1. Eseosa
Nelson
SUN:
081055283
and
Cand
no:
555738

2. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
2
Abstract
Past
research
have
indicated
that
female
rights
to
education
in
Nigeria
have
been
gravely
impeded
by
cultural
beliefs.
The
aim
of
this
research
was
to
explore
the
rationale
behind
the
low
ratio
of
female
to
male
engineers
in
Nigeria.
This
research
takes
you
through
the
general
background
of
a
patriarchy
society
and
the
experience
of
females
in
a
masculine
world.
The
research
questions,
focused
on
the
perceptions
of
women
as
it
pertained
to
life
in
the
workplace
as
a
female
engineer,
and
how
female
engineering
students
viewed
their
study
environments.
A
total
of
45
participants,
which
were
selected
purposefully,
were
involved
in
a
mixed
methodological
approach
of
both
quantitative
and
qualitative
data
collection.
The
mixed
methodological
tool
was
conducted
in
a
sequential
pattern
of
quantitative,
followed
by
qualitative
approach
thematically.
Of
the
total
number
of
participants,
23
were
selected
for
interviews,
which
combined
focus
groups,
and
face-­‐to-­‐face
interviews
to
build
on
a
more
in-­‐depth
analysis.
The
quantitative
data
was
analyzed
statistically
using
SPSS
and
survey
monkey
while
the
qualitative
data
was
analyzed
by
coding
and
categorizing
thematically,
using
a
method
of
triangulation.
The
findings
showed
that
the
reasons
behind
why
there
are
so
few
female
engineers
in
Nigeria
today
are:
females
experienced
a
hostile
environment
in
their
workplaces
and
teaching
environments,
the
cultural
beliefs
and
perceptions,
unavailability
of
role
models
in
the
field,
sexual
harassments
and
a
case
of
masculinity
of
the
engineering
field.
The
implications
of
a
positive
change
would
be
to
educate
the
community
on
gender
equality
by
teaching
that
although
male
and
female
are
different,
they
should
have
the
same
opportunities.
Impact
can
be
made
if
laws
on
sexual
harassments
are
re-­‐
enforced,
and
females
are
encouraged
into
engineering
by
promoting
scholarships
for
students
and
female
lecturers
in
the
field.

3.
3
Acknowledgement
Firstly,
I
give
thanks
to
the
Almighty
God
for
giving
me
the
strength,
will
and
Zeal
to
write
this
report.
I
want
to
thank
God
for
my
husband,
Mr.
Ephraim
Nelson
who’s
constant
love
and
belief
in
me
gave
me
the
motivation
and
encouragement
to
continue.
My
dearest
mother,
Barrister
Mrs.
C.O.
Agbonifo,
whose
prayers
continued
to
reach
me
daily
and
finally,
a
big
thank
you
to
my
Supervisor,
Dr.
Jane
Andrews,
who
always
told
me
that
I
was
better
than
what
I
thought
on
myself;
thereby
inspiring
in
me
the
confidence
to
believe
in
myself.

4. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
4
Table
of
Contents
ABSTRACT
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
3
CHAPTER
1:
INTRODUCTION
6
INTRODUCTION
6
BACKGROUND
OF
THE
CASE
STUDY
6
PROBLEM
STATEMENT
9
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
9
STUDY
ASSUMPTIONS
10
SUMMARY
10
CHAPTER
2:
LITERATURE
REVIEW
11
INTRODUCTION
11
OVERVIEW
OF
FACTORS
SERVING
AS
BARRIERS
FOR
FEMALE
ADVANCEMENT
IN
SCIENCE
AND
TECHNOLOGY
11
UNAVAILABILITY
OF
FEMALE
LECTURERS
AS
ROLE
MODELS
11
LACK
OF
EDUCATION
AS
A
BARRIER
TO
FEMALE
PARTICIPATION
IN
SCIENCE
AND
ENGINEERING
13
FEMALE
DROPOUTS
FROM
EDUCATION
16
IMPACT
OF
RELIGION
AS
A
BARRIER
TO
NIGERIAN
FEMALE
RIGHTS
AND
EDUCATION
18
SEXUAL
HARASSMENT
AS
AN
IMPACT
ON
FEMALE
EDUCATION
19
MASCULINITY
AND
FEMINIZATION
OF
ENGINEERING
20
CURRENT
STATE
OF
FEMALE
ENGINEERS
IN
NIGERIA
21
CHAPTER
3:
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
23
INTRODUCTION
23
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
24
HYPOTHESIS
24
OBJECTIVES
24
RESEARCH
METHODS
DESIGN
AND
JUSTIFICATION
25
MIXED
METHODOLOGY
25
QUANTITATIVE
METHOD
27
QUALITATIVE
METHODS
29
SAMPLING
APPROACH,
SIZE
AND
STRATEGY
31
SAMPLING
CRITERIA
32
DATA
COLLECTION
33
Surveys
34
Semi-­‐structured
interviews
34
DATA
ANALYSIS
35
RESEARCH’S
VALIDITY,
RELIABILITY
AND
GENERALISATION
36
ETHICAL
ISSUES
37
RESEARCH
LIMITATIONS
38
CHAPTER
4:
EMPIRICAL
FINDINGS
39
INTRODUCTION
39
QUANTITATIVE
QUESTIONNAIRE
FINDINGS
39
QUALITATIVE
INTERVIEW
FINDINGS
(FOCUS
GROUPS
AND
ONE-­‐ON-­‐ONES)
52

5.
5
SUMMARY
58
CHAPTER
5:
DISCUSSIONS,
CONCLUSIONS
AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
59
INTRODUCTION
59
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
59
DISCUSSION
AND
CRITIQUE
OF
MAJOR
FINDINGS
59
QUANTITATIVE
DATA
CRITIQUE
60
QUALITATIVE
DATA
CRITIQUE
63
SUMMARY
66
CONCLUSION
68
RECOMMENDATIONS
69
REFERENCES:
71
BIBLIOGRAPHY
79
APPENDICES
80
APPENDIX
A:
INFORMED
CONSENT
FORM
81
APPENDIX
B:
QUESTIONNAIRE
83
APPENDIX
C:
INTERVIEWS
88

6. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
6
Chapter
1:
Introduction
Introduction
The
aim
of
this
study
is
to
gain
an
insight
on
gender
and
engineering
education
in
Nigeria.
This
study
particularly
focuses
on
the
reasons
why
women
are
underrepresented
in
the
field
of
engineering
in
Nigeria.
In
order
to
achieve
this
aim,
the
study
starts
by
providing
a
detailed
background
of
the
case
study
(Nigeria),
discussing
the
history,
economy
and
patriarchal
culture
to
enable
understanding
of
a
woman’s
place
in
it.
The
literature
review
follows
by
examining
what
past
available
literature
provides
with
regards
to
this
topic.
The
methodology
section
explains
the
processes
by
which
this
research
was
conducted
and
justifications
behind
choices
made.
The
findings
chapter
displays
results
examined
through
an
empirical
process
of
data
collection.
These
would
be
critiqued
in
depth
via
a
combination
of
qualitative
and
quantitative
method
approaches.
Background
of
the
case
study
Nigeria,
a
country
whose
strength
is
founded
on
patriarchy,
can
be
described
as
having
multiple
tongues,
cultures,
ethnicity,
religions,
customs
and
traditions
(Ikime,
1980).
These
differences
had
a
remarkable
impact
on
the
development
of
western
education
brought
in
by
the
British
Colonial
rule,
before
and
after
the
country's
independence
in
1960 (Nduka,
1964).
Before
this
introduction,
the
country’s
local
education
was
all
about
physical
training
and
the
building
of
dispositions
for
young
children
(Amadiume
and
Caplan,
n.d.)
(Egun
and
Tibi,
2010).
The
disparity
between
gender
educations
arose
culturally
in
society,
from
vacuous
preconceptions
and
simply,
the
people’s
way
of
life
(Bloch
et
al,
1998).
It
has
also
been
emphasised
by
(Okojie,
1995)
and
(Igbe
2007)
that,
religious
and
cultural
beliefs,
gave
rise
to
a
theory
that
women
being
God’s
creation,
were
a
weaker
sex
and
as
such,
less
intelligent.
A
compilation
of
these,
added
to
the
bias
against
women’s
access
to
education
(Igbe
2007).

