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Acute kidney injury
2020.06.24
EM F 박희수
Epidemiology
• AKI is common complication occurring up to 1/3 of ICU
patients and is usually a manifestation of multiorgan failure
syndrome.
• Sepsis is the one of the most common causes, and
postsurgical, toxic causes are also common.
• Increasing AKI severity is associated with increased mortality,
and AKI patients have worse renal function at the time of
hospital discharge.
Definition
Causes
• Prerenal cause
• Postrenal cause
• Intrarenal cause
Causes
Prerenal cause
• Reduction in renal perfusion without cellular injury
• Decreased blood volume (eg. Vomiting, dehydration, hemorrhage,..)
• Decreased effective arterial blood volume (eg. CHF, LC,..)
• RAAS activated secondary to decreased renal blood flow,
• angiotensin II : proximal tubule reabsorption of Na ↑
• aldosterone : distal tubule reabsorption of Na↑
• Therapy is reversing underlying cause
• volume replacement, discontinuation of offending agents.
Causes
Postrenal cause
: Obstruction of urine flow; intratubular pressure↑, GFR↓
• Extrarenal cause
• prostatic disease, pelvic malignancy,..
• Intrarenal cause (crystal deposition)
• Uric acid in tumor lysis syndrome, ethylene glycol
• cast formation d/t light-chain disease such as multiple myeloma
• Renal US, postvoid residual urine in bladder (>50ml is abnormal)
Causes
Intrarenal cause
: Glomerulus, vasculature, interstitium, tubule
• GN, vasculitis : red cell sediment
• Interstitial nephritis : white cell casts ± red cell
• d/t NSAIDs, antibiotics : removal & short term prednisolone (60-80mg, 10days)
• ATN (m/c)
• Hemodynamically mediated: prolonged prerenal azotemia, hypotension, sepsis,..
• Toxic, antibiotics, chemotherapeutic, contrast,…
• Sepsis-induced AKI
• Pathophysiology remains incompletely understood.
• AKI can occur absence of hypoperfusion. The presence of microcirculatory
dysfunction, inflammation, adaptive bioenergetics response to injury.
ATN vs prerenal azotemia
diagnosis
Novel biomarkers
Prevention and treatment
Volume expansion
1. We recommend controlled fluid resuscitation in volume depletion,
while, however, avoiding volume overload (Grade 1C).
2. We recommend against the use of starches (Grade1A) as harm
has been shown and suggest not using gelatine or dextrans for
fluid resuscitation (Grade 2C).
3. We recommend correction of hypovolemia/dehydration using
isotonic crystalloids in patients receiving intravascular contrast
media (Grade 1B).
4. We recommend regular monitoring of chloride levels and acid–
base status in situations where chloride-rich solutions are used
(BPS).
Prevention and treatment
Volume expansion
5. We suggest the use of balanced crystalloids for large volume
resuscitation (Grade 2C).
6. We suggest using human serum albumin if a colloid is deemed
necessary for the treatment of patients with septic shock (Grade
2C).
7. We suggest prophylactic volume expansion with crystalloids to
prevent AKI by certain drugs (specified below) (BPS).
8. We suggest not delaying urgent contrast-enhanced investigations
or interventions for potential preventative measures (BPS).
Prevention and treatment
Diuretics
1. We recommend against loop diuretics given solely for the prevention of
acute kidney injury (Grade 1B).
2. We suggest using diuretics to control or avoid fluid overload in patients
that are diuretic-responsive (Grade 2D).
Loop diuretics
• Theoretical effect
• Inhibition of active Na transport reduces tubular O2 consumption  decrease ischemic
injury (protection)
• Washing out necrotic debris blocking tubules, inhibiting PG dehydrogenase
 reduce renovascular resistance, increase renal blood flow
• Evidence
• No evidence that the use of diuretics reduces the incidence or severity of AKI.
