What are the competences employees and leaders need in global collaborative work?

1. Leader, employee and team
competences in dispersed work
settings
Prof. Matti Vartiainen, Work Psychology and Leadership, Department of Industrial
Engineering and Management
Time and Location: Monday, 28 January 2013
3:00-4:30 PM, CERAS Room 123, Stanford University

2. Content of my presentation
• Competences
• New ways of working require new types of
competences?
• Analyzing competence demands
• Analyzing competences on individual and team levels
• Studies 1, 2 and 3
• Conclusions

3. RQ:
What kinds of competences employees, leaders and teams
need when working in dispersed settings?
Competences -
What am I talking about?

4. Developing Intangible Assets in
Organizations to adapt and change
(= learn) Physical
Emotional
intelligence Work relations
and mental Purpose
Adam Smith defined four types of fixed capital health Imago
Vision
(which is characterized as that which affords Competences
and professional
Brand Goals
a revenue or profit without circulating skills
or changing masters): Human -
Social capital
Networks
1) useful machines, instruments of the trade; Values
and internal
capital Owner relationship
2) buildings as the means of procuring revenue; motivation Customer relationships
3) improvements of land and Supplier relationships
4) human capital. ”Flow ”
Partner relationship
Structural
Intellectual capital Organizational climate
Capital Competence
Development Enterprise culture
Financial and systems
Work
Leadership and
management
material capital arrangements
Occupational
Compensation and
Knowledge
reward systems
intangible or safety Health services flow
Information
intellectual systems
Need to identify and
capital develop intangible assets
in organizations
e.g. Edvinsson, L. & Malone, M.S. (1997); Sveiby, Karl Erik (1997)

5. Competences on three levels
• Three levels of competences:
(a) Strategic core competences reflecting resources
and capabilities of the whole work system to achieve
and maintain a competitive advantage
(b) Collective competences reflecting projects’ and
teams’ joint capabilities to act flexibly according to the
working context’s requirements, and
(c) Individual competences reflecting capabilities
that an individual needs to carry out his/her task.
– Key competences refer to critical competences
needed on different levels for good performance.

6. Hierarchy of competences (Javidan
1998, 62)
Core
competences
Increases
Competences
Value Difficulty
Capabilities
Resources

7. Core Competences
• ”The collective learning in the organization, especially how
to co-ordinate diverse production skills and integrate
multiple streams of technologies” (Prahalad ja Hamel
1990).
• A bundle of skills, experience and technologies that
enables a company to provide a particular benefit to
customers
• The capabilities that underlie leadership in a range of
products or services
• A sum of learning across individual skills and
organizational units
• A gateway to wide variety of potential product markets

8. Collective competences
Technical Competence Social Competence
Practical Competence Interpersonal Competence Sympathetic Competence
Ability to carry out the task Interaction aimed at performing Social interaction without
the task connection to the task
Collective Competence
Hansson 2003

9. Individual competences
• Two perspectives:
– Work-oriented approach: competences are
regarded as a specific set of attributes of work
and its demands.
– Worker-oriented approach: competences are
primary seen as constituted by attributes
possessed by workers, typically represented as
knowledge, skills, abilities and personal traits
required for effective work performance.

10. Traditional worker-oriented
definitions
• “An underlying characteristic of a person which
results in effective and/or superior performance in a job
(Klemp 1980, see Boyatzis 1982, 21).
• “A job competency is an underlying characteristic of a
person in that it may be a motive, trait, skill, aspect of
one’s self-image or social role, or a body of
knowledge he or she uses” (Boyatzis 1982, 21).
• “A competency is an underlying characteristic of an
individual that is causally related to criterion-referenced
effective and/or superior performance in a job or
situation” (Spencer & Spencer 1993, 9).
• “Competence consists of knowledge, skills, attitudes,
experiences and contacts that enable good performance
in certain situations” (Sydänmaanlakka 2003, 107).

11. Are there generic individual key
competences?
• Definition of key competences:
– … contribute to highly valued outcomes at the
individual and societal levels in terms of an overall
successful life and a well-functioning society
– … are instrumental for meeting important, complex
demands and challenges in a wide spectrum of
contexts
– … are important for all individual
Rychen, S.D. & Salganik, L.H. (eds.) (2003) Key competencies
for a successful life and a well-functioning society. Göttingen:
Hogrefe & Huber.

