This biotech slideshare explain about Pathology. Different kinds of pathology. Different instruments used in detection of of any pathology related diseases like Sonography and X-ray.

1. BIOTECHNOLOGY
ASSIGNMENT OF INTERNSHIP
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Submitted By :-
Shivangi Porwal

2. WHAT IS PATHOLOGY?
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Pathology is the study and diagnosis of disease through examination of organs, tissues, bodily fluids, and who
bodies (autopsies). The history of pathology can be traced to the earliest application of the scientific method to
field of medicine, a development which occurred in the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age and in We
Europe during the Italian Renaissance.
Early systematic human infections were carried out by the Ancient Greek physicians Herophilus of Chalcedon
Erasistratus of Chios in the early part of the third century BC. The first physician known to have made postmo
dissections was the Arabian physician Avenzoar (1091–1161). Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) is generally
recognised to be the father of microscopic pathology. Most early pathologists were also practicing physicians
surgeons.

3. General Pathology
General pathology is a broad and complex scientific field which seeks to understand the mechanisms of
injury to cells and tissues, as well as the body’s means of responding to and repairing injury. Areas of study
include cellular adaptation to injury, necrosis, inflammation, wound healing and neoplasia. It forms the
foundation of pathology, the application of this knowledge to diagnose diseases in humans and animals.
The term “general pathology” is also used to describe the practice of both anatomical and clinical
pathology.
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4. Anatomic Pathology
Anatomic pathology (U.S.) is a medical specialty that is concerned with the diagnosis of disease based
on the gross, microscopic, chemical, immunologic and molecular examination of organs, tissues, and
whole bodies (autopsy).
Anatomic pathology is itself divided in subspecialties, the main ones being surgical pathology,
cytopathology, and forensic pathology. To be licensed to practice pathology, one has to complete
medical school and secure a license to practice medicine. An approved residency program and
certification (in the U.S., the American board of Pathology or the American Osteopathic Board of
Pathology) is usually required to obtain employment or hospital privileges.
Anatomic pathology is one of two branches of pathology, the other being clinical pathology, the
diagnosis of disease through the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids and/or tissues. Often, pathologists
practice both anatomic and clinical pathology, a combination known as general pathology. The
distinction between anatomic and clinical pathology is increasingly blurred by the introduction of
technologies that require new expertise and the need to provide patients and referring physicians with
integrated diagnostic reports. Similar specialties exist in veterinary pathology.
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5. Clinical Pathology
Clinical pathology or Laboratory medicine, is a medical specialty that is concerned with the
diagnosis of disease based on the laboratory analysis of bodily fluids such as blood and urine,
and tissues using the tools of chemistry, microbiology, hematology and molecular pathology.
Clinical pathologists work in close collaboration with medical technologists, hospital
administrations, and referring physicians to ensure the accuracy and optimal utilization of
laboratory testing.
Clinical pathology is one of the two major divisions of pathology, the other being anatomic
pathology. Often, pathologists practice both anatomic and clinical pathology, a combination
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6. Sonography is a painless medical procedure that uses high-frequency sound waves to
produce visual images of organs, tissues, or blood flow inside the body. Depending on the
situation, sonography may be used to examine the abdomen, breasts, prostate, female
reproductive organs, heart, blood vessels, and other areas.In obstetrics, sonography is used
to determine the number, age, and location of a fetas, as well as to check for potential birth
defects. It is also used to identify abnormalities in the abdomen, such as liver disease or
gallstones. Sonograms can also be used to detect heart disease. And therapeutically,
sonography is often used to speed healing of injured muscles and joints through the
application of deep heat.
During a sonogram, the sonographer applies an odourless, colourless gel to the area to be
examined. This gel helps conduct the sound waves from the ultrasound transducer to the
area of focus. The sonographer moves the transducer around on the skin, which sends a
stream of high-frequency sound waves into the body that bounce off the organs and tissues
inside. As the waves bounce off internal structures, they create images that appear on a
monitor. The sonographer watches the monitor, and he or she looks for visual cues that
indicate whether the area being studied is healthy or unhealthy. The sonographer saves and
stores the most important images he or she sees, and a physician then examines those
images to make a diagnosis.
Sonography
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7. X-ray
X-rays are a type of radiation called electromagnetic waves. X-ray imaging
creates pictures of the inside of your body. The images show the parts of your
body in different shades of black and white. This is because different tissues
absorb different amounts of radiation. Calcium in bones absorbs x-rays the
