TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING - II - AIRPORT ENGINEERING

AIRPORT ENGINEERING
Govinda Rajulu Badana
UNIT - IV

Introduction
 Airport Engineering encompasses the
planning, design, and construction of
terminals, runways, and navigation aids to
provide for passenger and freight service.
 An airport is a facility where passengers
connect from ground transportation to air
transportation
 AIRFIELD is an area where an aircraft can
land and take off, which may or may not be
equipped with any navigational aids or
markings

Air Transportation
 One system of transportation which tries to
improve the accessibility to inaccessible areas
 Provides continuous connectivity over water
and land
 Provide relief during emergencies and better
compared to others some times
 Saves productive time, spent in journey
 Increases the demand of specialized skill work
force

Air Transportation
 Helps tourism, generates foreign reserves
 Requires heavy funds during provision and
maintenance
 Highly dependent on weather conditions
compared to other modes
 Requires highly sophisticated machinery
 Adds to outward flow of foreign exchange
Purchase of equipment, airbuses etc.
 Safety provisions are not adequate.
Providing a support system during the flight is
complicate
 Specific demarcation of flight paths and territories

Development of Air Transport
 1903 – first successful flight by Wilbur and
Orville Wright at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina
 1909 – Louis Bleriot crossed English channel
to England
 1911 – Post was carried by air in India from
Allahabad to Naini (pilot: Henri Pequet)
crossing Ganga
 1912 – Flight between Delhi and Karachi
 1914 – Air passenger transport beganin
Germany

Development of Air Transport
 1918 – first international service between
France and Spain
 1919 – London – Paris flight
 1919 – International Commission onAir
Navigation (ICAN) was established
 1919 – 6 European airlines formed in Hague
the International Air Traffic Association (IATA)
to control the movement of air traffic and have
a coordinated approach

 1928 – Havana Convention on civil aviation
 1929 – Warsaw convention on civil aviation
 1944 – international civil aviation convention
 1944 – Chicago convention, establishing
provisional ICAO (international civil aviation
organization)
 1945 – International Air Transport Association
(IATA) established in meeting at Havana, Cuba
 1947 – ICAO was established as a body of
United Nations

 27, July 1949 – worlds first jet airliner made its
journey from hatfield airport
 1954 – Boeing Dash 80 type prototype, B707
first flight
 1969 – concorde first flight
 2006 – Airbus A328 made first flight (one ofthe
biggest passenger air craft i.e., 800 persons)

Air Transport in India
 1911 – post was carried by air in India from
Allahabad to Naini
 1912 – flight between Delhi and Karachi
 1927 – Civil Aviation Department was
established
 1929 – Regular air service between Delhi and
Karachi
 1932 – Tata airways ltd was setup
 1933 – Indian trans-continental airways ltd
was formed

 1938 – 153 aircrafts were registered
 1946 – Air transport licensing boardwas
established
 1947 – Tata changed its name to Air IndiaLtd
 1948 – Air India International ltd was
established by government
 1953 – Air Transport Corporation bill was
made, provision for establishing two
corporations, one for the domestic services
and other for the international services.

 1972 - The International Airport Authorityof
India (IAAI) was setup
to coordinate the international aviationfrom
different locations of the country
 1981 -Vayudoot service was started. It merged
into Indian Airlines in 1993
 1985 - Air taxi policy
 1994 -Airport Authority of India (AAI) was
formed by merging International Airport
Authority of India (IAAI) and NationalAirports
Authority (NAA).

Airport Authority of India
 Controls overall air navigation in india
 Constituted by an act of parliament and it came
into being on 1st April, 1995
 Formed by merging NAA (National Airport
Authority) and IAAI (International AirportAuthority
of India)
 Functions of AAI
Control and management of the Indian airspace
extending beyond the territory limits
Design, development and operation of domestic and
international airports
Construction and management of facilities

Functions of AAI
Development of cargo ports and facilities
Provision of passenger facilities and information
systems
Expansion and strengthening of operating area
Provision of visual aids
Provision of communication and navigational aids
(ex: Radar systems)

1. Airport planning requires more intensive study and
forethought as compared to planning of other modes of
transport.
2. This is because aviation is the most dynamic industry and its
forecast is quite complex.
3. Unlike rail, road and water transportation, air transportation
has yet not reached a steady state in design.
4. It is very difficult to predict for the airport, satisfying the
present needs, whether this airport shall prove adequate for
the new types of aircrafts which may emerge after 10 years.
5. The airport design engineer, therefore is required to keep in
touch with the recent trends and also with likely future
projections in the aviation activities.
AIRPORT PLANNING & DESIGN

AIRPORT MASTER PLAN
1. Air port master plan refers the planner’s idealized
concept of the form and structure of the ultimate
development of the airport
2. This plan is not simply the physical from of ultimate
development but a description of the staging and both
the financial implications and the fiscal strategies
involved.
3. Master planning can apply to the construction of new
airports as well as to significant expansion of existing
facilities.