Prevention and treatment
Vasopressor
1. We recommend titrating vasopressors to a mean arterial pressure (MAP)
of 65–70 mmHg (Grade 1B) rather than a higher MAP target (80–85
mmHg) in patients with septic shock. However, for patients with chronic
hypertension we recommend aiming for a higher target (80–85 mmHg)
for renal protection in septic shock (Grade 1C).
2. We recommend lowering systolic pressure to 140–190 mmHg rather
than to 110–139 mmHg in patients with acute cerebral hemorrhage with
severe admission hypertension (Grade 1C).
3. If vasopressors are needed for treatment of hypotension, we recommend
norepinephrine (along with correction of hypovolemia) as the first-choice
vasopressor to protect kidney function (Grade 1B) and suggest
vasopressin in patients with vasoplegic shock after cardiac surgery
(Grade 2C).
4. We suggest individualizing target pressure when premorbid blood
pressure is available (BPS).
Prevention and treatment
Vasodilator
1. We recommend against low-dose dopamine for protection against AKI
(Grade 1A).
2. We recommend not using levosimendan for renal protection in patients
with sepsis (Grade 1B) and recommend against its use for renal
protection in cardiac surgery patients with poor preoperative left
ventricular function or needing postoperative hemodynamic support
(Grade 1B).
3. We suggest not using fenoldopam or natriuretic peptides for renal
protection in critically ill or cardiovascular surgery patients at risk of AKI
(Grade 2B).
Prevention and treatment
Sedation
1. On the basis of current data no recommendation can be given, although
it appears that shorter sedation using propofol or dexmedetomidine may
have several advantages, possibly reducing the rate of AKI. (BPS)
Hormonal manipulation
1. We suggest targeting a blood glucose level at least below 180 mg/dL for
the prevention of hyperglycemic kidney damage in the general ICU
population (Grade 2B).
2. We suggest not using erythropoietin (Grade 2B) or steroids (Grade 2B)
for prevention of acute kidney injury.
Prevention and treatment
Metabolic intervention
1. We recommend not using high-dose IV selenium for renal protection in critically
ill patients (1B).
2. We suggest not using N-acetylcysteine to prevent contrast-associated AKI in
critically ill patients because of conflicting results and possible adverse effects
(Grade 2B).
3. We suggest that all patients with or at risk of acute kidney injury have adequate
nutritional support preferably through the enteral route (BPS).
Statin
1. We recommend against the perioperative use of high dose statins to prevent
postoperative AKI in cardiac surgery (Grade 1A).
2. We suggest the short-term use of atorvastatin or rosuvastatin to prevent
contrast-associated AKI in high-risk patients undergoing coronary contrast
angiography (Grade 2B)
Renal replacement therapy
reference
• Jean-Lous Vincent, Textbook of critical care, 7th edition, Elsevier
• Michael Joannidis, Prevention of acute kidney injury
and protection of renal function in the intensive care unit: update 2017,
intensive care Med., 2017
• KDIGO-2012- AKI guideline
• Eric AJ Hoste, Epidemiology of acute kidney injury in critically ill
patients: the multinational AKI-EPI study, intensive care Med., 2015

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20200624 aki

  • 2. Epidemiology • AKI is common complication occurring up to 1/3 of ICU patients and is usually a manifestation of multiorgan failure syndrome. • Sepsis is the one of the most common causes, and postsurgical, toxic causes are also common. • Increasing AKI severity is associated with increased mortality, and AKI patients have worse renal function at the time of hospital discharge.
  • 4. Causes • Prerenal cause • Postrenal cause • Intrarenal cause
  • 5.
  • 6. Causes Prerenal cause • Reduction in renal perfusion without cellular injury • Decreased blood volume (eg. Vomiting, dehydration, hemorrhage,..) • Decreased effective arterial blood volume (eg. CHF, LC,..) • RAAS activated secondary to decreased renal blood flow, • angiotensin II : proximal tubule reabsorption of Na ↑ • aldosterone : distal tubule reabsorption of Na↑ • Therapy is reversing underlying cause • volume replacement, discontinuation of offending agents.