7.
7
This
can
be
traced
back
to
the
early
1900s,
where
learning
a
trade
was
a
way
of
life,
regardless
of
one’s
religion
or
cultural
belief
(Niven,
1965).
Women
were
never
expected
to
excel
at
education
before
this
period.
(Onyeizugbo,
2003)
This
infringement
on
right
of
women’s
education
is
still
evident
today,
and
has
had
very
negative
consequences
for
the
success
of
the
Nigerian
woman
(Allele-­‐
Williams,
1991).
For
example,
it
is
normal
to
see
gender
stereotypes
displayed
in
the
everyday
life
of
an
average
Nigerian.
(Ifegbesan,
2010).
Certain
vocations
like
medicine,
engineering
and
architecture
are
believed
to
be
male
orientated
professions
while
others
like
nursing,
catering,
receptionists
and
fashion,
are
regarded
for
women.
(Fakorode,1999).
These
arose
from
earlier
discussed
stereotyping,
causing
an
average
Nigerian
child
to
go
to
school
with
these
fixed
stereotypes.
(Yoloye,
1994).
Before
the
coming
of
western
education,
people
from
different
sectors
practiced
certain
trades
(Coleman,
1965).
Brass
work
was
famous
in
the
mid-­‐west,
woodcarving
in
the
east,
leather
works
in
the
north,
and
iron
casting
was
associated
with
people
in
the
central
part
of
the
country
(Geary,
2013).
Having
a
handy
trade
was
a
way
of
life
and
parents
played
a
significant
part
in
determining
what
sort
of
trades
their
children
embarked
upon,
depending
on
their
gender,
in
order
to
support
their
current
or
future
families
(Nduka,
1964).
Boys
were
made
to
take
up
trades
outside
the
home,
while
girls
were
restricted
to
tasks
within
the
home
to
prepare
them
to
be
what
society
regarded
as
good
mothers
and
amenable
wives
and/or
sisters
(Nka,
1974).
This
paradigm
shift
has
continued
to
the
extent
where
society
were
still
very
opinionated
on
what
roles
each
gender
should
play
in
society
today
(Ajayi,
1965).
The
Church
of
Missionary
Society
(CMS)
established
the
first
type
of
western
education
offered
in
Nigeria
in
1845
(Ajayi,
1965).
These
did
not
include
technical
courses,
but
was
loaded
with
religious
and
art
courses
(Fafunwa,
1971).
The
primary
aim
of
CMS
was
finding
individuals
who
would
translate
the

8. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
8
bible
into
local
languages
(Taiwo,
1980).
Traditional
education
continued
along
side
with
western
education
until
the
missionaries
decided
there
was
a
need
to
incorporate
pre-­‐employment
courses
in
the
syllabus
(Ikejiani,
1965).
In
1853,
Courses
in
carpentry,
cooking,
household
management,
tailoring,
and
metalwork
were
taught.
(Molokwu,
1990)
Between
1908
and
1935,
the
Nigerian
Railway
Corporation,
the
department
of
public
works
and
some
private
companies
such
as
Shell-­‐BP,
established
training
schools
for
their
technicians
(Fafunwa,
1971).
This
involvement
of
private
sectors
arose
as
a
result
of
the
need
to
maintain
equipment
by
technicians,
in
order
for
them
expand
their
businesses.
(Onyeizugbo,
2003).
During
this
period,
a
technician
was
viewed
as
a
male
who
could
fix
mechanical
or
electronic
devices
i.e.
turn
screws,
nuts,
and
bolts.
It
was
unimaginable,
to
think
of
a
female
as
a
technician;
therefore,
admittance
in
these
technical
institutions
was
strictly
boys
as
technicians
and
girls
for
the
vocational
home
economics
(Agheyisi,
1985)
Although
western
education
continued
to
grow
at
a
high
rate
in
the
southern
and
eastern
parts
of
Nigeria,
it
was
slower
in
the
northern
part
of
the
country
as
a
result
of
the
Islamic
religion
(Falola,
1999).
In
the
north,
getting
into
school
was
predominantly
for
boys
because
girls
were
pressured,
or
forced
in
some
ethnic
groups,
to
marry
at
a
tender
age
(Bidmos,
2003)
This
practice
resulted
in
expanding
the
gap
between
boys
and
girls
in
school
enrollments
(Umar,
2001)
The
difference
was
shown
in
the
numbers
of
the
1964-­‐65
university,
academic
year
(Fafunwa,
1971).
The
total
number
of
students
enrolled
in
the
five
universities
in
the
country
at
that
time
was
6,719.
Of
these
numbers,
only
591
(8%)
were
women
(Fafunwa,
1971).
This
record
postulated
that,
women
were
mostly
admitted
in
courses
such
as
arts,
business,
education,
law,
and
home
economics.
They
were
not
encouraged
to
study
programs
in
industrial
and
technical
education
like
engineering,
which
the
majority
of
women
saw
as
“male”
professions
(Chovwen,
2007).
Many
women
either
lost
interest
in
the
field
or
were
rejected
when
they
tried
to
join
(Zuga,
1998).
In
1967,
Nigeria
experienced
the
Biafra
war,
which
greatly
affected
the
country’s
economic
and
social
wellbeing
(Gould,
2011).
As
a
result
of
this,
women
had
no

9.
9
option
but
to
work
in
jobs
outside
the
home
to
assist
their
husbands
in
becoming
co-­‐breadwinners
of
the
home
(Ekwe-­‐Ekwe,
1990).
Problem
statement
The
problems
addressed
by
this
mixed
methodological
study
were
gender
inequalities
issues
that
affected
female
engineers,
either
at
their
workplace
or
in
their
study
environments.
Past
researchers
have
postulated
that,
the
gender
disparities
in
Nigeria,
are
more
pronounced
as
a
result
of
social
and
economic
reasons
of
educating
males
before
females;
as
females
should
be
more
housewives
rather
than
career
women,
because
once
they
are
educated,
they
are
less
likely
to
be
respectful
of
their
male
counterparts
and
this
cultural
belief
encourages
parents
to
be
less
likely
to
invest
in
the
education
of
their
daughters
(Oniye,
2010),
(Oladunni,
1999).
Women
who
get
educated
are
raised
with
this
perception
and
encouraged
to
take
up
degrees
that
are
classed
as
less
masculine
and
this
can
explain
why
women
remain
underrepresented
in
career
fields
such
as
engineering
(Badekale,
1990).
It
is
important
to
realise
that
engineering
comprises
of
fields,
which
are
not
restricted
to
men
only,
and
women
in
Nigeria
can
only
be
encouraged
to
enrol,
if
these
cultural
and
social
beliefs
are
subdued.
Research
questions
The
following
research
questions
listed
below,
were
used
to
guide
the
research
procedures:
Primary
research
question
What
are
the
current
gender,
related
challenges
women
in
Nigeria
face
with
regards
to
taking
up
engineering
as
a
career?
Sub-­‐questions

10. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
10
I. How
aware
are
young
Nigerian
women
with
regards
to
the
possibilities
offered
by
an
engineering
career?
II. What
are
the
main
influencers
impacting
young
women’s
decisions
about
entering
a
career
in
engineering
within
Nigeria?
Study
assumptions
This
study
assumed
two
cases.
The
first
was
that
all
participants
involved
gave
a
true
account
of
experiences
and
beliefs’,
relating
to
the
topic
and
the
second
was
that,
they
were
all
knowledgeable
in
their
responses
provided.
Summary
This
chapter
presented
the
aim
and
importance
of
the
research.
It
described
the
history
of
Nigeria
in
order
to
understand
the
challenges
females
faced
in
regards
to
their
educational
and
workplace
environment.
It
included
a
problem
statement
that
initiated
the
motives
of
this
study,
research-­‐questions
that
guided
the
way
the
study
was
conducted
and
the
assumptions
involved.
The
next
chapter
will
describe
what
past
literature
explored
with
regards
to
gender
and
engineering
in
Nigeria
and
the
issues
that
affect
female
education.