4. The objectives of the master plan according to
FAA(Federation Aviation Agency) are:
i. To provide an effective graphical presentation of the
ultimate development of the airport and of the
anticipated land uses adjacent to the airport.
ii. To establish a schedule of priorities and phasing for the
various improvements proposed in the plan.
iii. To present the pertinent back-up information and data
which were essential to the development of the master
plan.
iv. To describe the various concepts and alternatives which
were considered in the establishment of the proposed
plan.
AIRPORT MASTER PLAN

FAA (Federation Aviation Agency) Recommendations
The structure of the airport master plan procedure
recommended by the FAA consists of four separate phases.
Phase I : Airport Requirements
The first phase essentially is an examination of the
scale and timing of new facilities with respect to the
anticipated demand and the status of existing facilities in the
context of anticipated environmental implications.
Phase II : Site selection
Evaluation of the available sites should include study of
airspace requirements, environmental impact, development,
access availability of utilities ,land costs and availability, site
development costs and political implications.

Phase III : Airport Plans
The proposed facility is then represented precisely with
respect to the following points:
(i) Airport layout plan:
Indicates the configuration location and size of all
physical facilities.
(ii) Land Use Plan:
Details of land use within the proposed airport
boundary and the land use of areas.
(iii) Terminal Area Plans :
Show the size and location of the various buildings and
activity areas within the terminal area complex.
(iv) Airport Access Plans :
Show proposed routings for the various access modes
to the transportation information of the region.

Phase IV : The Financial Plan
Collection of data in the four principal areas of
financial importance :
(i) Schedules of Proposed Development.
(ii) Estimates of Development costs.
(iii) Economic Feasibility Analysis.
(iv) Financial Feasibility Analysis.
Site Selection for Airport
1.The selection of suitable site for an airport depend on the
class of airport under consideration.
2. The factors listed below are for the selection of suitable
site for a major airport installation.

(1) Regional plan.
(2) Airport use.
(3) Proximity to other airports.
(4)Ground accessibility.
(5)Topography.
(6)Obstruction.
(7) Visibility.
(8) Wind.
(9) Noise nuisance.
(10) Grading& Drainage and Soil characteristics.
(11) Future development.
(12) Availability of utilities from town.
(13) Economic consideration.

1. Regional Plan :
Site selected should fit well into the regional plan here by
forming it an integrated part of national networks of
airport.
2. Airport Use:
Selection of site depends upon use of airport whether for
civilian purpose or for military operations. Site should be
such that it provide natural protection to the area from air
raids.
3. Proximity to other airports:
The site should be selected at a considerable distance
from the existing airports. So that the aircraft landing in
one airport not interfere with the movement of aircraft at
the airport. The following minimum spacings have been
suggested as a guide for planning:

i. For airports serving small general aviation aircrafts under
VFR(Visual Flight Rules) conditions =3.2 km.(2miles.
ii. For airports serving bigger aircrafts, say two position engine,
under VFR conditions =6.4 km.(4 miles).
4. Ground Accessibility:
The site should be so selected that it is readily accessible to
the users. Minimum time required to reach an airport
should be 30 minutes and best location is a site adjacent to
the main highway.
5. Topography:
The Includes natural features like ground contours, trees,
streams etc; A raised ground is considered to be an ideal
site for an airport because

a. less obstruction in approach zones and turning zones.
b. Natural drainage, low and may result in flooding.
c. More uniform wind.
d. Better visibility due to less fog.
6. Obstructions:
When aircraft is landing or taking off, it loses or gains altitude
very slowly as compared to the forward speed. Hence for this
reason, long clearance areas are provided on either side of the
runway known as approach areas. These areas should be kept
free of obstructions.
7. Visibility:
Poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the airport. The site
selected should be free from visibility reducing conditions like
smoke, fog etc.,

8. Wind:
Runway is so oriented that landing and take off is done by
heading into the wind data which is direction, duration and
intensity of wind should be collected over a minimum period of
5yrs.This helps in proper orientation of the runway and
influence the shape of the needed for the development of
airport.
9. Noise nuisance:
Site should be so selected that landing and take off parts of the
aircrafts pass ones the land which is free from residential or
industrial development.
10.Grading & Drainage:
Play an important role in the construction and maintenance of
airport which on turn influences the site selection.

11. Future Development:
Considering that the air traffic volume will continue to
increase in future more numbers of runways may have
to be provided for the increased traffic.
12. Availability of utilities from town:
An airport how to be provided with facilities like water
supply, telephone, electricity etc.,
13. Economic consideration:
Cost estimates for site selection should include land
cost, cleaning & grading of land, drainage, removal of
hogards, lighting, coust of buildings, acess roads and
automobile areas. Amongst the various alternative
sites, one which is economical should be preferred.