  • 7. Causes Postrenal cause : Obstruction of urine flow; intratubular pressure↑, GFR↓ • Extrarenal cause • prostatic disease, pelvic malignancy,.. • Intrarenal cause (crystal deposition) • Uric acid in tumor lysis syndrome, ethylene glycol • cast formation d/t light-chain disease such as multiple myeloma • Renal US, postvoid residual urine in bladder (>50ml is abnormal)
  • 8. Causes Intrarenal cause : Glomerulus, vasculature, interstitium, tubule • GN, vasculitis : red cell sediment • Interstitial nephritis : white cell casts ± red cell • d/t NSAIDs, antibiotics : removal & short term prednisolone (60-80mg, 10days) • ATN (m/c) • Hemodynamically mediated: prolonged prerenal azotemia, hypotension, sepsis,.. • Toxic, antibiotics, chemotherapeutic, contrast,… • Sepsis-induced AKI • Pathophysiology remains incompletely understood. • AKI can occur absence of hypoperfusion. The presence of microcirculatory dysfunction, inflammation, adaptive bioenergetics response to injury.
  • 9. ATN vs prerenal azotemia
  • 12. Prevention and treatment Volume expansion 1. We recommend controlled fluid resuscitation in volume depletion, while, however, avoiding volume overload (Grade 1C). 2. We recommend against the use of starches (Grade1A) as harm has been shown and suggest not using gelatine or dextrans for fluid resuscitation (Grade 2C). 3. We recommend correction of hypovolemia/dehydration using isotonic crystalloids in patients receiving intravascular contrast media (Grade 1B). 4. We recommend regular monitoring of chloride levels and acid– base status in situations where chloride-rich solutions are used (BPS).
  • 13. Prevention and treatment Volume expansion 5. We suggest the use of balanced crystalloids for large volume resuscitation (Grade 2C). 6. We suggest using human serum albumin if a colloid is deemed necessary for the treatment of patients with septic shock (Grade 2C). 7. We suggest prophylactic volume expansion with crystalloids to prevent AKI by certain drugs (specified below) (BPS). 8. We suggest not delaying urgent contrast-enhanced investigations or interventions for potential preventative measures (BPS).
  • 14. Prevention and treatment Diuretics 1. We recommend against loop diuretics given solely for the prevention of acute kidney injury (Grade 1B). 2. We suggest using diuretics to control or avoid fluid overload in patients that are diuretic-responsive (Grade 2D). Loop diuretics • Theoretical effect • Inhibition of active Na transport reduces tubular O2 consumption  decrease ischemic injury (protection) • Washing out necrotic debris blocking tubules, inhibiting PG dehydrogenase  reduce renovascular resistance, increase renal blood flow • Evidence • No evidence that the use of diuretics reduces the incidence or severity of AKI.
  • 15.
  • 16. Prevention and treatment Vasopressor 1. We recommend titrating vasopressors to a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of 65–70 mmHg (Grade 1B) rather than a higher MAP target (80–85 mmHg) in patients with septic shock. However, for patients with chronic hypertension we recommend aiming for a higher target (80–85 mmHg) for renal protection in septic shock (Grade 1C). 2. We recommend lowering systolic pressure to 140–190 mmHg rather than to 110–139 mmHg in patients with acute cerebral hemorrhage with severe admission hypertension (Grade 1C). 3. If vasopressors are needed for treatment of hypotension, we recommend norepinephrine (along with correction of hypovolemia) as the first-choice vasopressor to protect kidney function (Grade 1B) and suggest vasopressin in patients with vasoplegic shock after cardiac surgery (Grade 2C). 4. We suggest individualizing target pressure when premorbid blood pressure is available (BPS).