11.
11
Chapter
2:
Literature
Review
Introduction
This
chapter
provides
an
exploration
of
available
literature
on
issues
that
first
impede
female
education
in
Nigeria
and
then
graduates
on
to
science
and
technology
subjects,
such
as
engineering.
The
explored
literature
review
consists
of
an
overview
of
historical
and
current
issues
that
pertain
to
gender
and
engineering
education
and
the
experiences
of
female
engineers
in
the
workplace.
Overview
of
factors
serving
as
barriers
for
female
advancement
in
science
and
technology
Females
contribute
nearly
half
of
the
total
Nigeria
population
Nigerian
population
clock,
(2015).
Social,
political
and
economic
conflicts
have
caused
women
to
notice
a
decline
in
their
human
rights.
In
order
to
understand
why
there
are
so
few
women
in
engineering,
we
must
first
take
a
look
are
the
issues
women
face
with
education.
This
chapter
takes
us
through
what
issues
like
the
unavailability
of
role
models,
sexual
harassments,
etc.
Unavailability
of
female
lecturers
as
role
models
There
have
been
a
lot
of
studies
to
show
than
female
teachers
bring
out
the
best
in
girls
and
male
teachers,
the
best
in
boys
(Carrington,
Tymms
and
Merrell,
2005).
The
sex,
attitude
and
teaching
style
of
teachers,
can
impact
negatively
on
the
view
of
female
students
towards
science
and
technology
education
(Okeke,
1997).
According
to
the
study
carried
out
by
Spear,
M.G.
(1985),
science
teachers

12. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
12
awarded
their
classes
to
better
benefit
boys
than
girls,
causing
the
girls
to
develop
a
lack
of
interest
or
to
find
it
rather
difficult
(Spear,
1985).
A
teacher
who
has
cultural
believes
that
a
woman's
education
ends
up
in
the
kitchen,
might
not
bother
to
motivate
his/her
female
students
if
they
do
not
do
as
well
as
their
male
counterparts
in
science
subjects
(Ocho,
1985).
This
negative
attitude
works
against
women’s
access
to
science
and
technology
education
in
Nigeria
(Aderemi,
2010).
Subjects
like
home
economics
for
instance,
are
given
predisposition
in
girls'
schools
while
subjects
such
as
technical
drawing
and
woodwork
are
given
preference
in
boys'
schools
(Allele-­‐
Williams,
1991).
This
practice
tends
to
prevent
women
from
learning
science
and
technology
subjects
(Yoloye,
1994).
What
this
means
is
that,
if
the
women
are
unable
to
study
science
and
technology
subjects,
then
this
will
obviously
affect
their
opportunity
to
study
engineering
at
an
undergraduate
level
as
it
is
however,
based
on
science
subjects.
Table
1:
ratio
of
female
to
male
teachers
from
1984
-­‐
1991
Primary
Secondary
Year
Male
&
female
total
Female
only
Male
&
female
total
Female
only
1984/5
13,025,287
5,768,791
2,988,174
1,248,752
1986/7
11,540,178
5,019,570
2,934,749
1,234,127
1990
13,697,249
5,382,580
2,723,741
1,142,143
1991
352,600
150,847
141,491
44,850
(Adapted
from
statistical
data
from
the
ministry
of
education
Lagos)
(Vandervoort,
1985)
wrote
about
the
significance
of
female
instructors
as
good
examples
to
female
understudies.
The
report
focused
on
circumstances
where
just
male
teachers
are
accessible;
females
would
tend
to
bashful
far
from
such
fields
and
that
female
role
models
would
set
the
track
for
new
entrants
(Vandervoort,
1985).
However,
opposing
views
show
that
in
Canada,
(Armour,
1985)
wrote
that
even

13.
13
though
there
was
a
low
rate
of
female
lecturers
in
the
University
of
Alberta’s
science
and
engineering
faculties,
the
female
students
performed
better
than
their
male
colleges
but
then
she
also
reported
that
the
university
had
found
other
means
to
stimulate
its
female
students
by
employing
the
means
of
scholarships.
In
Nigeria,
the
Association
of
Professional
Women
Engineers
in
Nigeria
(APWEN)
is
presently
laying
much
importance
to
the
provision
of
role
models
in
schools
through
extension
of
student
membership
to
female
students
(UNDP,
1995)
Lack
of
Education
as
a
Barrier
to
female
Participation
in
science
and
engineering
One
of
the
significant
issues
confronting
Nigerian
ladies
today
is
lack
of
education
(Olatokun,
2007).
The
Nigerian
culture
has
since
time
immemorial,
demonstrated
a
bias
to
ladies
getting
formal
training
and
ladies
would
should
be
liberated
from
this
mood
to
empower
them
to
contend
at
a
national
level
(Woldie
and
Adersua,
2004).
The
educational
needs
of
women
in
Nigeria
have
been
looked
into
forcibly
in
the
last
decade,
especially
in
such
areas
as
engineering,
accounting,
management
and
sciences
(Ogunjuyigbe,
Ojofeitimi,
and
Akinlo,
2006).
According
to
(Anugwom,
2009),
although
these
efforts
have
helped
women
in
Nigeria,
the
challenges
are
that,
since
1947
adult
education
has
been
narrowed
down
to
mass
literacy
programs,
vocational
training,
community
development,
social
welfare,
and
industrial
work.
This
has
acted
as
a
decisive
factor
in
encouraging
women
to
become
recognizable
in
society
as
businesswomen
(Garba,
1999).
(Ezegbogu,
2008)
expostulated
that
a
main
view
on
the
education
of
women
and
empowerment
is
the
women
in
development
(WID).
This
approach,
given
recognition
by
the
World
Bank
and
other
UN
agencies,
was
based
on
the
assumption
that
education
helps
to
achieve
greater
heights
in
the
society
and

14. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
14
therefore
policies
for
women’s
greater
access
to
education
must
be
based
on
gender
equality
(Ezegbogu,
2008).
Judging
from
this
WID
approach,
this
perhaps
will
assist
with
involving
women
more
with
science
and
technology
subjects
enabling
some
of
these
women
to
eventually
decide
to
study
engineering
at
university
levels
(Badekale,
1990).
It
is
important
to
realize
that
women
of
today
in
many
parts
of
Africa
are
still
being
subjected
to
live
in
a
patriarchy
society
where
their
human
rights
are
not
enforced
(Isiugo-­‐Abanihe,
1994).
Subsequently,
if
more
women
get
formal
education
in
Nigeria,
the
percentage
of
the
resources
of
the
nation
will
rise;
more
women
would
gain
the
mental
skill
and
capability
required
for
work
life
(Ojobo,
2008).
Closely
related
to
this,
women’s
involvement
in
formal
education
leads
to
their
involvement
in
labor
force,
it
may
prevent
the
rate
of
female
dropouts
and
enable
them
to
enter
courses
that
are
considered
as
male
orientated
careers
Chovwen,
C.
(2007).
Women
according
to
the
Nigerian
population
clock
(2015)
constitute
49.4%
of
the
entire
population.
This
is
nearly
half
the
population.
So
it
would
be
reasonable
to
imagine
that
the
economy
would
be
counterproductive,
if
all
women
were
to
be
stay-­‐at-­‐home
moms
or
dropouts
at
some
stage
in
their
educational
cycle
(Yahaya
and
Lasiele,
1999).
However,
a
situation
where
a
substantial
amount
of
women
after
being
educated,
do
not
contribute
in
society
because
they
are
“women”,
then
a
curvature
will
be
seen
in
the
development
process
(Acker,
1994)
Boko
Haram,
(meaning
western
or
non-­‐Islamic
education
is
a
sin),
is
a
part
of
the
Sharia
law
that
has
been
in
existence
in
Nigeria
since
2009
(Adesoji,
2010).
This
is
one
major
threat
to
educating
girls
in
Nigeria
as
it
insists
on
females
tending
to
work
on
the
home
front
only,
and
not
going
to
school
(Cook,
2011).
If
awareness
and
policies
are
put
in
place
and
properly
funded
to
re-­‐enforce
the
need
for
female
education
this
could
go
a
long
way
in
eradicating
the
inequalities
in
employment
opportunities,
the
religious
beliefs
and
the
ethnic
barriers
that
deprive
these
women’s
social
lives
(Shaheed,
1995).
These
programs
should
be
made
to
fortify
the
women’s
belief
in
them
selves,
make
them
independent
and
self-­‐confident
(Lincove,
2009).