most, so bones look white. Fat and other soft tissues absorb less, and look grey.
Air absorbs the least, so lungs look black.
The most familiar use of x-rays is checking for broken bones, but x-rays are
also used in other ways. For example, chest x-rays can spot pneumonia.
Mammograms use x-rays to look for breast cancer.
When you have an x-ray, you may wear a lead apron to protect certain parts of
your body. The amount of radiation you get from an x-ray is small. For example,
a chest x-ray gives out a radiation dose similar to the amount of radiation you're
naturally exposed to from the environment over 10 days.
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8. Forensic Pathology
Forensic pathology is a branch of pathology concerned with determining the
cause of death by examination of a cadaver. The autopsy is performed by the
pathologist at the request of a coroner usually during the investigation of
criminal law cases and civil law cases in some jurisdictions. Forensic
pathologists are also frequently asked to confirm the identity of a cadaver.
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9. Veterinary Pathology
Veterinary pathologists are doctors of veterinary medicine who specialise
in the diagnosis of diseases through the examination of animal tissue and
body fluids. Like for medical pathology, veterinary pathology is divided in
two branches, anatomical pathology and clinical pathology. Veterinary
pathologists are critical participants in the drug development process.
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10. Pathology as a Medical Specialty
Pathologists are physicians who diagnose and characterise disease in living patients by
examining biopsies or bodily fluid. The vast majority of cancer diagnoses are made or
confirmed by a pathologist. Pathologists may also conduct autopsies to investigate causes of
death. Pathology is a core discipline of medical school and many pathologists are also teachers.
As managers of medical laboratories, pathologists play an important role in the development of
Laboratory information systems. Although the medical practice of pathology grew out of the
tradition of investigative pathology, most modern pathologists do not perform original research.
Pathology is a unique medical specialty in that pathologists typically do not see patients
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11. A blood test is a laboratory analysis performed on a blood sample that is usually extracted from
a vein in the arm using a hypodermic needle, or via fingerprick. Multiple tests for specific blood
components, such as a glucose test or a cholesterol test, are often grouped together into one te
panel called a blood panel or blood work. Blood tests are often used in health care to
determine physiological and biochemical states, such as disease, mineral content, pharmaceuti
drug effectiveness, and organ function. Typical clinical blood panels include a basic metabolic
panelor a complete blood count. Blood tests are also used in drug tests to detect drug abuse. In
some of the United States, a blood test is required before marriage.
• A venipuncture performed using a vacutainer
Blood Test
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12. A urinalysis is simply an analysis of the urine. It is a very common test that can be
performed in many health care settings, including doctors' offices, urgent care facilities,
laboratories, hospitals, and even at home.
A urinalysis test is performed by collecting a urine sample from the patient in a
specimen cup. Usually only small amounts (30-60 mL) may be required for urinalysis
testing. The sample can be either analysed in the medical clinic or sent to a laboratory
to perform the tests. Urinalysis is abbreviated UA.
UA is in general easily available and relatively inexpensive. It is also a simple test and
can provide many useful information about various diseases and conditions. Some
Urinalysis
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13. Instruments used in pathology
•Flow Cytometer :-
used for automated cell counting as in total blood count, differential count, etc.
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14. • Haemocytometer
The hemocytometer was invented by Louis-
Charles Malassez and consists of a thick
glass microscope slide with a rectangular
indentation that creates a chamber. This chamber
is engraved with a laser-etched grid of
perpendicular lines. The device is carefully
crafted so that the area bounded by the lines is
known, and the depth of the chamber is also
known. By observing a defined area of the grid, it
is therefore possible to count the number
of cells or particles in a specific volume of fluid,
and thereby calculate the concentration of cells in
the fluid overall.
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15. •Esbach's Albuminometer
This is an instrument for
determining the presence
and amount of protein
albumin in a urine sample.
It consists of a graduated
tube.
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16. • Urinometer
A Urinometer is a simple piece of
equipment for determining urine
specific gravity. A typical urinometer is
composed of a float, a weight, and a
stem. The float is an air-filled glass
tube, ending in the weight on the left
and the stem on the right.
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17. • Spirometer
A spirometer is an apparatus for
measuring the volume of air
inspired and expired by the lungs.
Aspirometer measures ventilation,
the movement of air into and out of
the lungs. The spirogram will
identify two different types of
abnormal ventilation patterns,
obstructive and restrictive.
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