AW

1. Academic Writing-
Developing Your
Academic Language
• Identify and describe
the conventions of
academic language
• Assess the standard
of academic
language in
examples of writing
• Reflect on your own
use of academic
language and areas
for development

2. • Look at the three versions of texts.
• What is changing each time and how is it
improving?
Original Better Even better
People generally
think that criminals
should be strung
up. However, is
punishment always
a great idea
(Quarshie, 2015)? I
think it’s terrible to
only punish them.
It is generally
thought that crime
should be
punished.
However, it is
possible that
punishment is not
always a suitable
approach
(Quarshie, 2015).
Criminologists have
stated that it is
generally thought that
crimes should be
punished (O’Brien,
2005; Beko, 2013).
However, Quarshie
(2015) persuasively
argues that
punishment is not
always a suitable
approach.

3. Original
Original​
People generally think
that criminals should be strung
up. However, is punishment
always a great idea (Quarshie,
2015)? I think it’s terrible to
only punish them.
Which people – be
specific.
Do they?
Informal/emotional/biased
Rhetorical question
No first person – unless
writing reflectively
Short form
Emotional language

4. What is
academic
writing?
Planned and focused: answers the
question and demonstrates an
understanding of the subject.
Structured: is coherent, written in a
logical order, and brings together
related points and material.
Evidenced: demonstrates knowledge
of the subject area, supports opinions
and arguments with evidence, and is
referenced accurately.
Formal in tone and style: uses
appropriate language and tenses, and
is clear, concise and balanced.

5. Style
Formal (like in text books)
Simple and direct language
Objective
Impersonal (No ‘I’, ‘we’, ‘you’)
Cautious (hedging)
Ideas, judgements must be supported by
research (using authoritative source – and cited
using Harvard referencing system)

6. Conventions
No slang
No (or few) abbreviations
No personal language
No judgemental words (without
support)
No contractions

7. Your number one aim is to communicate
information to your lecturer1
Use your own English and develop it2
Do not translate from your own language
(unless you are a qualified translator!)3
Use a dictionary and grammar reference
when you write4

8. Objective neutral tone
Being impersonal
• Academic writing must
have an objective
tone. This means being
impersonal – making your
essay appear to be
independent from you
the writer and the reader.
• Do not write in a personal
way using pronouns.
• Do not refer to what you
think; refer instead to
what the evidence
suggests.
I think that studying at the
LJMU is difficult. We have
many problems with our
academic writing 
Studying at LJMU is
difficult. A survey (LJMU,
2017), showed that 42%
of students have problems
with academic writing.

9. Showing
your
opinion
but not
using ‘I’
I think it is interesting that Smith
(2005), thinks many tutors cannot
teach academic writing competently.

Interestingly, Smith (2005), thinks
that many tutors cannot teach
academic writing competently. 
I am surprised that most students do
not know whether they have a good
tutor or not. 
Surprisingly, most students do not
know whether they have a good
tutor or not. 

10. AVOID using personal judgement
words
USE words referring to the evidence
I think From examining the findings,
I feel In light of the evidence,
I believe From previous research,
I am convinced that Considering the results,
I disliked According to the figures,
I liked As shown in the diagram,
I agree It is evident from the data that
I disagree The literature suggests
I am sure that Given this information,
It is my belief that Some theorists argue that

11. Do not show your feelings with judgmental words:
I like the fact that Smith (2005) agrees with me that
the majority of international students need at least
some help with academic writing. 
A recent report (Smith 2005) concludes that the
majority of international students need at least
some help with academic writing.
Academic writing is terribly hard to get right and it
is maddening that we have to use it in all our
essays. 
Academic writing is difficult to get right and many
students feel frustrated that they are required to
use it. 

12. Structure
(grammar)
• In spoken language it
is natural to use pronouns,
proper nouns to start
sentences.
• In academic English
because we want to
be impersonal/objective we
use different grammatical
structures such as ‘IT’
I would argue that … 
It can be argued that…. 
People generally think that crimes should be
punished

It is generally thought that crime should be
punished

However, some people think that punishment
is not always the answer

However, it is possible that punishment is not
the answer

It is generally thought that crimes should be
punished. However, it is possible that
punishment is not the answer. Leading
criminologists are now coming to the
conclusion that rehabilitation is a better
solution (Smith, 2005), (Jones, 2004).


13. It could be argued that It has been suggested that
It can be seen that It appears that
It was found that It is generally agreed that
It could be concluded that It seems that
It tends to be It is widely accepted that
It is doubtful that It is evident from the data that

14. This has resulted in them/us/people/the world developing marketing strategies
to sell more goods. 
This has resulted in the development of marketing strategies to sell more
goods. 
When managers implement management theory, the workers produce more
goods. 
When managers implement management theory, productivity increases. 
The management team wants to see the employees reduce costs and
overheads. 
The management team wants to see a reduction in costs and overheads. 
The CEO requires people to implement the changes in the system as soon as
possible. 
The CEO requires the immediate implementation of the changes. 