15.
15
(Subbarao
and
Raney,
1993)
affirmed
that
the
shortfall
of
formal
education
was
also
identified
as
a
major
factor
to
the
underdevelopment
of
Africa,
and
a
huge
obstacle
in
Nigeria’s
evolution
and
that
this
imbalance
favored
men.
Past
researches
have
shown
that
many
female
students
graduate
with
lower
classes
of
degrees
and
many
of
those
that
graduate
with
excellent
degrees
have
found
it
difficult
to
perform
in
their
field,
inhibiting
educational
quality
for
Nigerian
universities
(Allele-­‐
Williams,
1991).
The
table
below
shows
the
enrolled
students
in
Nigerian
secondary
schools
by
gender
between
the
years
2000
and
2012
Table
2:
gender
enrolment
in
Nigerian
sec.
sch.
from
2000-­‐2012
Year
Male
Female
Total
2000
1,264,903
1,012,388
2,227,291
2001
1,431,633
1,148,535
2,580,168
2002
1,746,909
1,203,823
2,950,732
2003
2,083,699
1,600,945
3,684,644
2004
1,972,637
1,535,291
3,507,928
2005
1,984,387
1,639,776
3,624,163
2006
1,653,753
1,281,219
2,934,972
2007
1,944,843
1,531,220
3,476,063
2008
2,150,037
1,784,024
3,934,061
2009
2,143,235
2,022,016
4,435,251
2010
2,703,938
2,306,289
5,010,227
2011
2,410,817
1,902,347
4,313,164
2012
2,408,578
2,061,459
4,470,037
(Source:
based
on
“Education
for
all
2015
National
review
report:
Nigeria”)
From
table
2
above,
we
can
see
that
fewer
women
were
enrolled
every
single
year
listed
above.

16. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
16
Some
issues
that
do
prevent
these
children
from
going
to
schools
especially
females
is
poverty
(this
prevents
parents
from
sending
their
kids
to
schools
or
just
enough
to
choose
to
send
just
the
male
instead
of
the
female)
and
child
labor
concerns
where
these
parents
are
too
poor
and
cannot
afford
fees
altogether
and
result
in
working
their
child
at
an
early
age
(UNESCO,
2006).
Female
dropouts
from
education
According
to
past
research
on
the
topic,
it
has
been
found
that
most
of
the
female
dropout
cases
emerged
from
homes
of
single
mothers
who
themselves
were
uneducated
and
brought
up
their
families
on
low
incomes
(Aluko,
2006).
Other
researches
about
parental
occupations
and
incomes
also
ascertained
the
above
as
true,
since
most
parents
of
female
dropouts,
were
engaged
in
low
income
generating
jobs
in
the
informal
sector,
and
possessed
a
trivial
amount
of
property
(Ajaja,
2012).
In
other
words,
schools
in
Nigeria
are
for
those
who
can
afford
it,
which
contradicts
the
aim
of
the
national
education
policy,
who’s
vision
is
to
service
the
underprivileged
of
society
by
introducing
Universal
Basic
Education
(UBE)
(Unagha,
2008)
Overall,
domestic
work
represents
the
single
most
important
area
for
which
parents
limit
their
daughters
(Okoli,
2014).
Nigeria
has
allocated
days
of
the
month,
which
are
known
as
market
days:
on
these days,
traders
bring
out
their
goods
during
the
products,
harvest
season
for
sale.
Dropouts
from
school
are
particularly
high,
during
these
periods
(Aluko,
2006).
The
contribution
of
domestic
work
to
female
dropouts
has
been
rated
as
low.
This
seems
so
only
because
there
is
an
abundance
of
labour
on
the
labour
market.
Otherwise,
this
demand
affects
female
education.
Cultural
practices
and
institutions
including
early
marriage,
home
parental
services,
pregnancy,
harassment,
religious
beliefs
and
employment
in
domestic
market,
significantly
contribute
to
female
dropouts
in
both
Nigeria
and
some
other
countries
in
the
world
(Acker,
1994).
In
rural
schools,
the
percentages
of
female
dropouts
are
much
higher
than
in
urban
schools
and
most
of
these
dropouts
were
found
to
have
been
instigated
by
early
marriages
and
poverty
(Ajaja,
2012)

17.
17
Schools
also
have
a
role
in
the
drop
out
rates
of
female
students
because
shortage
of
instructional
materials
and
textbooks
were
found
to
be
the
crucial
ones
Oguzor,
U.
C.
(2014).
Those
this
affects
both
males
and
females;
it
would
be
a
further
infringement
to
the
already
subdued,
female
rights.
The
means
that
in
order
to
promote
the
Nigerian
female
education,
these
essential
needs
would
need
to
be
met.
In
a
study
carried
out
in
one
of
the
southern
states
of
Nigeria
by
(Alika
and
Egbochuku,
2010)
to
show
the
reasons
why
girls
drop
out
on
education
are
shown
on
the
table
and
pie
chart
below.
Table
3:
responses
on
a
past
research
on
why
girls
drop
out
of
school
Responses %
Poverty 53%
Poor academic performance 16%
Opposite sex bullying 10%
Unfriendly school environment 9%
Distance of school from home 5%
Early marriages and pregnancies 4%
Ill health 1%
Inadequate teaching 1%
parents death 1%
100%
(Adapted
from:
Alika
and
Egbochuku,
2010)
from:
http://library.unesco-­‐
iicba.org/English/Girls%20Education/All%20Articles/General/Dropout%20from%20School%20among%20Girls%20in
%20Edo%20State.pdf
Figure
1:
Respondent’s
reasons
for
dropping
out
of
school

18. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
18
(Adapted
from:
Alika
and
Egbochuku,
2010)
from:
http://library.unesco-­‐
iicba.org/English/Girls%20Education/All%20Articles/General/Dropout%20from%20School%20among%20Girls%20in
%20Edo%20State.pdf
Impact
of
Religion
as
a
Barrier
to
Nigerian
female
rights
and
education
In
every
part
of
the
world,
there
are
religious
values
and
norms,
which
can
negatively
affect
women
by
infringing
on
their
human
rights
if
enforced.
According
to
(Antoninis,
2014),
Nigeria
has
strict
equality
laws
for
men
and
women
but
only
in
principle.
In
practice,
Sharia
Law
determines
the
order
of
the
day
in
many
Northern
states
but
also,
Christian
laws
which
ascertain
that
a
woman
must
be
submissive
can
have
adverse
effects
on
what
a
female
decides
to
study,
or
if
she
furthers
her
education
at
all
(Antoninis,
2014).
A
combination
of
religion
and
native
laws
and
customs
affects
women
at
all
levels
of
the
society
Adesoji,
A.
(2010).
Women
are
often
seen
as
incomplete
if
they
had
reached
the
age
of
marriage
and
were
yet
unmarried
(Fayokun,
2015).
Although
the
constitution
of
the
country
grants
and
guarantees
Nigerians
fundamental
freedoms
and
human
rights,
the
countless
customary
and
religious
laws
and
practices
that
adversely
affect
the
women
weakens
their
freedom
(Nnadi,
2014).
The
author
also
claimed
that
the
constitution
is
undermined
by
religious
politics
and
that
seems
to
cause
a
great
deal
of
ambiguity
on
gender
issues
(Nnadi,
2014).
For
instance,
underage
marriages
appear
to
be
supported
by
the
0.53
0.16
0.1
0.09
0.05
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.01
Dropouts
in
%
poverty
poor
academic
performance
opposite
sex
bullying
unfriendly
school
environment
distance
of
school
from
home