  • 17. Prevention and treatment Vasodilator 1. We recommend against low-dose dopamine for protection against AKI (Grade 1A). 2. We recommend not using levosimendan for renal protection in patients with sepsis (Grade 1B) and recommend against its use for renal protection in cardiac surgery patients with poor preoperative left ventricular function or needing postoperative hemodynamic support (Grade 1B). 3. We suggest not using fenoldopam or natriuretic peptides for renal protection in critically ill or cardiovascular surgery patients at risk of AKI (Grade 2B).
  • 18. Prevention and treatment Sedation 1. On the basis of current data no recommendation can be given, although it appears that shorter sedation using propofol or dexmedetomidine may have several advantages, possibly reducing the rate of AKI. (BPS) Hormonal manipulation 1. We suggest targeting a blood glucose level at least below 180 mg/dL for the prevention of hyperglycemic kidney damage in the general ICU population (Grade 2B). 2. We suggest not using erythropoietin (Grade 2B) or steroids (Grade 2B) for prevention of acute kidney injury.
  • 19. Prevention and treatment Metabolic intervention 1. We recommend not using high-dose IV selenium for renal protection in critically ill patients (1B). 2. We suggest not using N-acetylcysteine to prevent contrast-associated AKI in critically ill patients because of conflicting results and possible adverse effects (Grade 2B). 3. We suggest that all patients with or at risk of acute kidney injury have adequate nutritional support preferably through the enteral route (BPS). Statin 1. We recommend against the perioperative use of high dose statins to prevent postoperative AKI in cardiac surgery (Grade 1A). 2. We suggest the short-term use of atorvastatin or rosuvastatin to prevent contrast-associated AKI in high-risk patients undergoing coronary contrast angiography (Grade 2B)
  • 21. reference • Jean-Lous Vincent, Textbook of critical care, 7th edition, Elsevier • Michael Joannidis, Prevention of acute kidney injury and protection of renal function in the intensive care unit: update 2017, intensive care Med., 2017 • KDIGO-2012- AKI guideline • Eric AJ Hoste, Epidemiology of acute kidney injury in critically ill patients: the multinational AKI-EPI study, intensive care Med., 2015

Notes de l'éditeur

  1. AKI abrupt GFR 감소로 따른 nitrogen waste 의 retention 및 body fluid/electrolyte의 dysregulation 을 말함. RIFLE crteria는 (ADQI acute dialysis quality initiative 에서 제안) 은 7일이내 baseline에서 Scr 이 50%이상 증가했을 때로 정의하고 Hospital mortality에 근거하여 Scr/GFR의 7일이내 base line 변화 정도에 따라 RIFLE 로 나누었음. AKIN (AKI network) 에서는 RIFLE이 small Cr change 를 놓칠 수 있어 이를 보완하기 위해 제안된 기준으로 Scr 절대값 증가 (0. 3이상)를 넣음으로써 개정. RIFLE과 다른 점이 시간은 48시간 이내 KDIGO는 AKIN + RIFLE 두가지를 합하여서 48이내 0.3 이상 증가 혹은 7일 이내 50% 이상 증가로 정의. UO 으로는 6시간동안 kg당 0.5cc미만.
  2. 유효순환용적의 regulatio을 담당하는 RAAS 안지오텐시노겐 이 간에서 분비 -> kidney에서 renal perfusion이 떨어지면 레닌이 분비되는데, 안지오텐시노겐이 AT1으로 전환, 폐에서 분비되는 ACE에 의해 ATII로 전환됨. ATII는 tubular Na, Cl 재흡수시키고, K 분비 촉진, 물 retention cortex aldosterone -> 소동맥 vasoconstriction 시켜 BP 높임. pituitary gland 에서 ADH 분비, 물 재흡수 결국은 물, salt를 retention시켜 유효순환용적을 증가 시키고 , renin 분비에 negative feedback을 준다.
