined by the enzyme DNA
ligase to form a new strand.
• Therefore, two new DNA
strand is being replicated.

22. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations

23. Nucleic Acid Transcription
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
1. Initiation Stage
 there is a special region on the DNA
wherein RNA polymerase attached
and this is called the promoter site.
2. Elongation Stage
 certain proteins called transcription
factors unwind the DNA strand and
allow the RNAQ polymerase to
transcribed only a single strand of
DNA to a strand of RNA called
mRNA.

24. Nucleic Acid • Antisense strand – strand that
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
serve as the template.
• Sense strand – strand that is not
transcribed.
3. Termination Stage
RNA polymerase moves along the
DNA strand until it reaches a
terminator sequence at the point
RNA polymerase releases the
mRNA polymer and detaches
from the DNA. The DNA strand
will bind again.

25. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations

26. Nucleic Acid Translation
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
1. Initiation stage
The small ribosomal subunit enters in
the methylated cap of the mRNA and
goes to the initiation site. The tRNA
contains anti-codon (UAC) which is
complimentary to the mRNA codon
(AUG) which will bind. The large
ribosomal subunit will bind to small
ribosomal subunit to peptidyl site and
aminoacyl site. The 1st tRNA will
occupy the p-site and 2nd tRNA (AAA)
will enter the A-site which is
complimentary to 2nd mRNA (UUU)
codon.

27. Nucleic Acid 2. Elongation Stage
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
The methionine then transferred to A-site
amino acid. The 1st tRNA exits and
ribosomes move along the mRNA. The
3rd mRNA enters. The process will just
continue. As the elongation continues
the growing peptide is continuously
transfer to A-site tRNA. Ribosomes
move to mRNA and new tRNA enters.
3. Termination stage
When stop codon encountered in the
A-site, release factor enters the A-site
and translation is terminated. The
ribosomes dissociates and newly
form protein release.

28. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations

29. Nucleic Acid Mutation and Cloning
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
Mutation – an error in the copying
of a sequence of bases.
Occur during replication and it can
be classified as microlesion and
macrolesion.
a. Microlesion – involving the
replacement of one base pair by
another (Substitution).
 it divided into three subclasses:
1. Transition 2. Transversion 3. Frame-shift

30. Nucleic Acid • In the transition, the replacement of
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
purine by another purine or a
pyrimidine by another pyrimidine.
• In the transversion, the replacement
of a purine by a pyrimidine or vice
versa..
• In the frame-shift, the loss or
addition of one of few pairs of
bases.
b. Macrolesion – classified as
deletions, duplication and
rearrangement.
• In deletions is the inability to revert.

31. Nucleic Acid • Mutagens – chemicals that can
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
cause mutation.
Urethane
Lead
Dimethylnitrosoamine
Diethylnitrosoamine
Hydroxylamine
Hydrazine compound
Nitrosoamides
Acridine orange
benzopyrene

32. Nucleic Acid Cloning
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
• Cloning is the process of creating genetically
identical copies of biological matter.
Types of Cloning:
1. Molecular Cloning
 Molecular cloning focuses on making identical
copies of DNA molecules. This type of cloning is
also called gene cloning.
2. Organism Cloning
 Organism cloning involves making an identical
copy of an entire organism. This type of cloning is
also called reproductive cloning.
3. Therapeutic Cloning
 Therapeutic cloning involves the cloning of human
embryos for the production of stem cells. The
embryos are eventually destroyed in this process.

33. Nucleic Acid
DNA & RNA
Structure
Central Dogma
Mutations
Thank You!
Presented by:
Den Mark Galapir
Xandrad Abigail Garduque
Edmar Luban
Jovilyn Padilla
Jessa Marie Ipac