12. New ways of working require
new types of competences?

13. Chaos of concepts when defining
new ways of working
Virtual team
Dispersed team
Distributed organisation
Multi-locational knowledge
workers
Mobile technology
Mobility
Micromobility
Multi-mobility
Full mobility

14. Multi-locational work (‘E-nomads’) in
Europe 2010
• E-nomads are people who do not work all the time at their
employers’ or their own business premises and habitually use
computers, the internet or email for professional purposes.
• A quarter of the European workers are e-nomads. The
incidence of e-nomads varies considerably between countries,
ranging from just above 5% in Albania, Bulgaria, Romania and
Turkey to more than 40% in the Netherlands, Denmark and
Sweden, and 45% in Finland.
• On average, e-nomads work longer hours, more often on
Sundays and more often in the evenings than other workers.
They also report having to work during their free time more often
than the average
Main place of work by gender and type of work, Eurofound (2012), Fifth European Working Conditions Survey,
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012.
Agnès Parent-Thirion, Greet Vermeylen, Gijs van Houten, Maija Lyly-Yrjänäinen, Isabella Biletta, JorgeCabrita, with the
assistance of Isabelle Niedhammer. At the time the fifth edition of the survey was carried out, in 2010, about 216 million
people were employed in the EU27 main reference area of the survey. A total of 44,000 workers from 34 European
countries were interviewed in 2010 on their working and employment conditions.

15. Multi-locational work in Europe 2010
Main place of work by gender and type of work, Eurofound (2012), Fifth European Working Conditions Survey,
Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012.
Agnès Parent-Thirion, Greet Vermeylen, Gijs van Houten, Maija Lyly-Yrjänäinen, Isabella Biletta, JorgeCabrita, with the
assistance of Isabelle Niedhammer. At the time the fifth edition of the survey was carried out, in 2010, about 216 million
people were employed in the EU27 main reference area of the survey. A total of 44,000 workers from 34 European
countries were interviewed in 2010 on their working and employment conditions.

16. Prevalence and development in
telework in USA 2001-2010
Millions of employees
(The WorldatWork Special Report ‘Telework 2011’, p. 3).

17. Mobile
multi-
locational
work
01.12.2009
TKK

18. Types of mobile multi-locational work
On the Mobile
move Toolkit
Nomads
Carriers
(E.g. sales person)
Yo-yos
Number of work locations
Pendulums (E.g. a pilot)
(E.g. Manager
(E.g. teleworking or executive)
accountant)
On-site movers
One site (E.g. A farmer and a nurse)
office
Low Frequency of changing locations Continuous

19. HOWEVER! This is not all … as
virtual and mobile group work has
increased

20. … as virtual collaboration with
others from multiple places
Portfolio managers
SiteB
SiteC
SiteA
Project A Suppliers
Project B
SiteD
Siten
Subcontractors
External customers
• Definition of mobile distributed (virtual) workgroup: A group of people who work interdependently with a shared purpose
across space communicating mainly via ICT (adapted from Lipnack & Stamps, 2000), and all or part of them move in their
work

21. Differences between virtual
and conventional teams
Convential teams Virtual teams
SPATIAL DISTANCE COMMUNICATION SPATIAL DISTANCE COMMUNICATION
Technologically
Proximal Face-to-Face Distributed mediated
(Bell & Kozlowski 2002, 22)

22. Team types
• Global group’s or team’s members’ cross geographical and cultural boundaries
globally.
• Using collaboration technologies does it a global virtual group or team.
• Physical mobility of at least some members makes it a global mobile virtual
group or team.
• Global virtual teams are always to some degree dispersed crossing geographical
borders, some team members may be physically mobile and work over time zones
in simultaneous temporary limited projects using collaboration technologies to
communicate with their team members and leaders.

23. Different types of dispersed teams
Fully Three Two Subgroups
Dispersed Subgroups
(From Sirkka L. Jarvenpaa 2009)

24. Example of a global team under study

25. Analyzing competence demands

26. Genesis
• Factors determining positive and negative outcomes, and user
needs and design requirements:
(a) the complexity of collective joint tasks: are they routine vs.
creative tasks, how interconnected they are, how ambiguous
they are?
(b) the complexity of context or spaces (physical, virtual,
mental/social) where a team is operating?
(c) internal, regulative processes of individual or collective
subjects (e.g. means of communication and collaboration, inter-
connectedness, dependency, trust, etc)
CONTEXTUAL COMPLEXITY
OUTCOMES
TASK INDIVIDUAL AND
COLLECTIVE REGULATIVE - Performance
COMPLEXITY
PROCESSES - Well-being
20.04.2010
Aalto University School of
Science of Technology