19.
19
constitution
because
all
married
girls
under
the
age
of
18
are
prosecuted
as
adults,
in
accordance
to
the
law
(Nnadi,
2014).
Young
girls
and
ladies
through
their
religious
instruction
are
taught
their
convictions
with
respect
to
their
gender
roles.
They
then
get
to
be
confounded
and
this
is
on
account
of
in
the
wake
of
being
taught
by
religion,
to
acknowledge
their
social
parts
and
interests
by
the
general
public
It
gets
to
be
troublesome
for
them
to
acknowledge
a
feminist
education
scheme
that
evacuates
deterrents
to
the
ladies'
capacities
to
function
as
individuals,
and
proceed
with
gender
equality
(Azuh
et
al.,
2014)
Sexual
Harassment
as
an
impact
on
female
education
In
Nigeria,
the
issue
of
sexual
harassment
in
colleges
and
universities
first
arose
in
the
early
1980s
leading
to
policies,
procedures
and
training
programs
being
designed
to
seek
out
and
prevent
sexual
harassment
(Alade
and
Arowolo,
2014).
What
western
countries
regard
as
sexual
harassment,
are
not
necessarily
regarded
as
such
in
Nigeria;
For
example,
making
sexual
comments
to
a
female
is
generally
regarded
as
complimentary
and
taken
as
such
(Rahayu
and
Helen,
2015).
Sexual
harassment
affects
female
negatively,
especially
if
this
occurs
at
their
place
of
study.
According
to
(Akanle,
2007),
if
practical
steps
are
taken
by
the
government
to
address
such
issues,
then
this
could
strengthen
opportunities
for
women,
by
way
of
increasing
their
access
to
education,
guarantying
their
rights
and
self-­‐confidence
in
themselves.
(Akanle,
2007)
also
postulated
that,
because
sex
education
is
not
made
available
to
young
female
students,
they
become
vulnerable
to
sexual
harassment,
as
they
are
non-­‐the-­‐wiser
of
what
it
entails.
Sexual
harassment
is
a
real
life
experience
for
women
all
across
the
globe.
According
to
the
(AAUW,
2006)
report,
about
62%
of
students
have
been
sexually
harassed
and
peer
harassments
were
41%.
(AAUW,
2006)
identified
sexual
harassment
as
number
one
persistent
problem
in
education
at
all
levels.
It
argued
that
sexual
harassment
posed
a
damaging
effect
on
the
educational
experience
of
many
college
students
and
interferes
with

20. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
20
students'
ability
to
learn.
According
to
their
report,
sexual
harassment
interferes
with
the
students'
ability
to
perform
in
an
educational
setting.
Masculinity
and
feminization
of
engineering
Engineering
and
its
different
fields,
reveal
a
career
that
is
regarded
as
masculine
(Bystydzienski
and
Brown,
2012).
(Badekale,
1990)
postulated
that,
people
do
not
usually
regard
women
as
scientists
and
those
that
do
are
seen
as
extraordinary
females.
As
a
result
of
this
paradigm
shift,
women
tend
to
set
their
sights
at
careers
deemed
as
lower
for
feminine
softer
skills,
like
nursing
and
teaching.
The
explanations
given
for
this
dominance
by
men
have
been
speculative.
As
(Breakwell,
1980)
explained,
this
acts
as
a
barrier
in
the
restriction
of
women
involvement
in
engineering.
(Nivea
and
Gutek,
1981)
presented
four
models
explaining
women’s
lower
status
in
organizations.
A
noteworthy
school
of
thought
recommends
that
there
are
natural
sex
contrasts,
hereditarily
pre-­‐customised,
which
advance
young
men's
viability
in
science
and
technology
and
subsequently
hasten
the
subject
specialisms.
The
subject
specialisms
support
the
vicinity
and
passage
of
men
into
engineering
and
other
science
fields
(Nivea
and
Gutek,
1981).
(Newton,
1981)
wrote
on
the
traditional
image
of
engineering
as
being
heavy,
dirty
and
masculine,
while
a
woman
who
would
succeed
in
the
field
had
to
be
tough,
aggressive
and
masculine.
If
she
does
not
possess
these
characteristics,
then
she
must
work
in
menial
jobs
requiring
manual
dexterity
and
“nimble
fingers”.
(Nivea
and
Gutek,
1981)
identified
this
as
the
sex
role
model.
The
masculinity
surrounding
the
image
of
engineering
over
the
years
remained
very
powerful
and
in
turn
reinforced
the
belief
that
the
field
is
unsuitable
for
none
other
than
men.
Thus,
women
until
recently
formed
a
small
percentage
of
total
enrolments
in
university
engineering
departments
all
over
the
world.
(Linden
et
al,
1985)
and
(Sheridan,
1984)
affirmed
that
in
the
United
States,
the
number
of
women
who
matriculate
into
and
graduate
from
engineering
faculties

21.
21
have
increased
over
the
past
decade,
while
women
form
about
20
percent
of
beginning
engineering
students.
Current
state
of
female
engineers
in
Nigeria
Generally,
the
employment
of
women
workers
is
unstable
as
a
result
of
various
factors,
which
can
be
attributed
to
the
organizational
stereotypes
or
to
the
women
themselves.
It
is
still
stated
statistically
that
women
employment
in
industries
is
only
10
or
15
percent.
The
absence
of
these
would-­‐be
“leaders”
could
discourage
young
girls
from
being
attracted
to
male-­‐dominated
professions.
(Newton,
1986)
highlighted
that,
engineering
as
a
profession
was
changing
with
less
emphasis
placed
on
the
older
heavy-­‐duty
type
of
engineering.
In
its
place
are
computers
and
chips,
printed
circuit
boards
and
electronics.
However,
it
was
revealed
that
women
in
engineering
are
not
dramatically
different
from
women
in
the
more
traditionally
feminine
fields,
or
from
their
male
engineer
counterparts.
(Kanter,
1976)
reported
examination
on
female
workers,
which
demonstrated
that
ladies
did
not
look
for
or
discover
vocation
accomplishment
for
a
few
variables.
One
was
that
ladies
learnt
that
high
accomplishment
implied
a
loss
of
their
conventional
gentility.
Gentility,
which
was
favored,
was
along
these
lines
protected
while
accomplishment
was
relinquished.
The
study
conducted
by
(Kanter,
1976)
however
revealed
that
there
were
no
serious
sex-­‐related
individual
differences
between
women
and
men’s
behavior
at
work.
She
found,
along
other
things,
that
lack
of
opportunity
to
succeed
and
not
a
personality
style
that
shows
success
is
what
separates
the
women
from
men.
Other
research
revealed
that
the
corporate
world
requires
its
participants
to
be
willing
to
relocate,
to
surpass
rivals
without
hesitation
and
even
use
other
people
to
advance
in
status.
Highly
mobile
groups
quickly
become
more
involved
with
their
task,
avoid
irrelevant
chatter,
and
get
on.
As
reported

22. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
22
by
(Kanter,
1976)
studies
point
out
that
people
who
have
worked
for
a
female
boss
are
much
likely
to
be
favorably
disposed
towards
female
leaders.
Table
4:
ratio
of
females
to
males
in
the
diff.
Eng.
departments
in
the
university
of
Benin
Field
(Engineering)
Males
Females
Mechanical
93
1
Electrical/electronic
76
1
Chemical
78
5
Civil
113
10
Based
on
research

23.
23
Chapter
3:
Research
Methodology
Introduction
The
purpose
of
this
pragmatic
research
is
to
explore
the
reasons
why
women
are
underrepresented
in
the
engineering
fields
in
Nigeria,
by
exploring
the
reasons
why
so
few
girls
study
engineering
and
how
those
who
eventually
take
on
engineering
as
a
career,
fare
in
their
various
fields.
This
study
sought
to
make
an
enquiry
into
a
patriarchy
society
to
get
an
in-­‐depth
view
on
the
above
stated.
Figure
2
below,
shows
the
structure
of
this
chapter.
Figure
2:
general
outline
of
research
methodology
(created
by
author)
Created
by
author.
• Litreature
Review
•
Enquairy
Plan
•
Methods
Elements
&
enquiries
•
Qualitative
• Quantitaive
•
Mixed-­‐Methods
Research
approach
• Questionnaire
•
Data
collection
•
Findings
Analysis
• Validation/Reliability/
Generalisability
•
Recommendations
•
Conclusions
Design
process

24. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
24
Research
questions
The
following
research
questions
listed
below,
were
used
to
guide
the
research
procedures:
Primary
research
question
What
are
the
current
gender,
related
challenges
women
in
Nigeria
face
with
regards
to
taking
up
engineering
as
a
career?
Sub-­‐questions
I. How
aware
are
young
Nigerian
women
with
regards
to
the
possibilities
offered
by
an
engineering
career?
II. What
are
the
main
influencers
impacting
young
women’s
decisions
about
entering
a
career
in
engineering
within
Nigeria?
Hypothesis
H1:
There
are
fewer
female
engineers
in
Nigeria
as
a
result
of
the
patriarchal,
societal
belief
that
it
is
a
male
orientated
field.
H2:
many
young,
female,
engineering,
students
are
unaware
of
the
career
possibilities
that
engineering
offers
them
H3:
Female,
Nigerian
students
would
mainly
choose
a
different
degree
over
engineering
because
they
are
of
a
view
that
it
is
difficult.
Objectives
The
following
objectives
were
used
to
guide
this
study
! To
understand
what
past
literature
postulates
about
women
and
engineering
in
Nigeria
! To
group
data
collected
from
literature
in
main
themes
! To
determine
the
perceptions
of
gender
related
issues
females
face
in
their
time
at
university

25.
25
! To
determine
whether
sexual
harassment
between
lecturers
and
female
students,
can
serve
as
deterrent
to
females
enrolled
in
the
so
called
male
orientated
courses
at
the
university
level
! To
understand
the
male
perceptions
of
women
in
engineering
! To
gain
an
insight
of
how
women
fare
in
their
engineering
careers
! To
conduct
a
mixed
methodology
research
in
collecting
qualitative
and
quantitative
data
in
the
form
of
questionnaires
and
interviews
! To
display
and
analyze
data
collected
against
data
from
past
literature
and
to
illuminate
on
new
areas.
! To
make
a
series
of
future
recommendations
for
other
reports
of
this
magnitude
Research
methods
design
and
justification
Mixed
Methodology
Previously,
considering
a
case
of
qualitative
versus
quantitative
research
was
seen
as
appropriate:
but
in
more
recent
times,
a
combination
of
both
methods
is
noted
as
more
reliable
in
a
social
research
(Johnstone,
2004).
Mixed
methodology
is
a
combination
of
different
approaches
and
the
combination
of
methods
used
in
this
study
is
the
qualitative
method
using
inductive
analysis
approach
(inductive:
discovery
of
patterns),
quantitative
using
deductive
analysis
approach
(deductive:
testing
of
theories
or
hypothesis),
to
maximize
one’s
advantages
and
reduce
the
weakness
of
both
in
a
single
research
(Creswell
and
Clark,
2007).
Mixed
methods
research
also
is
an
attempt
to
make
valid,
the
use
of
multiple
approaches
in
answering
research
questions
(pragmatism),
rather
than
limiting
the
researcher’s
choice
(dogmatism)
(Johnstone,
2004).
The
advantages
of
using
this
method
is
to
expand
the
research
in
such
a
way
that
a
single
method
would
not,
collect
statistical
data
along
with
interview

26. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
26
observations
to
make
it
more
comprehensible
to
readers
and
above
all,
provide
a
more
reliable/justifiable
result
than
using
just
one
form
of
research
methodology.
The
research
combined
qualitative
(surveys)
and
quantitative
(interviews)
in
this
study
to
achieve
better
results.
The
setting
of
this
study
was
in
Nigeria,
Africa.
This
case
study
was
chosen
because
of
its
issues
on
gender
and
education
as
realized
from
past
literature.
The
mode
of
this
study
is
purposive
because
it
hand-­‐selected
its
participants
according
to
their
availability
for
this
research,
and
their
knowledge
and
understanding
of
the
chosen
topic.
The
purpose
of
using
this
sequential,
mixed
methods
design
is
to
generalize:
through
qualitative
semi-­‐structured
interviews
and
quantitative
surveys,
the
reasons
behind
the
less
female
involvement
with
engineering
in
Nigeria
and
to
understand
how
those
females
that
work
in
engineering
fare
in
their
diverse
careers.
So
basically,
this
research
deals
with
the
issues
involved
with
gender
and
engineering
education
in
Nigeria.
Qualitative
research
is
conducted
when
people
need
to
be
empowered
to
share
their
stories
or
make
their
voices
heard
(Creswell,
2007).
Qualitative
methods
are
usually
selected
when
the
researcher’s
intent
is
to
describe
and
understand
a
complex
phenomenon
from
the
perspective
of
the
participants.
Conversely,
the
quantitative
research
method
is
used
when
the
researcher’s
intent
is
to
seek
explanations
and
predictions
that
would
be
used
to
generalize
to
other
situations
(Creswell,
2007).
The
researcher
adopted
a
sequential,
explanatory
design
which
first
included
the
collection
of
quantitative
data,
and
building
upon
based
on
the
responses,
the
qualitative
data
subsequently
in
a
semi-­‐structured
style
(Creswell,
2003).
The
justifications
behind
using
a
sequential
approach
as
opposed
to
parallel
design
was
that,
the
quantitative
was
created
first,
thematically,
to
understand
the
perceptions
of
students
and
then
based
on
the
responses,
a
qualitative
approach
was
used
to
build
upon
this
responses
as
they
pertained
to
the
research
questions.
The
qualitative
methods
were
used
to
explain
and
analyze
the
quantitative
findings.
This
section
is
partitioned
into
2
parts.
The
first
will
discuss
the
appropriateness
of
the
quantitative
method
used
and
its
justification
and
the
same
will
be
repeated
for
the
qualitative
method.

27.
27
For
the
sake
of
word
limitations
to
this
research,
only
the
very
essential
questions
are
included
in
the
justification.
Quantitative
Method
Quantitative
methods
were
adopted
in
this
research
to
cover
a
wide
range
of
participants,
which
would
uncover
statistically
a
range
of
data
within
the
time
frame
given
to
complete
this
research.
The
quantitative
method
used
in
this
study
is
in
the
form
of
a
questionnaire
with
a
list
of
closed
questions,
which
have
advantages
of
accessing
a
wider
range
of
individuals
(Wright,
2005).
Questionnaires
were
used
as
they
have
the
ability
to
save
cost
and
can
reach
more
people
within
a
short
space
of
time
(Wright,
2005)
but
on
the
other
hand,
there
could
be
sampling
issues
such
as
limited
information
on
demographics,
where
questions
asked
may
not
necessarily
pertain
to
the
individuals
involved
and
also
a
limited
response
rate
may
limit
research
as
most
people
tend
to
ignore
questionnaires.
This
challenge
was
however
not
an
issue
with
this
research
as
the
surveys
were
self-­‐administrated
by
the
researcher,
to
a
select
amount
of
people
and
collected
immediately
afterwards.
The
total
number
of
questionnaires
distributed
was
45.
Of
these
45,
social
science
students
were
given
20,
engineering
students
had
20
and
5
were
distributed
to
female
engineers.
Three
separate
questionnaires
were
created
but
with
relatively
similar
kind
of
questions.
After
all
responses
were
collected,
a
singular
questionnaire
was
created
via
survey
monkey
that
accommodated
all
3
and
the
researcher,
for
analysis
purposes
imputed
the
responses.
SPSS
was
also
used
to
test
if
there
were
differences
reported
in
the
responses
that
differed
to
the
researcher’s
expectations.
Below
are
the
justifications
behind
each
theme
created
(These
justifications
here
are
based
on
a
thematic
list.
Please
refer
to
bibliography).

28. [GENDER
AND
ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
IN
NIGERIA]
28
Theme
1:
Demographics:
these
are
characteristics
of
the
population,
like
age,
gender,
education,
marital
status,
etc.
Demographic
questions
are
asked
to
understand
the
population
and
why
they
answer
certain
questions
the
way
they
do
(Wyse,
2012).
For
example,
male
students
might
answer
some
gender
questions
completely
differently
to
their
female
counterparts.
Theme
2
(career
awareness):
these
questions
were
asked
to
the
students
because
it
helped
the
researcher
understand
the
reasoning
behind
the
different
career
choices
of
both
social
science
students
and
sciences
(particularly
engineering).
For
example,
people
answering
no
to
a
question
like
did
you
attend
any
career
planning
session
before
gaining
before
deciding
on
a
career
path
to
follow
might
not
actually
have
necessarily
have
known
exactly
what
their
potentials
portrayed
before
embarking
on
a
course
of
study
or
might
have
had
it
chosen
by
others
for
them
like
family
members.
The
answers
to
this
question
will
help
the
researcher
to
understand
the
reasoning
behind
the
career
choices,
it
will
also
enable
an
understanding
of
if
they
feel
they
made
the
right
career
choices
for
themselves.
Theme
3
(motivation):
“Do
you
feel
free
to
approach
your
lecturers
for
clarity
after
classes.”
There
was
a
follow
up
question
for
those
who
answered
no
to
this
question
with
options
of
fear,
gender
of
lecturer,
sexual
harassment
and
lecturer
difficult
to
approach
and
option
of
other.
People
who
answered
No
to
the
first
question
and
then
gave
an
option
on
the
second
would
help
the
researcher
see
if
there
was
a
trend
of
dropouts,
failures
or
other
harassment
claims
that
can
lead
to
female
dropouts
from
education.
It
would
also
help
to
see
how
motivated
the
students
were
in
their
current
course
of
study.
Theme
4
(gender
and
engineering
education):
Here,
a
set
of
questions
here
like
“My
upbringing
played
a
significant
role
in
my
career
choice,
Engineering
is
a
technical
course
and
should
be
more
gender
orientated,
In
the
workplace,
the
“who
you
know”
is
more
a
basis
of
success
than
hard
work,
I
have
been
a
victim
of
sexism
at
work,
etc.”
These
were
some
of
the
ranking
scale
questions
asked
to