Aircraft components
Reference: http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/airplane/airplane.html

Aircraft characteristics
 Engine Type and Propulsion
Atmospheric propulsion and trans-atmospheric
propulsion
Propulsion may be through any type of engine
 Piston engine, jet engine (turbo jet, turbo propulsion or ram jet)
or rocket engine etc.
 Piston – most conventional form, fuel is converted to
mechanical or electrical energy
 Jet – these have a capacity to provide a jet with a height thrust,
which is used for movement.
 Different types of jet engines exist. In case of turbo, jet known
as turbo propulsion is used. Here not simple thrust is used,
instead huge amount of air is sucked, and is transformed into
jet.
 Rocket engines used in trans-atmospheric propulsion systems
Speed, power increases from piston to rockets

Type of propulsion
Engine Speed limit kmph
Piston 250 to 750
Ram jet 1280 to 2400
Rocket 4600

 Operative altitude of aircraft depends up on
Type of engine
Propulsive power available to aircraft
 Piston engines – low altitudes
 Turbo jet or turbo propulsions – low to high
altitudes
 Ram jets – used in missiles at middle altitudes
Where other type of movements are less
 Rocket jets – outside atmosphere

 Size of air craft:
One of the important aspect
Here not just the size of main body, but the size of
overall wing space is considered important
By ICAO, FAA guidelines, air craft wing space is
considered but not main body for classifying the
airport.
It is important to look at different aspects of size.

Size of Aircraft
 Size of Aircraft involves
 Fuselage length
 From nose of the aircraft to the tail of the aircraft
 Fuselage is the area which compasses the fuel which is to
be transported along the aircraft, which is used along the
path, at the same time it also encompasses the payload and
that is the passengers and the freight that will also be
placed within the fuselage length.
 Height and width (at tail)
 Since additional wings are provided at tail in lateral, vertical
directions
 Gear tread (distance between main gears)
 Wheel base
 Distance between nose gear (pilots location) and main
gear(at wings connection)

 Wing span
 Measured at the location of wings to the furthest ends
of wings
 Wing span decides
 Width of taxi way
 Clearance between two parallel traffic ways
 Size of apron and hanger
 Width of hanger gate

Aircraft characteristics
 Length of aircraft decides
 Widening of taxi way on curves
 Sizes of apron and hanger
 Height of aircraft or empennage height
 It decides the height of hanger gate
 The gear tread and wheel base
 Min turning radius of the aircraft.

Aircraft characteristics – weight &
wheel configuration
 Pavement thickness, design, materials etc.,
depend on the weight and wheel distribution of
aircraft.
 Different types of weights
Maximum gross take-off weight
 Total amount of weight when it is taking off from
runway
Maximum standard landing weight
 Fuel consumed during transport will be deducted from
take-off weight
Operating empty weight
 Operating at zero pay load

Weight and wheel distribution
Pay load
 Load for which revenues are generated (passengers +
freight)
Zero-fuel weight
 Air craft reaching destination and fuel is getting empty
Note: (maximum is taken considering biggest aircraft allowed at
airport

 Wheel configuration defines how the weight
will be transferred to the bottom
More the no of wheels, lesser the stress, hence
less thickness enough.
Different wheel combinations available based on
size of aircraft.
Single tandem, duel tandem and multi axle
tandems are used based on the size and weight
of air craft.
Some wheel configurations are shown in the next
slide.

Minimum turning radius
 While making a turn, the nose gear is steered and
hence it makes an angle with the axis of main
gear called angle of rotation.
 The point of intersection of axis of main gear and
line through axis of steered nose gear is called
point of rotation.
 Max angle varies between 50 to 60 degrees
 The line joining the centre of rotation and the tip of
farthest wing of aircraft is known as minimum
turning radius.
 The amount depends on size of aircraft

Minimum circling radius
 Related to movement of aircraft with in the air
 Radius in space required for the aircraft to take
a smooth turn
 It depends on
Type of aircraft (size, power propulsion system
etc.,)
Air traffic volume
Weather condition
 It is the total radius which is provided at the top
of the air port in which the aircraft will be
circling if it is not allowed to land.

Speed
 Air speed
Speed of air craft in air relative to medium.
 Indicated speed
Indicated by the instrument onboard
2% lower than actual true speed
The reason is it is relative speed what is true, to
get the correct value of speed 2% is reduced for
resistance in air.