27. (a) Task complexity
• Task complexity has critical implications for the
structure and processes of virtual teams:
– Complicatedness of task: routine vs. creative
– Interconnectivity of tasks
– Ambiguity of tasks
Low complexity of task High
Inform coordinate collaborate cooperate
Small degree of group communication Large

28. (b) Complexity of working contexts
determines requirements (job demands)
- Number of sites? - Type of moving: ’on-site
- Communication and - Distance? movers’, ’Yo-Yos’,
collaboration tools? ’Pendulums’, ’Nomads’,
Frequency of use? Location ’Carriers’?
Purpose of use? - Number of places
visited?
Mode of - Frequently of changing
interaction places?
Mobility
- Age, sex,
education,
nationality, - Time used
language, in working at home, moving,
religion, main workplace, secondary and
individual
Diversity
tertiary workplace?
characteristics Time - Time used in working
together?
- Members working at the
Temporariness same time?
- Length of working together? Team’s developmental stage? Team - Members working in different
members’ other projects? Each member’s time use in team? time zones?

29. Analysis of contextual
complexity
The dimensions and sub-dimensions of contextual complexity provide possibilities for project
managers and team leaders to analyze and describe the type of the organizational
unit they are working with. To determine the type of team, answering to the following
questions may help:
NOT VERY
AT ALL MUCH
- This team’s members are working in different locations? 1 2 3 4 5
- This team’s members move a lot in their work? 1 2 3 4 5
- This team’s members work asynchronously? 1 2 3 4 5
- This team’s members work temporarily together? 1 2 3 4 5
- This team’s members backgrounds are very different? 1 2 3 4 5
- This team’s members use electronic communication tools
for communication and collaboration? 1 2 3 4 5
If the answer ‘NO’ to all these questions, the team is not virtual and dispersed at all.

30. (c) Internal, regulative processes
of individual and collective subjects
Ep
C
r
A2
S1 T1 R1 R2 S2
A1 T2
R3
T3
S3
• Individuals as acting subjects in dispersed work (Ep = external environment of
individual, S1-S3 = dispersed sites, C = cognitive functions, r = internal world of
individual, T1-T3 = different tasks, R1-R3 = roles, A1-A2 = attitudes) (Modified
from Rice 1969)

31. Analysizing competences on
individual and team levels

32. Types of activity environments
and competences
Unit and type
Creatve of competence
Job and task requirements
Flexible
Routine
Stabile Disturbed Turbulent
Type of activity environment
Based on Emery, F. & Trist, E. (1997, orig. 1963)
The causal texture of organizational environments.

33. Demand defines internal
structure of a competence
Demand-oriented Internal structure
Related to co-operation
competence of a competence
Example of a need: Knowledge
Ability co-operate Cognitive skills
Practical skills
Attitudes
Emotions
Values and ethics
Motivation
Rychen, S.D. & Salganik, L.H. (eds.) (2003) Key competencies
for a successful life and a well-functioning society. Göttingen:
Hogrefe & Huber.

34. Framework to study compentence
needs and competences
TASKS
TIME MOBILITY
JOB DEMANDS IN DISPERSED WORKING CONTEXT
CHARACTERISTICS
(a) Individual
- Meanings, knowledge
LOCATION
- Attitude, SKILFUL OPERATIVE
- Experience, traits ACTIONS, i.e., RESULTS AND
(b) Collective process of doing, OUTCOMES
- Shared knowledge performing, skills - Quality
- Ability to work together
- Ability to interact and
-communicate
LOCATION
DIVERSITY
MODE OF INTERACTION

35. Individual competence (Spencer &
Spencer 1993, 9)
• A competency is an underlying characteristic
of an individual that is causally related to
criterion-referenced effective and/or superior
performance in a job or situation” (Spencer &
Spencer 1993, 9).”
”Purpose” ”Activity” ”Result”
Individual Behavior Performance
characteristics
Motive Skill
Characteritic
Self-image
Knowledge

36. Study 1: Individual and collective
competences in virtual project
organizations
See references 5, 6, 10

37. Purpose and research questions
• The purpose was to analyze and describe
competences in a dispersed context in order to
develop working and leadership practices in
virtual organizations.
• The research question of the study was:
– What are the competences needed by project and team
leaders, and employees in virtual teams and projects?

