This presentation was given to animal science students, and was adapted from a number of sources (in the reference list). It is intended to help students understand how to structure a scientific article and the basics of scientific writing.

1. Library Training:
Writing a Scientific Paper
1 3 A U G U S T 2 0 1 9
ElizabethMoll-Willard
FacultyLibrarian:AgriSciences
emw@sun.ac.za

2. Outcomes
•Getting started
•IMRAD
•Authorship
•General guidelines for
length of a manuscript
Basics
•Figures and tables
•Methods
•Results and Discussion
•Conclusion and Introduction
•Abstract, title, keywords
•Acknowledgements and
References
Steps
•Writing styles
•Writing tips
Scientific
writing

3. The
Basics

4. The basic principles of all research
Objectivity • The question of bias
Repeatability
• Anyone should be able to repeat your
experiment with another sample and
get the same or similar results
Reliability
• Instruments need to produce the same
results if used by a researcher in future
Validity
• Your research should represent the
best possible version of the truth at the
time (guard against errors)

5. Am I ready to write an article?
What I ask myself
•Have I done something new and interesting?
•Is there anything challenging in my work?
•Is my work related directly to a current hot topic?
•Have I provided solutions to some difficult problems?
What reviewers ask
when looking at my
work
•Does the paper contain sufficient new material?
•Is the topic within the scope of the journal?
•Is it presented concisely and well organized?
•Are the methods and experiments presented in the way that they
can be replicated again?
•Are the results presented adequately?
•Is the discussion relevant, concise and well documented?
•Are the conclusions supported by the data presented?
•Is the language acceptable?
•Are figures and tables adequate and well designed?, are there
information duplicated? Are they too many?
•Are all references cited in the text included in the references list?

6. Types of articles
Full articles, or original articles, are the
substantial completed pieces of research
that are of significance as original research.
Letters/rapid communications/short
communications are quick and early
communication of significant and original
advances. They are much shorter than full
articles (usually strictly limited in size,
depending on each journal).
Review papers or perspectives summarize
recent developments on a specific hot
topic, highlighting important points that
have previously been reported and
introduce no new information.
6

7. Choosing my journal
Steps to follow:
(1 – the invisible step: often your supervisor will suggest one)
1. Check the DHET accredited list – make sure of a peer review process
2. Check the Journal’s impact factor
3. Have a look at the scope and policies of the journal
4. Consider the funding aspect – is there funding for open access? Who
is paying page fees?
7
BEWARE THE PREDATORS

8. Author Guidelines
Always have a look at these to see what the journal wants!
◦ They set out structure, referencing style, caption style, etc
8

9. IMRaD structure (most used)
I • Introduction: what did you do?
MR
(central
report
section)
• Methods: how did you do it?
• Results: what did you find?
aD
• and Discussion / Conclusion:
what does it mean?
9

10. ARRIVE
Use other guidelines to help – for example:
◦ Animal Research: Reporting of In Vivo Experiments (ARRIVE) guidelines are
intended to improve the reporting of research using animals – maximising
information published and minimising unnecessary studies.
10

11. 11

12. The Authorship question
Principles of the order of listing:
General principle: it is in order of significant contribution to the paper
First author is usually the “principal investigator” of that experiment:
◦ Conducts and / or supervisors the experiment, the data analysis and the results
processes
◦ They will usually put the paper together and submit it to the journal
Corresponding author – does not necessarily have to be first author
◦ Could be first author
◦ Or could be senior author from the institution
Make sure to include all who should be included, but don’t fall into the trap
of “gift authorship” – including authors who did not contribute significantly
Names – make sure you follow the spelling / style that authors use!

13. General guidelines for length
of a manuscript
NB look at the journal's Guide for Authors, but an ideal length for a manuscript is 25 to 40 pages, double
spaced, including essential data only.
Here are some general guidelines:
Title: Short and informative
Abstract: 1 paragraph (<250 words)
Introduction: 1.5-2 pages
Methods: 2-3 pages
Results: 6-8 pages
Discussion: 4-6 pages
Conclusion: 1 paragraph
Figures: 6-8 (one per page)
Tables: 1-3 (one per page)
References: 20-50 papers (2-4 pages)
Taken from: https://www.elsevier.com/connect/11-steps-to-structuring-a-science-paper-editors-will-take-
seriously
13

14. Steps to
writing a
paper

15. Steps of writing a journal article
Figures and tables Methods
Results and
Discussion
Conclusion and
Introduction
Abstract, title,
keywords
Acknowledgements
and References

16. Step 1:
Figures
and tables

17. Figures and tables
Figures vs tables: general rules
◦ Tables give the actual experimental results
◦ Figures are used for comparisons of experimental results with either
previous works or calculated/theoretical values
The most important point:
No illustration (figure, table, etc.) should duplicate any information
found elsewhere in the article (legends should be self-explanatory)
The colour question:
◦ Colour used to bring in a cost question when it came to print charges for
print journals
◦ Now with online-only publication, you can use colour – but be tasteful
◦ Black and white is sometimes still the most striking to relate your data, while
colour can cloud things