Capacity of air craft
 No of passengers and amount of cargo it can
handle
 Dependant on
Size
Propulsive power of aircraft
Speed of air craft

Noise
 Big problem if nearer to developed areas
 Major sources of noises are
Engine
Machinery (more during landing)
Primary jet (more during take-off)
 Disturbances are more during take off
 Since the inception of jet engines the noise
has been reduced to a great extent

Vortices at tail end
 Vortices form at tail when moving at high
speed
 Have a tendency to break tail if they are heavy
and eddies are formed
 Vortices are made of 2 counter rotating
cylindrical masses of air extending along the
path
 These are formed near tail ends of wings or
tail end of aircraft
 The velocity of wind in these vortices will be
very high

Jet blast
 This aspect belongs to aircrafts having jet engines
 This is the blast that comes out of jet engine at the
rear of air craft to provide a force for movement
 If we consider the case where air craft is standing
and jet blast is coming from back side, it is so hot
and creates severe conditions
 The severity depends on
Height of tail pipe
Angle of tail pipe
 Hence, blast fences are needed to control the
damage to the pavements

Fuel spillage
 Spilling of fuel occurs when the engine is
shutdown or loosing speed
 It is spilled fuel from the engine or other
locations into the aircraft. This may cost the
speed when it is moving on runways or
taxiways or apron.

Influencing characteristics of
aircraft on design of airport
 Engine type and propulsion
 Size
 Aircraft weight and wheel configuration
 Minimum turning radius
 Minimum circling radius
 speed capacity
 Noise
 Vortices at tail ends
 Jet blast
 Fuel spillage

Engine type and propulsion
decides
 Size of the aircraft
 Speed
length of the runway (more speed ->longer runway)
Weight (more if bigger propulsion system)
Carrying capacity (depends on size)
Noise (depends on propulsion system)
Circling radius (high power, and speed crafts have
high radius)
Range (distance it can move without refueling)
Maintenance facilities
Ballast pads (required for jet propulsion)

 Size of aircraft influences
Load carrying capacity
Other facilities like apron, terminal area etc.
Bigger the size larger are facilities to be provided at airport
terminal building
Wing span will increase with size
 It has effect on taxiway width
 Separation between traffic lanes
 Size of gate, apron size, width of hanger etc.
Length
 Widening of taxiway on curves, apron, hangers, width of exit
way
Height : further influences height of hanger gate
Wheel base, gear tread also changes

 Aircraft wheel configuration
Thickness of runway, taxiway, apron
Distribution of load to ground
Turning (difficult for more weight in case of sharp
curves)
Stability (depends on the support system
provided and also depends on wheel
configuration)

 Minimum turning radius
Radius of taxiways
 Taxiway is the connecting pavement which is provided
between the runways and aprons
 Minimum circling radius:
Defines the minimum distance between 2 near by
airports
For larger aircrafts it will be in kms hence more
distance is required between 2 airports
Adjustments of timings of landing and takeoff
Airport capacity(decrease with increased air circle
time)
Zoning laws related to height of obstruction

 Speed
Reduces journey time
Increase in frequency of operations
Improving and broadening the air network system
 Capacity
Processing terminals
Passenger and baggage handling facilities
Cargo processing
Size of apron, special equipments etc.

 Vortices at tail ends
Hazardous to aircraft
Stresses at fuselage and other joints
Pressure under wings producing lifts and drags
 Jet blast
Inconvenience to passengers
May do harm to airport runways and other
components of airport
 Fuel slippage
Badly effects bitumen pavements
Causes slip of wheels

Selection of site for airport
Air traffic potential
 Magnitude of passenger and freight traffic expected
Adequate access
Sufficient airspace
 Circling radius should be taken care
Sufficient land
 Various facilities, terminal buildings, security systems
Atmospheric and meteorological conditions
Availability of land for expansion
Availability of utilities

Development of surrounding area
Ground accessibility
Presence of other airports
Regional plan
Soil characteristics
Surrounding obstructions
Use of air port

 Atmospheric and meteorological conditions
Visibility
 Fog, smoke, haze
 Affected by wind
 Development of area (industrial)
 Causes reduction in frequency and hence in capacity
handling
Wind
 Direction and intensity
 Associated topographical features (hills, valley)
 Windward/leeward side
 Locating development w.r.t site of airport

 Availability of land for expansion
Future prediction of air traffic
 Land for parking vehicles, providing facilities
Land cost at later stage
Availability of land at later stage
 Availability of utilities
Water, power etc.,
Sewerage, communication etc.

 Development of surrounding area
Residential or sensitive area
Industrial development
 Height of development
 Zoning laws
Noise pollution
Movement of air pollution
Birds and hits at engines

 Economy of construction
Alternate sites to be examined
Availability of local construction material
Terrain even or not
Problematic areas
 Water logging areas
 Reclaimed areas

 Ground accessibility
Travel time in air vs on ground
Easily approachable using all modes
Proximity to areas of trip generation
Facilities for private vehicle users
Efficient transport system

 Presence of other airport
Traffic volume
circling radius
Types of air crafts in different airports
Type of operating facility
 Instrumental flight rules, design flight rules
Separation distance between radii
May cause
 Accidents, reduction in capacity

 Characteristics of soil
Strength of soil sub grade
Drainage of soil
Level of water table and its impact
 Sub-soil drainage effects
Valley side may have flooding
Soil with good amount of pervious material like
sand or gravel is considered good

 Use of airport
Civil or for military
Adaptability for other usage during emergencies
 Surrounding area obstructions
Clear air space for take off and landing
High rise buildings not allowed
High trees are cleared off
Zoning laws are made to take care