38. Data and methods
• The data was collected in eleven companies in the electronics,
woodworking, road infrastructure, social work, and banking
industries in 2003-2005
• First, a context analysis was made in each company by collecting
documents and by interviewing company management.
• Four researchers interviewed (n=102): two executives, 31 team
leaders, and 65 team members. In addition, three executives
participated in a face-to-face focus group interview, one executive
was interviewed in a videoconference and two team members on
telephone.
• The interviews were conducted in Amsterdam, Dongguang,
Espoo, Helsinki, Hong Kong, Kuopio, Oulu and Tampere. The
interview sessions, ranging from 45 minutes to 2 hours, were
recorded and transcribed and then analyzed with Atlas/ti

39. Semi-structured interviews - themes
• Describe your work and role in this dispersed workgroup.
• How does the virtual work differ from co-located work in your opinion?
• Describe the special challenges and benefits that you and your group
have encountered when working in
1) geographically dispersed,
2) mobile,
3) across different time zones,
4) in a temporary / permanent manner,
5) with diverse group members, and
6) by mediated interaction?
• What sort of skills or competences do you need in your work?
• Which special competences do you need in a virtual setting?
• How about the other members’ competences (colleagues, team
leader)?

40. Location
Loneliness, isolation
Inequality of
Maintaining
team members
trust
Missing social
network Unclear Mobility
Mode of
Unanswered career
interaction
e-mails Increased Accumulated
Unclear responsibility Unclarity of tasks in office
communication goals and roles Time lag
Availablity of Missing
team face-to-face Sharing local
members Non-rich contacts knowledge
Social Long working days
communication Building we-
conflicts Fuzzy work-life boundary
spirit
Findings 1:
Meagre
feedback (identity)
Finding adequate workplaces
Information
overflow
perceived Local
Time used for co-ordination
challenges
culture
Differences in
and habits Late calls
ways of thingking
Different educational
Lack of ad-hoc meetings
backgrounds Knowledge
Language transfer One-way communication
Differences
In project
between
Cultural differences projects Flexible
practices Co-ordination of
working
tasks
Number of times
Diversity
simultaneou
Time
s Turnover of
projects colleagues and
projects
Job tenure
(Interviews, n= 102)
Temporariness = a face-to-face
organisation

41. Findings 2: Individual team member
and leader competences (n=102)
Characteristics Skilful operative actions
Employee: Employee:
- Independence, self-motivation, self- - Communication skills (n=59)
management (n=51) - Skills to use communication and collaboration
- Cultural sensitivity (n=39) tools (n=39)
- Work experience and expertise (n=38) - Flexibility (n=31)
- Structured work style (n=33) - Proactive behavior (n=30)
- Trustworthiness, honesty, openness and - Language skills (n=29)
responsible (n=28) - Working processes compliance (n=28)
- Cooperative (n=13) - Written expression skills (n=25)
- Readiness to travel (n=13) - Control of multi-project complexity (n=22)
- Patience (n=7) - Ability to see the bigger picture (n=17)
- Control of information flow (n=17)
Team Leader: Team Leader:
- Assertiveness and determination (n=29) - Result-oriented management style (n=40)
- Propensity to trust (n=22) - Leadership actions (n=40)
- Earlier experience of virtual work (n=16) - Information sharing and comprehensive
- People skills (n=16) communication (n=37)
- Trustworthiness, honesty, openness (n=9) - Coordination and organizing skills (n=14)
- Time management (n=9)
- Macro-management (n=7)

42. Findings 3: Collective team and
organization competences (n=102)
Characteristics Skilful operative actions
Team: Team:
- Defined roles and responsibilities (n=48) - Open and frequent communication (n=61)
- Trust (n=39) - Adequate face-to-face meetings (n=41)
- Goal clarity (n=36) - Knowing the other team members (n=36)
- Communication practices (n=35) - Time difference enabling shift work (n=4)
- Common operations models (n=31)
- Commitment and we-spirit (n=30)
- Common language and understanding (n=14)
- Local expertise (n=6)
- Cultural richness due to diversity (n=5)
Organization: Organization:
- Common IT-systems, communication and - Management support (n=26)
collaboration tools (n=58) - Local ICT-support and maintenance (n=9)
- Common processes and guidelines (n=56)
- Open culture (n=28)
- Adequate resources and time (n=26)
- Methods to utilize local knowledge (n=17)