18. Figures and tables – the don’ts
Font size matters – keep things readable
No indistinguishable data! Keep things clean and distinguishable
Don’t put long tables in text – you can rather include it in
supplementary tables (eg. Lists of species)
Include scale where necessary (photographs etc)
Be consistent – eg. Decimals comma vs full stop
Graphs
◦ Only use line diagrams for a time series or consecutive samples. Otherwise
use a histogram (bar graph)
◦ No crowded plots! Only use a three / four data sets max per graph
◦ Don’t forget to label your axis clearly

19. Step 2:
Methods
Step 1:
Figures
and tables

20. Headings or subheadings – very NB
Describe how you studied the problem
◦Don’t describe procedures already published
(only novel)
◦Identify equipment, materials etc.
◦Be detailed! Include variables etc.
◦Ethical issues should be covered – did you get
ethics / how
◦Don’t add comments / discussion / results
here
Methods (2-3 pages)

21. Protocols
If the method you are using is already established then only a brief
description / broad summary and a reference is necessary
BUT
If a new method, then you have to describe it in as much detail as
possible in order to allow for *replicability*
Remember to use standard numbers:
◦ Chemicals, taxa of species, units of measurements
21

22. The order of your method
Remember to mirror your order as written in results:
Description of the site
Description of the surveys or experiments done, giving information on dates,
etc.
Description of the laboratory methods, including separation or treatment of
samples, analytical methods, following the order of waters, sediments and
biomonitors. If you have worked with different biodiversity components start
from the simplest (i.e. microbes) to the more complex (i.e. mammals)
Description of the statistical methods used (including confidence levels, etc.)
22

23. Step 3:
Results
and
Discussion
Step 2:
Methods
Step 1:
Figures
and tables

24. ◦Tell a story about your results – use subheadings to
structure nicely, keep the golden thread running
◦ Subheadings let you group similar results together
◦Include:
◦ Main findings (not all are needed – can add supplementary
materials for data that is secondary importance)
◦ This would be findings from experiments in methods
sections
◦ Highlight findings that
◦ Differ from previous publications
◦ Are unexpected
◦ Results of the statistical analysis
Results

25. ◦Importance of your figures and tables
◦ The most efficient way to present your results / findings
◦ Captions and legends must be detailed
◦ Your figures and tables must be self-explanatory – no need to
read in text
◦ Don’t duplicate results that are described in the text or
other illustrations – let them work together instead
◦ Don’t include references – you are not referring to other
work, but to your work. You will refer to other work in
the discussion.
Results

26. This is the most important section – as it
speaks to YOUR work
◦Discussion and results should correspond
◦Can now start to bring in published results vs
yours
Discussion

27. What to avoid:
1. Avoid statements that go beyond what the results can support.
2. Avoid unspecific expressions such as "higher temperature", "at a lower rate", "highly
significant". Quantitative descriptions are always preferred (35ºC, 0.5%, p<0.001,
respectively).
3. Avoid sudden introduction of new terms or ideas; you must present everything in the
introduction, to be confronted with your results here.
4. Speculations on possible interpretations are allowed, but these should be rooted in
fact, rather than imagination. To achieve good interpretations think about:
◦ How do these results relate to the original question or objectives outlined in the Introduction
section?
◦ Do the data support your hypothesis?
◦ Are your results consistent with what other investigators have reported?
◦ Discuss weaknesses and discrepancies. If your results were unexpected, try to explain why
◦ Is there another way to interpret your results?
◦ What further research would be necessary to answer the questions raised by your results?
◦ Explain what is new without exaggerating
5. Revision of Results and Discussion is not just paper work. You may do further
experiments, derivations, or simulations. Sometimes you cannot clarify your idea in words
because some critical items have not been studied substantially.
27

28. Step 4:
Conclusion
and
Introduction
Step 3:
Results
and
Discussion
Step 2:
Methods
Step 1:
Figures
and tables

29. 1. Explains the problem
2. What kind of work has been done on the
topic (mini literature review):
◦Potential solutions
◦Suggested solution
◦Limitations / differing opinions
3. Aim/ purpose or thesis statement (usually in
the final paragraph)
Introduction

30. ◦ Explains how your work advances the field – answering
the questions in your introduction, points brought up
in discussion
◦ If you want to suggest future experiments, this is the
place
◦ This section is sometimes the last paragraph in
discussion, and sometimes it is standalone
Conclusion

31. Step 5:
Abstract,
title,
keywords
Step 4:
Conclusion
and
Introduction
Step 3:
Results and
Discussion
Step 2:
Methods
Step 1:
Figures and
tables

32. Abstract, title, keywords
These are your marketing tools for your paper
You want people to read your work, so make sure you have good
marketing.
Databases and search engines typically search through these, and use
these to organize information.

33. Your abstract
Write to sell your article – it is the advertisement to make people read
your article
◦ This means make it easy to read, make it interesting, make it understandable
◦ BUT still be accurate, still be specific and brief – showcase your work
You get different styles of abstracts – have a look at the journal requirements!