Factors affecting the size of
airport
 Size of airport
Defined by the space for operators, controlling systems,
facilities, manpower etc.
Controlled by peak aircraft traffic, aircraft characteristics
Elevation of airport size above MSL
 density and air pressure reduces
 Effects runway requirements, lift, drag etc.
 Aircraft performance varies altitude, air density, pressure ,
temperature
Meteorological conditions
 Wind, temperature
 Effects runway orientation, length and no of runways reqd.
Performance characteristics of aircraft
Volume of air traffic (peak hour volume, size of aircraft,
nature of air traffic, runways, taxiways etc.,)

1. The airport obstruction is that which causes obstruction during the
landing and take off operations of an aircraft and also in the
approach and turning areas.
2. At the time of site selection itself, steps should be taken to curb
the possibility of developing any future obstruction.
3. Hence Zoning ordinances regarding the permissible height of
structures and land use with in the airport boundary need
implementation as soon as the site is selected.
Classification of obstructions : obstructions for safe navigation are
broadly divided into 2 categories.
1.Objects protruding above certain imaginary surfaces.
2. Objects exceeding their limiting heights above the ground surface
in approach zones and turning zones.
AIRPORT OBSTRUCTIONS(Zoning Laws) :

Runway: A long and comparatively narrow strip which is paved except
for small aerodromes.
Aerodrome : A defined area of land or water which is intended to be
used for the arrival, departure and movements of aircrafts.
Runway Capacity : It is defined as the ability of a runway system to
accommodate aircraft landings and take-offs. It is expressed in
operations per hour or operations per year.
Apron: A defined area which is used to accommodate aircrafts for
loading and unloading of passengers and cargo, parking, refueling etc.,
Imaginary Surfaces :
The types of Imaginary Surfaces are :
(i) Take-off climb surface
(ii) Approach surface
(iii) Inner horizontal surface
(iv) Conical surface
(v) Transitional surface
(vi) Outer horizontal surface

(i) Take-off climb surface:
The take off climb area shall be established beyond the end of the
runway or clear way for each runway direction intended to be
used for takeoff aeroplanes.
(ii) Approach surface :
The approach surface shall be established from the smaller ends of
the runway strip for each runway direction intended to be used for
the landing of aeroplanes.
(iii) Inner horizontal surface:
a. It is the surface located in a horizontal plane above an
aerodrome and its surrounding.
b. The shape of the IHS need not necessarily be circular. The
radius or outer limits of IHS shall be measured from airport
reference point(ARP) or points established for such purposes.
c. Where the runway length is 600m(2000 ft) or more less than
750 m(2500 ft), the IHS shall be a circular surface with radius
of 4000 m(1300 ft) from ARP.

(iv) Conical surface:
a. It extends upwards and outwards from the periphery of the
inner horizontal surface. The limits of conical surface
comprises of
b. A lower edge coincident with periphery of inner horizontal
surface.
(v) Transitional surface:
a. It is a complex surface along the side of the strip and part of
the side of approach surface that slopes upwards and outwards
to the inner horizontal surface.
b. This is intended to serve as the controlling obstacle limitation
surface for buildings etc
(vi) Outer horizontal surface:
a. It is not proposed to establish OHS for aerodrome with
runways of length less than 900 m.
b. It is circular in plane with centre located at ARP. The height of
OHS is 150m above the ARP elevation. The constructions
providing above this surface shall not be permitted.

1.Runway is usually oriented in the direction of prevailing winds.
2. The head of wind i.e. the direction of wind opposite to the direction of
landing and takeoff, provide greater lift on the wings of the aircraft when it is
taking off.
Cross wind component:
1.The normal component of wind is called cross wind component.
2.This may interrupt the safe landing and takeoff of aircraft.
FAA
The max permissible cross wind depends upon size of aircraft and wing
configuration. Federal aviation agency recommends
CW component
Small aircrafts >| 15kmph
Mixed traffic >| 25kmph
Airports serving bigger aircrafts –ICAO (International civil aviation
organization) recommends cross wind component should not exceed 35kmph.
RUN WAY DESIGN
Run Way Orientation:

Wind coverage :
The percentage of time in a year during which the cross
wind component remains within the limits as specified
above is called wind coverage.
According to “FAA” runways handling mixed air
traffic should be so planned that 95% of time in a year,
the cross wind component does not exceed 25 kmph.
For busy airports the wind coverage may be increased
to as much as 98% to 100% .

Wind Rose:
1. The wind data i.e. direction, duration and intensity
are graphically represented by a diagram called wind
rose.
2. The wind data should be collected for a period of at
least 5years preferably 10 years.
Wind rose diagrams can be plotted in 2 ways
Type -I – Showing direction and duration of wind.
Type –II –Showing direction, durations intensity of wind.