29.
29
the
women
already
working
as
engineers
in
order
to
get
a
perception
of
how
they
viewed
their
work
environment
and
the
challenges
in
obtaining
their
current
positions
as
females
in
a
field
regarded
as
male
dominated.
Qualitative
methods
Qualitative
methods
according
to
Creswell
are
methods
of
in-­‐depth
collection
of
information
from
a
small
sample
of
participants
(Creswell,
2003).
It
begins
with
making
observations
where
no
initial
hypothesis
can
be
drawn
from
the
initial
stages
of
the
research
i.e.
the
researcher
cannot
determine
the
type
and
nature
of
the
research
findings
until
all
studies
are
completed
(Langdridge
and
Hagger-­‐
Johnson,
1985.)
The
decision
to
use
qualitative
research
method
for
this
study
is
based
on
an
attempt
to
explore
the
primary
and
sub
research
questions
and
because
its
primary
purpose
is
to
describe
and
clarify
experience
as
it
is
lived
and
the
awareness
of
how
it
is
viewed
(Creswell
and
Clark,
2011).
These
questions
were
opened
questions
in
contrast
to
the
quantitative
questionnaires
with
closed
questions.
Open
questions
are
used
because
they
provide
in-­‐depth/detailed
information
and
they
identify
patterns
and
mannerisms
of
the
interviewees.
Depending
on
the
answers,
this
might
actually
prove
that
individuals
might
act
(observed
behaviors
in
interview)
differently
and
say
different
things
from
what
they
actually
write
down
on
the
questionnaires
(Rubin,
H.
J.,
&
Rubin,
I.
S.
2011).
This
can
aid
the
researcher
to
compare
and
contrast,
hence
the
use
of
mixed
methodology
(Merriam,
1998).
The
interview
guidelines
and
consent
form
are
included
in
appendix
B
of
this
research
study.
Each
set
of
questions
was
listed
separately
under
themes.
The
themes
presented
in
the
interviews
are
different
from
the
questionnaire
themes
because
the
questionnaire
was
presented
to
participants
first
and
based
on
their
responses;
the
interview
was
guided
to
expand
on
their
responses
in
a
semi-­‐
structured
style.
For
the
sake
of
word
limitations,
only
a
few
would
be
justified
here.

30. [GENDER
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30
(These
justifications
here
are
based
on
a
thematic
list.
Please
refer
to
bibliography)
Theme
1:
Demographics/background:
these
are
characteristics
of
the
population,
like
age,
gender,
education,
marital
status,
etc.
Demographic
questions
are
asked
to
understand
the
population
and
why
they
answer
certain
questions
the
way
they
do
(Wyse,
2012).
The
focus
group
demographic
semi-­‐structured
interview,
asked
each
individual
their
age
and
the
reason
behind
this
was
to
ascertain
if
they
were
of
the
right
age
for
participation
and
the
women
in
engineering
firms
were
asked
about
their
marital
status.
The
reasoning
behind
this
was
if
some
of
them
worked
offshore,
it
will
help
the
researcher
to
ask
another
questions
of
if/how
this
affected
their
family
lives,
or
on
other
issues
they
might
face
either
at
work
for
being
single,
or
at
home
with
their
husbands
for
being
gone
for
a
certain
period
of
time.
Theme
2:
Early
experiences
(sub-­‐themes
were
motivation,
education
early
influences
and
reflections
on
study)
the
engineering
career
women
were
asked
questions
on
their
first
interview,
first
week
at
work,
if
they
had
a
proper
induction/training,
etc.
their
answers
will
help
to
shape
the
understanding
of
the
initial
stage.
For
example,
if
they
experienced
some
issues
with
sexism
as
a
result
of
their
gender,
it
would
most
likely
have
been
greater
at
the
initial
stage
as
compared
to
women
who
have
now
been
there
for
over
ten
years
and
are
now
better
at
controlling
the
situation
in
such
an
environment.
The
focus
groups
of
engineering
students
were
asked
about
their
early
influences
on
choice
of
study
and
reasons
for
this
choice.
Their
answers
will
aid
the
researcher
in
understanding
if
they
had
a
passion
for
engineering
from
the
start
and
what
they
think
of
it
now
Theme
3:
Gender
and
Engineering
(sub-­‐themes
were
gender
related
issues)
questions
were
asked
in
the
focus
groups
about
experiences
among
gender
in
the
classroom
and
among
lecturers.
This
was
asked
as
it
related
to
the
topic
and
it
would
enable
the
researcher
to
see
if
this
aids
in
the
dropouts
of
female

31.
31
engineering
students
and
try
to
establish
a
connection
of
whether
this
resulted
in
the
fewer
female
engineers.
Questions
pertaining
to
sexual
harassment
were
asked
here
to
all
interviewees
to
get
a
view
on
their
perceptions
and
experiences.
Theme
4:
Future
outlook
“What
are
your
future
career
aspirations?
And
under
what
circumstances
do
you
think
it
might
be
feasible
in
Nigeria?
Do
you
think
that
the
enactment
of
a
specific
legislation
or
training
on
gender
empowerment
will
help
you
attain
these
aspirations?
This
question
sought
to
understand
the
perceptions
of
the
participants
on
this
topic
as
to
what
they
taught
would
be
a
remedy
to
gender
empowerment
in
Nigeria.
Sampling
approach,
size
and
strategy
To
conduct
a
successful
research,
the
researcher’s
role
was
to
create
an
effective
sampling
strategy
so
that
any
conclusions
drawn
could
be
seen
as
convincing
and
practical
(Trochim,
2001).
In
order
to
understand
the
reasoning
behind
the
ratio
of
female
engineers
to
males
in
Nigeria,
the
researcher
recognized
the
importance
to
seek
answers
from
students
in
the
universities
and
also
females
working
as
engineers.
The
university
of
Benin
City
and
engineering
firms
in
the
Southern
part
of
Nigeria
was
chosen
to
collect
quantitative
and
qualitative
data;
firstly
because
of
ease
of
access
to
the
researcher
and
secondly
because
the
North
was
experiencing
religious
wars
with
a
group
called
Boko
Haram
at
the
time
this
research
was
conducted.
The
total
number
of
surveys
distributed
was
45
in
total.
20
of
these
were
distributed
to
social
science
students.
The
rationale
behind
this
was
to
understand
what
the
perceptions
of
these
students
were,
in
regards
to
their
degree
of
choice
and
their
perceptions
of
gender
as
it
relates
to
female
engineering
in
Nigeria.
The
social
science
students
were
also
chosen
to
provide