  3. Prerenal AKI는 cell injury없이 renal perfusion이 감소해서 생기게되고 그 원인으로는 dehydration, hemorrhag로 인한 blood volume 감소나/ HF,LC와 같이 유효순환용적이 감소해서 발생할수 있다. Prerenal cause에 의한 AKI발생시 RAAS 가 활성화되어 유효순환용적을 늘리는 역할을 함. 치료는 underlying cause교정으로 volume replacement 나 offending agent (RAAS inhibitor ) 를 끊는 것임.
  4. Post renal cause는 urine flow가 막혀서 intratubular P가 증가함으로써 GFR이 떨어지게되어 발생한다. 그원인 중에서도 prostatic dz나 pelvic malig에 의한 obstrction인 extrarenal 가 있고 crystal depostion에 의한 intrarenal cause가 있음. 그원인으로는 tumor lysis syn. EG 섭취에 의한 uric acid생성 이나 MM같은 light chain dz에 의한 cast formatio에 의할수 있음. 신장 초음파를 통해서 진단할수 있음.
  5. 신장자체 문제 의한 Intrarenal cause로는 anatom에 따라 G,V,I,T 로 나뉘고 GN,Vasculitis 는 특징적으로 Urine redcell sediment 검출 Interstitial nephritis의 경우 WBC 가 있으며서 RBC가 있을수도 있고 없을수도 있다. NSAID/anti -> 약제 끊고 PD short term사용 ATN 이 가장 흔함. hemodynamic ustablity에 의한 ATN은 지속되는 prerenal azotemia, hypoT, sepsis에 발생. Toxin 약제 contrast media에 의해 발생. Sepsis induced AKI는 그 메커니즘이 온전히 밝혀지지 않았는데, 이전에는 renal global ischemia에 의한 macro-circulatio의 문제로 생각되었으나 최근에는 Hypoperfusion이 없는 상태에서 AKI진행이 된다는 evidence들이 밝혀지고 있어, micro-circulation dysfunction, inflammation, injury에 의한 adaptive bioenergetics 에 의한 것으로 생각
  6. ATN 과 prerenal azotemia 의 구분 : index 들을 통하여 ATN에서 tubule 기능이 망가져 Na 재흡수가 제대로 이루어지 않고, Urine Nz이 40 이상, FENA 2% 이상 + 소변 농축 기능도 망가져 Osm 350미만 하지만 rhabdo- 나 contrast mediated AKI, sepsi에서도 FENA 낮게 나올 수 있다. 이뇨제 복용중인 환자에서 Prerenal azotemia 는 FENA 는 영향을 받기 때문에 FE urea 혹은 urine to plasma Cr 을 확인한다. -> FE urea<35%, u/p Cr >15 일시 prerenal 일 가능성 높음. 하지만 FE urea도 specificity 낮다 CIN ; toxic effect로 ATN 도 일으키지만 renal vasoconstriction을 일으켜 medullary ischemia일으킴.
  7. AKI 를 감시하여 early intervention 및 monitoring 을 할수 있게 하는 biomarker들이 있다. Cystatic C는 GFR change를 반영하는 반면, NGAL은 tubular stress or injury 와 관계. IL-18, L-FABP KIM-1 도 존재
  8. 2017년 intensive care medicine에 서 발표한 Prevention of acute kidney injury and protection of renal function in the intensive care unit: update Volume depletion이 의심되는 환자는 volume overload에 유의하여 fluid resuscitation 을 하고 starch는 피한다. Contrast media 사용시에는 hypovolemia를 cystalloid 로 교정한다. Euvolemic 환자에서 prophylactive volume expansion은 권장되지 않는다. Fluid resuscitation시에는 acid-base 및 Cl 레벨은 모니터링한다.