43. Study 2: European survey -
competence challenges in global
collaboration
See reference 13

44. Research question and survey design
• Research question: What are the main challenges of the company when
operating outside Europe?
• Sample size
– n=1015 (~200 per country), data was collected in between 18th April and 5th
June, 2008
– 70-160 per country (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands,
Portugal, Sweden and U.K.)
• Interview duration
– 15-20 minutes on average (excluding initiation)
• Interview methodology: Computer Aided Telephone Interviewing
• Unit of observation
– Only companies of a certain size (5+ employees) because of uneven
coverage of micro enterprises in list sources
– Only companies that engage in global activities
• Unit of response
– Owners / CEOs / Heads of R&D / Heads of international operations

45. Findings: Competence challenges in
global collaboration
(% “very often”, “often” or “sometimes”, Base: all SMEs with global activities
Problems caused by language
or cultural barriers
Difficulty to meet face-to-face
when necessary
Problems due to regulatory barriers
in host countries
Difficulty of building trust
between collaboration partners
Problems in organising
work across time zones
Increasing stress among
employees
Lack of interoperability of
processes & ICT systems
Difficulty of making employees
adapt their working times Total sample
Problems regarding protection Knowledge- intensive
of Intellectual property business services
Problems regarding data security High- tech manufacturing
Medium-high-tech
Problems regarding data manufacturing
privacy
0 10 20 30 40 50

46. Study 3: Leader and employee
competences in global settings
See reference 8
ARCHITECTS OY

47. Purpose and research questions
• The purpose was to analyze and describe competences
in a dispersed context in order to develop working and
leadership practices in global virtual teams.
• The research questions of the study was:
– Which special competences and characteristics of you
and your team members are required to work in a
global setting?
– Which leadership competences and characteristics
does a leader need in a global setting??

48. Data and methods
• Collection of data
(a) Secondary analysis of data from literature
(b) Semi-structured interview (n=103), i.e., target
unit interview from 12 global companies
- Team and project members, team leaders, executives
- Face-to-face and videoconference interviews
- Data was collected 2008-2011
• Analysis of data
– Interview answers were transcribed and analysed
qualitatively by using a text-analysis program
Atlas.ti
See: Future competences http://www.futurex.utu.fi/julkaisut_Future_Competences.pdf

49. Target unit interview - themes
• Which special competences and characteristics of
you and your team members are required to
work in a global setting?
• Which leadership competences and
characteristics does a leader need in a global
setting?
• How would you improve leadership in the global
CWE?

50. Findings: Key competences of employees
and leaders in global environments
= skills
Have
presence
Focus on (n=12) = characteristics
big picture
/strategy Management
(n=12) (n=14) People
Use
skills
different
(n=11)
approaches
Leader + (n=8)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Employee
Understanding Flexible (n=11)
& Leader (cultural)
Communication skills (n=45) differences
(n=42)
Open minded (n=14)
Outgoing/ Proactive (n=7)
systematic (n=6)

51. Findings: Communication in detail
(n=45)
• Language skills
• Verbal and written communication skills
– Clarity
• Outgoing (outward acting) and systematic(n=6)
– Opinions differed -> cannot be together?
• Proactive (n=7). Listens and asks specific questions
• Efficient use of technologies
– Video -> Voice-> email
• Increasing communication

52. Findings: Understanding (cultural)
differences (n=42)
• Cultural differences (n=42)
– Understands: local customs, what motivates people and how affairs are
taken care in different places
• Open-minded (n=14)
• Flexible (n=11)
– Ability to act and think globally
– A ‘must’ in dispersed working
– Workday is not 9-17

53. Findings: Leader-specific competences
• Competence needs do not ‘an sich’ differ from ‘local leadership’, but distribution
creates different challenges
• Management mind-set (n=14)
– Follow progress
• Focus on big picture and strategy (n=12)
– Understanding markets
– Communicating broader picture to team members
– Setting a common direction and creating common processes
• Having presence (n=12)
– Visiting other locations/offices
– Being active in virtual spaces
• People skills (n=11)
– Learning to motivate, communicate and deal with different people
• Ability to use different approaches (n=8)
– Changing behaviour according to situations

54. Conclusions:
it is all about cultural understanding
and communication

55. Employee, leader and team
competences needed dispersed work
settings
(a) Employee
- Characteristics: independence, self-management, cultural
sensitivity, open-mindedness
- Operative actions: communication skills, skills to use
communication and collaboration tools
(b) Team leader
- Characteristics: assertiveness and determination, open-
mindedness, management mind-set
- Operative actions: communication, understanding cultural
differences, result-oriented management style, leadership
actions
- Findings fit quite well with earlier studies (secondary data), see
references.