32. [GENDER
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EDUCATION
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32
an
independent
and
outside
look
on
a
different
degree
choice
for
females
in
Nigeria
(i.e.
engineering).
Another
20
surveys
were
distributed
amongst
engineering
students
from
different
fields.
12
of
these
were
females
and
8
were
male.
The
females
were
involved
in
this
group
were
a
main
focus
while
the
males
were
interviewed
to
establish
if
a
bias
existed
on
their
female
counterparts
choice
of
study.
This
group
was
the
researcher’s
main
focus,
as
they
had
a
direct
relationship
to
the
research
topic.
The
surveys
distributed
to
this
group
were
intended
to
find
out
if
they
would
carry
on
the
degree
as
a
career
choice
and
how
they
perceived
their
current
learning
environment.
The
final
5
surveys
were
distributed
to
5
women
working
in
reputable
engineering
firms
to
understand
their
experiences
as
females
in
a
field
classed
as
male
dominated
and
also
what
recommendations
they
perceived
would
create
an
easier
path
for
new
female
entrants
in
the
future.
These
companies
were
located
in
Port
Harcourt
and
Benin
City
(both
in
the
South).
The
interviews
on
the
other
hand
were
conducted
in
a
semi-­‐structured
manner
because
according
to
(Longhurst,
2003),
it
is
best
used
when
the
researcher
realizes
that
they
may
have
only
a
single
chance
of
interviewing
the
individuals,
and
also
because,
conducting
a
semi-­‐structured
style
would
provide
more
reliable
and
comparative,
qualitative
data
(Longhurst,
2003).
The
semi-­‐
structured
interviews
were
carried
out
in
two
forms:
one-­‐on-­‐one
interviews
with
the
5
career
women
in
engineering
and
focus
groups
with
the
engineering
students.
The
focus
groups
contained
no
more
than
10
individuals
to
maximize
results
(Morgan,
1997).
These
focus
groups
with
the
engineering
students
were
furthered
shared
into
2
groups.
One
set
of
8
males
and
another
set
of
10
females,
which
were
conducted
separately.
The
researcher
decided
that
there
was
no
need
to
carry
out
qualitative
interviews
with
the
social
science
students,
as
their
surveys
as
previously
explained,
were
considered
adequate
enough
on
the
topic
and
they
were
not
directly
linked
to
this
study.
Sampling
criteria
The
criteria
for
selecting
this
group
of
people
was:
! Must
be
18
years
and
over

33.
33
! Must
be
able
to
communicate
in
English
! Must
be
a
student,
studying
a
degree
at
the
university
of
Benin
! Must
be
studying
in
social
sciences
or
engineering
! Must
be
a
female
working
in
an
engineering
firm
The
primary
aim
was
to
find
participants
would
were
willing
to
take
part,
address
the
issues
explored
and
provide
information
that
could
assist
this
study.
According
to
(Creswell,
2007),
selecting
a
sample
size
varies
with
different
researchers
and
when
conducting
qualitative
research,
the
main
point
to
consider
that,
is
the
smaller
the
sample
size,
the
narrower
the
range
of
perceptions;
whereas,
if
the
sample
size
is
too
large,
the
researcher
might
miss
finding
a
perception
that
would
add
value
to
the
research
(Creswell,
2007).
Data
collection
Data
collection
is
a
series
of
interrelated
activities
with
the
purpose
of
gathering
information
needed
to
answer
the
research
questions
(Creswell,
2007).
The
data
source
for
this
was
generated
from
mixed
methods
of
surveys
and
in-­‐depth
one-­‐
on-­‐one
interviews,
focus
groups
by
a
total
of
45
participants
and
all
data
was
collected
and
all
participants
found
in
the
month
of
June
2015.
Separate
questionnaires
were
distributed
to
social
science
students,
engineering
students
and
the
women
working
as
engineers.
A
combined
survey
was
then
created
on
survey
monkey
and
all
the
quantitative
data
collected
was
then
filled
in
accordingly
for
analysis
purposes.
The
qualitative
data
was
recorded
and
also
some
jotting
downs
were
taken
as
the
researcher
conducted
the
interviews.
All
data
collected
from
the
focus
group
of
engineering
students
and
female
engineers
were
stored
on
a
computer
hard-­‐drive,
drop
box
and
also
on
the
tape
recorder
used
during
the
interviews.
The
conducted
interviews
were
listened
to
repeatedly
to
understand,
imbibe
and
enable
the
researcher
categorize
the
answers
from
the
different
interviews
into
which
themes
they
belonged
to
facilitate
the
coding
of
the
descriptive
data
(Wright,
2005).

34. [GENDER
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34
Surveys
As
the
researcher,
I
went
into
the
social
science
department
where
a
lecturer
was
teaching
the
students
and
asked
him
if
I
could
speak
to
his
students
and
take
20
minutes
of
their
time
from
his
class
after
introducing
myself
and
explaining
my
aims.
He
agreed
and
let
me
carry
this
out.
I
read
out
the
details
included
in
my
consent
form
(in
appendix
A)
to
the
students,
which
were
nearly
200
in
a
classroom
and
explained
the
number
of
participants
I
needed.
I
asked
those
interested
to
signify
by
a
show
of
hands
and
nearly
all
of
the
class
raised
their
hands.
I
then
shared
out
the
surveys
and
waited
for
all
to
be
completed
and
returned
back
to
me.
Several
students
asked
questions
and
all
very
eager
to
participate.
The
same
was
repeated
with
the
engineering
students.
I
went
to
the
different
fields
in
engineering
classes
to
share
my
surveys.
Some
of
the
classes
consisted
of
fewer
females
(refer
to
table
4
on
page
13).
All
of
the
data
from
the
surveys
were
returned
on
the
day
and
then
I
hand-­‐selected
10
females
and
8
male
engineering
students
to
take
part
in
focus
group
interviews
on
following
day
in
a
separation
location.
The
questionnaire
was
created
to
get
a
general
overview
of
perceptions
in
specific
areas.
After
careful
evaluations
of
the
responses,
a
need
arose
for
more
in-­‐depth
enquiry
and
this
was
then
translated
into
separate
themes
in
a
semi-­‐structured
interview.
Three
separate
questionnaires
were
initially
distributed
to
the
three
different
groups
and
the
results
were
later
combined
into
a
single
questionnaire
on
survey
monkey.
The
significance
of
combining
the
results,
given
that
the
results
of
the
questionnaires
were
almost
identical,
is
believed
to
be
enhanced
as
the
total
data
is
higher.
Semi-­‐structured
interviews
The
same
day
that
the
surveys
were
handed
out
and
returned,
the
researcher
selected
18
engineering
students
comprising
of
10
females
and
8
males
for
focus
groups
interviews
to
take
place
the
next
day.
It
was
explained
to
these
students
that,
these
interviews
would
be
conducted
separately.
10
females
will
comprise
of
my
focus
group
A
and
the
8
male
students,
my
focus
group
B.
The
students

35.
35
were
very
happy
to
be
a
part
of
this
and
promised
to
turn
up.
I
then
went
off
to
an
engineering
company,
which
I
had
previously
written
to
an
employee
I
knew,
that
worked
in
the
same
firm.
He
had
promised
to
introduce
me
to
the
five
female
engineers
that
met
the
set
criteria
I
had
set.
The
females
met
with
me,
filled
out
and
returned
the
questionnaires
and
also
promised
to
meet
with
me
on
each
of
their
available
dates
for
one-­‐on-­‐one
interviews.
On
the
dates
agreed,
all
participants
turned
up.
The
total
number
of
interviewees
was
23
in
number.
Focus
groups
The
focus
groups
interviews
began
with
explanations
of
the
confidentiality
statement.
Each
member
was
given
a
consent
form
to
read
and
sign
to
ensure
they
understood
their
rights
and
to
let
them
know
that
the
section
would
be
recorded.
The
data
was
again
conducted
thematically
but
in
a
semi-­‐structured
manner.
When
one
question
was
asked,
based
on
the
answers,
a
new
question
often
emerged.
The
data
was
not
only
collected
by
recordings
but
the
researcher
also
jotted
down
important
facts
as
well
to
ensure
that
data
was
saved
in
two
separate
places
to
minimize
loss
of
data.
These
interviews
took
approximately
one
hour
to
complete.
One-­‐on-­‐one
interviews
The
one-­‐on-­‐one
interviews
conducted
with
the
5
career
women
were
conducted
for
an
hour
and
a
half
in
their
offices
and
homes
as
requested
by
each
individual.
The
detailed
process
followed
with
the
focus
group
above
was
also
repeated
with
this
interview
and
the
data
was
collected
in
the
same
way.
As
soon
as
the
interview
was
over,
the
survey
was
shared
out
to
these
women
and
was
collected
on
completion.
Data
analysis
Qualitative
and
quantitative
analysis
deals
with
the
labeling
and
coding
all
of
data
collected
to
realize
the
similarities
and
differences
involved
(Neuman,