Type-I wind rose :
1. The radial lines indicate wind direction and each circle represents
the duration of wind.
2. In the given tabular from table 6.1 it is observed that the total %
time in a year during which the wind blows from north direction is
10.3%.
3. This value is plotted along north direction in the figure similarly all
other values are also plotted along their respective direction.
4. The best direction of runway is usually along the direction the
longest line on the wind rose diagrams.
5. From the fig. the best direction orientation of runway is along the
north-south direction.
6. . If deviation of wind direction up to (22.50 +11.250 )from the
direction of landing and takeoff is permissible, the % of time in a
year during which the runway can safely be used for landing and
take off will be obtained by summing the percentages of time
along NNW,N,NNE,SSE,S and SSW directions.

Type-II wind rose :
1.Draw three equi -spaced parallel lines on a transparent
strip in such a way that distance between the two near by
parallel lines is equal to the permissible cross wind
component.
2. Place the transparent paper strip over the wind rose
diagram in such a way that the line passes through the
centre of the diagram.
3. With the centre if wind rose, rotate the tracing paper
and place it in such a position that the sum of all the
values indicating the duration of wind, within the two
outer parallel lines, is the maximum.

1. The geometric standards of an airport depend upon the
performance characteristics of the aircrafts that will use
the airport, the weather conditions and the services
rendered by the airport ,i.e., weather international or for
domestic use.
2. The airport classification helps in the design of airport
and to establish the uniformity in the design standards.
3. It also assists the pilots in identifying the size and the
services which the airport can provide.
4. The airports have been classified by various agencies viz.
5. International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO),Federal
Aviation Agency(FAA),United States Air force etc.
AIRPORT CLASSIFICATION

International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) classification :
1. The ICAO classifies the airports in two ways.
2. In the first method, the classification is based on the basic
runway length of the airport .
3. It also describes various other geometric standards of the
airport.
4.The classification has been done by using code letters viz.
5. A to E in which the A type of airport has the longest runway
length and E type has the shortest length.
6. In the second method classification is based on the equivalent
single wheel load (ESWL) and the tire pressure of the aircraft
which will use the airport.

1. ICAO gives various geometric standards for the
airport design.
2. The following items are considered in the
geometric design of runways :
(i) Runway length
(ii) Runway width
(iii) Width and length of safety area
(iv) Transverse gradient
(v) Longitudinal and effective gradient
(vi) Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
(vii) Sight distance
RUNWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Runway Length : To obtain the actual length of runway,
corrections for elevation, temperature and gradient.
Runway Width : ICAO recommends the pavement width
varying from 45m (150 ft) to 18m (60 ft) for different types
of airports.
Width and Length of safety area : Safety area consists of
the runway, which is a paved area plus the shoulder on either
side of runway plus the area that is cleared, graded and
drained.
Transverse Gradient :
a. Transverse gradient is essential for quick drainage of
surface water.
b. If surface water is allowed to pond on the runway, the
aircraft can meet severe hazards.

Longitudinal and effective gradient :
a. ICAO gives the following recommendations for the
maximum longitudinal gradient and the maximum
effective gradient.
b. For Longitudinal gradient :
A, B and C types of airports = 1.50 percent (%)
D and E types of airports = 2.00 percent (%)
c. For effective gradient :
A, B and C types of airports = 1.00 percent (%)
D and E types of airports = 2.00 percent (%)

RUN WAY LENGTH
ICAO Airport Classification
Airpor
t
Type
Basic
Runway
Length
(m)
Width of
Runway
Paveme
nt (m)
Max
Longitudin
al Grade
(%)
Max Min
A >2100 2100 45 1.5
B 2099 1500 45 1.5
C 1499 900 30 1.5
D 899 750 22.5 2.0
E 749 600 18 2.0
Cod
e
No
Equivalent
Single
Wheel
Load (kg)
Tire
Pressure
(kg/cm2)
1 45000 8.5
2 34000 7.0
3 27000 7.0
4 20000 7.0
5 13000 6.0
6 7000 5.0
7 2000 2.5
Example:
An airport B-3 would have basic runway length ranging between 1500-
2099m. Single wheel load capacity of 27000 with a tire pressure of 7 kg/cm2

RUNWAYS
Definition
It is a strip of land used by aircrafts for
take-off and landing operations. It is
perhaps the single most important facility
on the airport.

Actual Runway Length
=
Basic Runway Length +
Corrections

Basic Runway Length (ICAO)
Airport
Type
Basic Runway Length
(m)
Width of
Runway
Pavement
Max
Longitudinal
Grade (%)
Max Min
A >2100 2100 45 1.5
B 2099 1500 45 1.5
C 1499 900 30 1.5
D 899 750 22.5 2.0
E 749 600 18 2.0

Standard Atmospheric Parameters:
• Temperature at MSL = 15 C
• Pressure at MSL – 760mm of Hg
• Air Density = 1.225kg/m3
If the standard atmospheric conditions vary due to any
reason - corrections are applied to the basic runway
length to calculate the actual runway length.