34. Your title
Keep it short and simple
◦ BUT describe your paper adequetly
Tips for effective titles:
◦ identify main issue of the paper
◦ Begin with the subject of the paper
◦ Are accurate, unambiguous, specific and complete
◦ Are as short as possible
Your aim is that your title will get “noticed” – keep away from abbreviations or
rarely used terms

35. Keywords
Think of your keywords like hashtags on Twitter – they are what drives
search engines and databases to select YOUR paper to display in the
results
They are like labels
Abbreviations – only established ones (eg. DNA)
For example:
“silo music and silo quake: granular flow-induced vibration”
Keywords: silo music, silo quake, stick-sap flow, resonance, creep,
granular discharge

36. Step 6:
Acknowledge
ments and
References
Step 5:
Abstract,
title,
keywords
Step 4:
Conclusion
and
Introduction
Step 3:
Results and
Discussion
Step 2:
Methods
Step 1:
Figures and
tables

37. Acknowledgements and References
Two things to keep in mind:
◦ It can be journal specific – have a look at the journal style guidelines for
authors
◦ Reference managers can help but you need to do a quality check
Reference management tools
Programs that assist you in storing your citations,
managing your citations and then inserting
citations in a specific citation style while you
write your assignment

38. Acknowledgments
You are recognizing those who helped in your research!
They include:
◦ Supervisors / other advisors
◦ Financial support (eg. NRF)
◦ Proof readers / editors / typists
◦ Suppliers if they gave materials (eg. If you sampled from a specific farm, that
farm)
◦ Data analysts / statisticians / graphic makers

39. References
Check the style! It is usually under “guidelines / instructions for
authors”
General principles:
◦ Don’t go overboard – only use references that you have actually used the
article / material
◦ Make sure you aren’t referencing from an abstract or a secondary source –
read the full article!
◦ DON’T
◦ Cite yourself excessively
◦ Cite one author excessively
◦ Cite only from one region – try to be as international as possible

40. How to skim read
First
sentence of
each
paragraph
Introduction
+ conclusion
Table of
contents
Abstract
Title, author,
journal, date

41. Scientific
writing

42. Writing tips
Write early and write often
• the more you write, the easier it becomes and it becomes
a habit
Don't get it right, get it written
• drafting helps you to clarify your thoughts, start by writing
the parts you are clear on, this identifies the bits that
need more work

43. Main points to remember
when writing:
A 'golden thread‘
◦ an overall line of argument - running through the paper, holding it together
'Sign-posts‘
◦ crisp titles, sub-titles and headings that identify the direction being followed
'Authority‘
◦ good engagement with existing literature and a comprehensive bibliography
- the bibliography is the window to the paper and its author

44. Things to avoid
Avoid long quotations
◦ rather paraphrase or break up the quote with your own commentary
Avoid sloppy and inaccurate presentation and ensure that your
references are correct
©https://www.jewellerymonthly.com/a-diamond-in-the-rough/

45. Topic
Sentence
• Summarises argument
• Indicates approach
Elaboration
• May provide additional information or restate the
topic sentence in a more extended way.
Evidence
• Maybe be quantitative or qualitative data, or
analysis of data.
Link
• This makes the connection to the next paragraph
explicit.
Paragraph structure

46. The funnel approach
Your topic
Effect of cold storage
on longevity of
proteas
General
Proteas
Cold storage methods
for proteas
Go from the general
to the specific
Cold storage positively impacts the
Protea market through lengthening
their shelf life

47. Sources do not clearly relate to the research problem;
Lack of defining and identifying the most relevant sources related to the
research problem;
Relying exclusively on secondary analytical sources;
Uncritically accepting another researcher's findings and interpretations
Reporting isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them; and,
Only including research that validates assumptions
Common Mistakes to Avoid

48. Peer review
48

49. Arrive guidelines. Available: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118951446.ch22
Becker, Lucinda & Denicolo, Pam. 2012. Publishing journal articles. London: SAGE. Available in library:
RCOM 808.066 BEC
Borja, Anjela. 2014. 11 steps to structuring a science paper editors will take seriously. Available:
https://www.elsevier.com/connect/11-steps-to-structuring-a-science-paper-editors-will-take-seriously
Caterjian, A., 2013. Editorial special: writing a journal article. Australian Journal of Clinical
Hypnotherapy & Hypnosis, 35(2), p.55. Available:
https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A379569226/AONE?u=27uos&sid=AONE&xid=d73f3ad8
Day, Robert A. & Gastel, Barbara. 2006. How to write and publish a scientific paper. 6th edition.
Westport: Greenwood Press. Available in library: RCOM 808.0665 DAY
Elsevier. 2012. Structuring an article. In Publishing connect: How to get published series. Available:
https://www.elsevier.com/connect/how-to-get-published-3-structuring-an-article
Gustavii, Bjorn. 2008. How to write and illustrate a scientific paper. 2nd edition. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. Available in library: RCOM 808.0665 GUS
Lourens, Amanda. 2007. Scientific writing skills: guidelines for writing theses and dissertations.
Stellenbosch: SUN Press. Available in library: R 808.0665 LOU
References & Tools

50. Thank you!