  9. Crystalloid를 줄 때에는 balanced crystalloid를 주는 것으로 제안한다. NS만 주었을 때 balanced sln에 비해서 AKI risk 및 RRT, mortality 증가 한다는 observation study가 있었으며, Serum alubmin은 colloid가 필요한 septic shock환자에서 줄수 있다. 20% 알부민이 AKI/ need for RRT in severe sepsis 에는 큰 효과가 없으나 postivie fluid balanc를 줄이는데 효과 가 있게 나온 연구 있음. Hypovolemia가 drug induced renal injury를 악화 시킬수 있기 때문에 AKI유발할수 있는 약물 (예를 들면 amphotericin B나 antivirals) 을 줄 때에는 prophylactic 하게 volume expansion을 시행한다. contrast사용한 검사나 시술은 urgent한 경우에는 예방을하느라 늦추지 말라. BPS는 grade는 없는 best practice statements (BPSs),
  10. Loop diuretics는 prevention을 위해서 쓰면 안되며 이뇨제는 fluid 이뇨제에 반응이 있는 overload시에만 사용하도록 제안한다. 최근 연구에서는 oliguric환자에서 test dose Lasix 1-1.5mg/kg 에 시간당 100cc이상의 UO을 보이면 higher stage AKI로 진행하는 것이 감소함을 예측할수 있다고 한다. ----- 이론적으로는 Loop diuretics 는 Na transporter를 inhibition해서 산소 요구량을 낮춤으로 신장의 허혈손상을 막아 신장을 보호할수 있고 Necrotic debris를 wash out하고 PG Dehydrogenas를 억제하여 renal blood flow를 증가 시킴. 그러나 이것에 대한 뒷받침하는 data부족하다. Diureteics가 AKI 발생/중증도를 줄인다는 evidence가 없다.
  11. 2020 critical care에서 발표한 연구에서는 Furosemide의 AKI management outcome을 밝힌바 있는데 ICU의 14154 AKI 환자들을 propensity score에 따라 matching 해서 (이뇨제를 전혀투여 안받은군)/ (furosemide 를 투여받은군) 으로 나누어 4427 pairs of patients 를 LOS, renal functio회복, 90일 mortatliy 를 비교했고 Furosemide를 사용한 군에서 short term survival/ renal function 향상됨. 하지만 이런 결과들은 AKI U/O 기반한 stage 0-1 이나, Scr 기반 stage 2-3 인경우는 관련이 없었다. 따라서 … 특히 U/O stage 2-3 oliguria가 있는 환자에서 더 효과가 가 있으며, CKD환자나 cr 에 근거한 stage 2-3 환자는 효과가 없다.
  12. Renal perfusion을 유지하기 위해서는 이론적으로 fluid resuscitatio이나 inotropics를 통해서 Cardiac output을 어느정도는 유지를 해야 함 승압제는 MAP 65-70 사이로 유지하는 것을 권장하며, 고혈압 환자에서는 high targe 80-85 사이를 유지한다. 뇌출혈 환자에서는 140-90 사이의 systolic pressure를 낮추는 것으로 권장하며 저혈압이 있는 경우 hypovolemia를 교정하면서 NE를 1st 초이스로 사용하여 kidney를 보호하며, vasopression은 cardiac surgery 후 vasoplegic shock환자에서 사용한다. Large RCT 에서 NE 와 dopamine 의 mortalit차이가 없다고 되어 있으나 NE 가 첫1시간동안 tachycardia 를 덜 유발하고, cardiogenic shock환자에서는 survival에서 우위에 있고, RRT free day가 더 긴것으로 확인되었다. Vasopression은 NE refractory shock에 쓸수 있고 post glomerular vas constriction을 기켜 GFR를 증가 시킬수있는 것으로 알려져 있으나, largest RRT in septic shock 연구에서 RRT free day에 특별히 영향을 주지 않으며, mortality향상도 전체 populatio이 아닌 subgroup에서 보였다고 함. 환자에 따라서 target pressure를 다르게 조정할수 있다.