Corrections to basic Runway Length
There are three main corrections to be applied
to basic runway length to determine the actual
length of runway for an airport. These are:
• Elevation Correction
• Temperature Correction
• Gradient Correction

Elevation Correction
Change in elevation affects air density,
atmospheric pressure and temperature.
Correction should be applied for change in
altitude.
The Elevation Correction is as shown below:
Correction for Altitude: Increase runway length
by 7% per 300m altitude above MSL

Temperature Correction
If standard temperature varies, correction to runway
length should be applied:
1.Compute Airport Reference Temperature (ART)
2.Compute Standard Temperature at the given Elevation
(STE)
3.Compute Increase in ART above STE= ART- STE
4.Apply Correction based on the value obtained in Step-3

Airport Reference Temperature (ART)
ART = 𝑇1+ 1/3(𝑇2− 𝑇1)
Where,
𝑇1= Monthly mean of average daily temperature
for the hottest month of the year (°C)
𝑇
2= Monthly mean of maximum daily temperature
for the same month (°C)

Standard Temperature at Elevation (STE)
STE = Temperature at MSL +/- (Rate of change of temperature x
elevation)
Rate of change of temperature with height is given as:
- 6.5°C / Km height ----------- Up to 11 Km height from MSL
Constant at – 56.5°C ------- 11 – 20 Km height ( Stratosphere )
+ 1°C / Km height -------------- 20 – 32 Km height ( Troposphere )

Temperature Correction
Increase basic runway length by 1% for every 1°C
rise in Airport Reference Temperature (ART).

Gradient Correction
Longitudinal Gradient:
• If the gradient is steep, it may cause pre-mature lift-
off or may cause structural damage
• It will consume more energy and will need longer
runway to attain desired ground speed
Effective Longitudinal Gradient:
It refers of the average gradient computed by
subtracting maximum and minimum elevations
along the runway divided by the total length of
runway.

Gradient Correction
Runway length is increased at a rate of 20%
for every 1% of the effective gradient
Note:
This correction is applied only if the combined correction for
Elevation and Temperature remains less than 35%

Summary: Basic Runway Length Corrections
Correction Amount Combined Corrections
1 Elevation Correction
7% per 300m rise above
MSL The combined
correction for Elevation
and Temperature
should NOT exceed
35%
2
Temperature
Correction
1% for every 1 C rise in
airport reference
temperature.
3 Gradient Correction
20% for every 1% of the
effective gradient
The combined
correction for Elevation
and Temperature
should less than 35%

Example - 1:
Compute the airport reference temperature if the monthly mean of
average daily temperature of the hottest month is 27.3°C and monthly
mean of maximum daily temperature for the same month is 43.2°C.
Solution :
Airport reference temperature (ART) = 𝑇1
+
1
3
(𝑇2− 𝑇1)
Where,
𝑇1=Monthly mean of average daily temperature of the hottest month
(°C)
𝑇2=Monthly mean of maximum daily temperature of the hottest month
(°C).
ART = 27.3 + 1/3 (43.2 − 27.3)
= 27.3 + 5.3,
ART = 32.6°𝐶

Problem 2:
If the airport is located at mean sea level (MSL), and the airport reference
temperature is that calculated in Problem 1. Apply temperature correction
to the runway length.
Solution
Given: Airport Reference Temperature : 32.6°C.
At MSL, the Standard Temperature at Elevation (STE) is given as 15°C.
The difference in temperature = (ART-STE) = 32.6-15 =
17.6°C Let the runway length be L meters.
The temperature correction is applied to increase the runway length, L,
by 1% for every degree rise in temperature. Hence,
The correction is : L
1
100
x 17.6°C = 0.176 L
The Corrected length = L + 0.176L = 1.176 L

Basic Runway Length
It refers to the length of an airport runway under the following
assumptions:
Related to runway:
No wind is blowing on runway
Runway is levelled (No effective gradient)
Related to Airport:
Airport is at sea level
The temperature at the airport is 15°C (Standard Temperature)
Related to aircraft:
Aircraft is loaded to its capacity
Related to route to destination:
No wind is blowing on the way to
destination Standard temperature
prevails along the way

Factors Affecting Basic Runway Length
The following factors affect the calculation of
basic runway length:
• Aircraft characteristics
• Airport environmental conditions
• Safety requirements

Aircraft Characteristics
• Power and propulsion system
• Critical aircraft:
The aircraft that requires longest runway length for
landing and take-off operations. The length of
runways for both the operations may be
determined from the flight manual of aircraft
performance.
• Gross landing and take-off weight of the
aircraft
• Aerodynamic and mechanical characteristics

Airport Environment
• Atmosphere
• Temperature
• Surface wind
• Altitude
• Runway Gradient

Safety Requirements
• Normal landing case
• Normal take-off case
• Engine Failure Case

Normal Landing Case
The aircraft should come to a halt within 60% of the landing
distance. The runway of full strength pavement is provided for
the entire landing distance

Normal Landing Calculations
• Field Length (FL) = landing distance (LD)
• LD = Stopping distance (SD) / 0.60 = SD x 1.67
• Length of full strength runway = LD

Normal Take-off Case
• The take-off distance (TOD) must be equal to 115%
of the actual distance the aircraft uses to reach a
height of 10.5m
• TOD should be equal to 115% of the distance to reach
a height of 10.5m.