56. – Collective competences needed by teams,
projects and organizations in dispersed settings?
(a) Team
- Characteristics: defined roles and responsibilities, trust
- Operative actions: open and frequent communication,
adequate face-to-face meetings
(b) Organization
- Characteristics: common IT-systems, communication and
collaboration tools, common processes and guidelines
- Operative actions: management support, local ICT-
support and maintenance, overcoming language or cultural
barriers, organizing face-to-face meetings when necessary

57. Summary of team member and leader
competences – top frequencies
STUDIES Characteristics Skilful operative actions
Employee
Study 1 - Independence, self-motivation, self- - Communication skills (n=59)
(n=102) management (n=51) - Skills to use communication and collaboration
- Cultural sensitivity (n=39) tools (n=39)
Study 3 - Open minded (n=14) - Communication (n=45)
(n=103) - Flexible (n=11) - Understanding (cultural) differences (n=42)
- joint
Team leader
Study 1 - Assertiveness and determination (n=29) - Result-oriented management style (n=40)
(n=102) - Propensity to trust employees (n=22) - Leadership actions (n=40)
Study 3 - Open minded (n=14) - Communication (n=45)
(n=103) - Flexible (n=11) - Understanding (cultural) differences (n=42)
joint
Study 3 - Management mind-set (n=14) - Follow progress (n=14)
(n=103) - Focus on big picture and strategy (n=12) - Understanding markets, communicating
Leader- - Having presence (n=12) broader picture to team members, setting a
specific common direction and creating common
processes (n=12)
- Visiting other locations/offices, being active
in virtual spaces (n=12)

58. Summary of collective competences –
top frequencies
STUDIES Characteristics Skilful operative actions
Team
Study 1 - Defined roles and responsibilities - Open and frequent communication
(n=48) (n=61)
(n=102) - Trust (n=39) - Adequate face-to-face meetings (n=41)
Organization
Study 1 - Common IT-systems, communication - Management support (n=26)
and collaboration tools (n=58) - Local ICT-support and maintenance
(n=102) - Common processes and guidelines (n=9)
(n=56)
Study 2 - - Overcoming language or cultural
barriers
(n= - Meeting face-to-face when necessary
around
488)

59. Critique on rationalistic approaches
Phenomenography (Sandberg 2000, 11):
– The rationalistic ”operationalizations” of attributes into quantitative
measures often result in abstract and overly narrow and simplified
descriptions that may not adequately represent the complexity of
competence in work performance.
– The predefined competence categories may confirm a researcher’s
own model of competence, rather than capture workers’
competence.
– However: in this study, competence categories did not exist
beforehand, but emerged from interview data!

60. Future challenges
• Competence descriptions are ’inherited’ reminding
concepts of f-t-f competences: ’bounded rationality’ or
’delayed mindset’?
• Context matters: as the cultural understanding issues
emerged, both interview data (n=102, n=103) could be
analysed ftom the viewpoint of culturally different
interviewees!
• It would be important to identify positive features in
dispersed work settings (enablers), in addition to
disablers!
• Practical implications on organizational, team and
individual levels should be developed

61. Literature
1. Andriessen, E. & Vartiainen, M. (Eds) (2006) Mobile virtual work – A new paradigm? Heidelberg: Springer.
2. Bosch-Sijtsema, P.M., Ruohomäki, V. & Vartiainen, M. (2010) Knowledge work productivity in distributed teams. Journal of
Knowledge Management 13, 6, 533-546.
3. Bosch-Sijtema, P., Fruchter, R., Vartiainen, M. & Ruohomäki, V. (2011) Challenging new ways of working for remote managers
in global collaborative work environments. In: Kelliher, C. & Richardson, J. (Eds.) New ways of organizing work. Developments,
Perspectives, and experiences, pp. 160-175. New York: Routledge.
4. Kasvi, J.J.J., Vartiainen, M. & Hailikari, M. (2003) Managing knowledge and knowledge competences in projects and project
organisations. International Journal of Project Management 21, 8, 571-582.
5. Kokko, N., Vartiainen, M. & Hakonen, M. (2003) Collective competencies in virtual organizations. In: Luczak, H. & Zink, K.J.
(Eds.) Human factors in organizational design and management – VII. Re-designing work and macroergonomics – future
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