  13. Renal blood flow는 sympathetic stimulatio에 의해서 안지오텐신2 나 엔도텔린, vasocontrictive PG에 의해 vasocontriction이 일어나 줄어들게 된다. Renal protectio을 위해 Vasodilater를 사용했을 때 몇가지 생각해볼점이 있는데 첫째는 hypotension을 유발하기 때문에 renal perfusion이 compromising 될수 있고, timing 역시 중요할수 있는 지연된 투여는 microcircuation이 이미 occlusion된 상태여서 effect가 적을수 있다. AKI protection을 위해 저용량 도파민을 권장하지 않는다. levosimendan (HF에 쓰이는 Ca sensitizer, inodilator, cardiopretective) 의 사용하지 않을 것으로 권장하며, Fenoldopam 및 natriuretic peptide로 AKI risk있는 환자에서 사용하지 않는다. renal dose dopamine이 selective renal vasocontricton을 예방한다고 알려져 이전에는 쓰엿으나 여러 meta analysis에서 renal dose dopaime이 AKI예방에 benefi이 없다고 결론지었따. Fenoldopam 은 puredopamine A1 receptor agonist 로 systemic, renal vasodilation 하는 역할을 하였고 이전 연구에서는 AKI incidence를 낮추는 것으로 알려져 있었으나 최근 meta analysis 연구에서 cardiac/major surgery 시행한 AKI 위험은 낮추지만 RRT 나 사먕률을 낮추지는 하는 것으로 밝혀졌고, 또 post cardiac surgery에서는 renal protection기능이 없으면서 hypotension 유발 한다고 하였음. Atrial natriuretic peptide는 atricum stretch/pressur에 의해 증가해서 renal afferent dilation/efferenct vasconstriction시켜서 GFR를 높이는것으로 알려져 있으나 최근 연구에서 prlphylactic low dose ANP 가 post op 의 peak Cr과 RRT need를 줄이는것으로 알려졌으나 case가 작고 AKI가 생긴 이후에는 effect가 없으며 high dose에서는 부정맥이나 저혈압등의 adverse effect가 빈번하게 일어났다.
  14. Recommendation은 아니지만 propofol이나 dexmedetomidine과 같은 약물이 AKI를 줄일수 있다고 함. Propofol은 신장에서 Oxidative stress 를 줄이고 dexmedetomidein은 vasopression분비를 줄여 diuresis를 유도하여 renal blood flow를 증가 시킬수 있는 것으로 알려져 있다. 혈당은 hyperglycemic kidney damage를 예방하기 위해 180미만으로 유지하고 EPO 나 steroi를 AKI예방을 위해 사용하지 않는다. 고혈당이 oxidative stress유발하고, 혈관과 면역학적 기능부전을 유도한다. Steroid의 antiinflammatry effec가 AKI pathogenesis중 inflammatory componen를 억제하고 EPO는 apoptosis 및 inflammation 를 줄여 tissue regeneration을 촉진하는 것으로 알려져 있으나 AKI incindence를 줄이는데 효과는 없는 것으로 알려졌다.
  15. Iv selenium을 AKI 보호를 위해 쓰지 않는 것을 권유한다. NAC 을 CIN를 위해 사용하지 않는다. 왜냐하면 result 가 상충되는 것들이 있고, adverse effect가 있기 때문에 (allergic rxn 및 cardiac output 감소등) 장관을 통하여 nutiritional support하는 것을 모든 환자에서 권장. Starvation은 신장에서 단백질 합성을 방해하고 분해를 일으켜 단백질 및 아미노산 투여하는 것은 신기능 향상시키지만 . Early parenteral nutritio은 urea level을 높여 RRT duration을 늘릴수 있음. --- Statin 은 antioxidant및 anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic effec가 있어 : 심장 수술 후 AKI를 방지하기 위해 statin쓰는 것으로 권장하며 coronary angiography 전에 contras에 의한 AKI high risk 환자에서 atorvastatin, rosu를 쓰는 것으로 제안.
  16. Renal recovery를 기대하기 때문에 RRT 시기를 늦추는 경우가 많고 RRT 를 시작하는 적절한 시기는 정의된바 없다. Prospective multicenter ICU cohort study