Normal Take-off Calculations
• Field Length (FL) = Full Strength (FS) runway +
Clearway (CW)
• TOD = 1.15 x D10.5m
• CW = 0.5[TOD -1.15(LOD)]
• Take-off Run (TOR) = TOD – CW
• Length of full strength runway (FS) = TOR

Normal Take-off Case
So the runway should look as shown in Figure

Normal Take-off Runway Composition
• It requires a clearway, as shown in figure below.
• The width of clearway should not be less than 150m
(500ft)
• The clearway ground area should not have any object
protruding a plane inclined upwards at a slope of
1.25% from the end of runway.

Engine Failure Case-Criterion
It is an emergency condition!
This condition applies when the aircraft is speeding up on the runway to
take- off and pilots detect some problem in the engine(s):
Two Options exist:
Option 1. To abort the flight (This is permissible only if the speed of
aircraft is
below the designated speed (engine failure speed), or
Option 2. Proceed with the take-off and turn the aircraft back from
the turning zone (This option applies if speed is > engine failure
speed).
Option -1 is important from runway length design perspective: The
runway should be adequately long to let the plane to de-accelerate and
come to a safe halt without running beyond the runway.

Stopping in Emergency: Calculations-1
Engine Failure, take-off proceeded case
Field Length (FL) = FS + CW
TOD = D10.5
CW = 0.5[TOD-LOD] TOR =
TOD + CW
Length of FS runway = TOR

Stopping in Emergency: Calculations-2
Engine Failure, take-off aborted case
FL = FS + SW
FL = Deaccelerate stop distance (DAS)

The Required Basic Runway length
Field Distance = max{TOD2, TOD3, DAS, LD}
Full Strength Runway (FS) = max{TOR2, TOR3, LD}
SW = DAS – max{ TOR2, TOR3, LD}
CW = min{(FL - DAS), CL2, CL3}
SWmin = 0
CWmin = 0
CW max = 300m

A line of lights on an
airfield to guide aircraft in
taking off or landing
during night
As a guide to pilot
Emergency power
supplies
Different types of light
flashing white or pulsating
yellow to steady red and even blue

GeneralAirport
Lighting Approach lighting
Taxiway lighting
Runway Lighting
TYPES OFAIRPORT
LIGHTING

1.General AirportLighting
Includes Beacon Lights on top of tower,
buildings
The Airport Beacon : large, powerful rotating
light highly visible from miles away
Rotate green and white
Steady red beacon on top of airport building to
aid in collision avoidance for low-flying aircraft.

At airports Beacon:
White and Green rotating light
At Heliports Beacon:
White and Yellow rotating light

2. Taxiway Lighting
Taxiway Edge Lights: Blue, Lines taxiway
Taxiway Center Light: Green Light
Clearance Bar Lights: Steady yellow, visibility
of hold line
Stop Bar Lights: Steady red, ATC in low
visibility situation, across taxiway at hold short
line
Runway Guard Lights: A pair of two steady
yellow light at hold short line, may be flashing

Taxiway centerline light
Taxiway edge light
Runway Guard light
Steady Bar lights
Clearance Bar lights

3.Runway Lighting
Runway End Identifier Lights: white flashing
light one on each side of approach end of
runway
Runway Edge Light Systems
(HIRL/MIRL/LIRL):steady white light on
edges of runway
Runway Centerline Lighting System (RCLS)

3.Runway Lighting (Contd..)
Touchdown Zone Lights (TDZL) : Define landing
portion of runway, Up to midpoint
Land and Hold Short Lights (LAHSO)
Runway status light or Runway entry light (REL)

Min of (2000 ft and half the runway)

TDZL
RCLS
50 feet
interval
100 feet

4.Approach Lighting
An approach lighting system or ALS, is a
lighting system installed on the approach
end of an airport runway
Consisting of a series of light bars, strobe
lights, or a combination of the two that
extends outward from the runway end

4.Approach Lighting contd..
Visual glide slope indicators
Visual guide to pilot during descent to
maintain stabilized approach
This includes:
VASIs, or Visual Approach Slope Indicators:
lights indicating aircraft is too high or too low
on approach
PAPI, or Precision Approach Path Indicator

Visual Approach Slope Indicators (VASI)

Factors Affecting AirportLighting
Airport classification
Availability of power
Amount of traffic Nature
of aircraft
Type of night operation plan Type of
landing surface provided Weather
condition

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