15. The passive
– used in
AW to
distance the
writer from
the writing or
when the
subject is
unknown or
unimportant
I did this research in order to identify
the main problems that students
face when studying in the UK 
This research was done in order to
identify the main problems that
students face when studying in the
UK 
People have done more damage to
the environment in the last fifty
years than the two preceding
centuries. 
More damage has been done to the
environment in the last fifty years
than the two preceding centuries. 

16. Hedging –
caution in
academic
writing
In the academic world nothing is a 100% certain! (Unless it
has a reference)
In order to put some distance between what you’re writing
and yourself as writer, to be cautious rather than assertive,
you should:
avoid overuse of first person pronouns (I, we, my, our)
use impersonal subjects instead (It is believed that ..., it
can be argued that ...)
use verbs such as would, could, may, might which ‘soften’
what you’re saying.
use qualifying adverbs such as some, several, a minority
of, a few, many to avoid making overgeneralisations.

17. Caution
Examples
• Globalisation is great
for all countries. 
• Globalisation is
perhaps beneficial for a
number of countries in
several areas (Smith,
2006;Chen, 2008). 

18. • It is thought that …
It is believed that …
It has been reported that …
It is a widely held view that …
It has commonly been assumed that …
• Using research to present an opinion
• According to Smith (2002), …
According to recent reports, …
According to many in the field …
Many scholars hold the view that …
Smith (2001) holds the view that …
Recent research has suggested that …
There is some evidence to suggest that …
If Smith’s (2001) findings are accurate, …
• Analysing Findings
• The findings of this study suggest that …
One possible implication of this is that …
Taken together, these results suggest that …
The evidence from this study suggests that …
Initial observations suggest that there may be a link
between …
The data reported here appear to support the assumption
that …
The findings from these studies suggest that X can have an
effect on …
•

19. How certain are you?
It is
fairly
very
quite
rather
almost
quite
certain
likely
probable
possible
likely
unlikely
unlikely
certain
that…

20. Quantity – To express amount
• All/every/each
• Most
• A majority of
• Many/much
• A lot of
• Enough
• Some
• A number of
• Several
• A minority of
• A few/a little
• Few/little
• No/none/not any
• Examples
• All the writers agree that
globalisation is an area of
great debate.
• A majority of writers agree that
globalisation is an ongoing
process.
• Several economists have
suggested that these statistics
are misleading.
• There is no research to
support these claims.
100%to0%

21. Linking ideas and
paragraphs
• Transitions help you to achieve
these goals by establishing logical
connections between sentences,
paragraphs, and sections of your
writing. In other words, transitions
tell readers what to do with the
information you present to them.
Whether single words, quick
phrases, or full sentences, they
function as signs that tell readers
how to think about, organize, and
react to old and new ideas as they
read through what you have
written.
• Effectively constructing each
transition often depends upon your
ability to identify words or phrases
that will indicate for the reader the
kind of logical relationships you
want to convey.
• Look in the left column of the table
for the kind of logical relationship
you are trying to express. Then
look in the right column of the table
for examples of words or phrases
that express this logical
relationship.
• Keep in mind that each of these
words or phrases may have a
slightly different meaning. Use a
dictionary if you are unsure of the
exact meaning of a word or phrase.

22. LOGICAL RELATIONSHIP TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSION
Similarity also, in the same way, just as … so too,
likewise, similarly
Exception/Contrast but, however, in spite of, on the one hand
… on the other hand, nevertheless,
nonetheless, notwithstanding, in contrast,
on the contrary, still, yet
Sequence/Order first, second, third, … next, then, finally
Time after, afterward, at last, before, currently,
during, earlier, immediately, later,
meanwhile, now, recently, simultaneously,
subsequently, then
Example for example, for instance, namely,
specifically, to illustrate
Emphasis even, indeed, in fact, of course, truly
Place/Position above, adjacent, below, beyond, here, in
front, in back, nearby, there
Cause and Effect accordingly, consequently, hence, so,
therefore, thus
Additional Support or Evidence additionally, again, also, and, as well,
besides, equally important, further,
furthermore, in addition, moreover, then
Conclusion/Summary finally, in a word, in brief, briefly, in
conclusion, in the end, in the final analysis,
on the whole, thus, to conclude, to
summarize, in sum, to sum up, in summary

23. Presenting Research
Function and strength
NEUTRAL: verbs used to say what the
writer describes in factual terms,
demonstrates, refers to, and
discusses, and verbs used to explain
his/her methodology.
Example verbs
describe, show, reveal, study,
demonstrate, note, point out, indicate,
report, observe, assume, take into
consideration, examine, go on to say
that, state, believe (unless this is a
strong belief), mention, etc.
Function and strength
TENTATIVE: verbs used to say what the
writer suggests or speculates on (without
being absolutely certain).
Example verbs
suggest, speculate, intimate,
hypothesise, moot, imply, propose,
recommend, posit the view that, question
the view that, postulate, etc.
Function and strength
STRONG: verbs used to say what the
writer makes strong arguments and
claims for.
Example verbs
argue, claim, emphasise, contend,
maintain, assert, theorize, support the
view that, deny, negate, refute, reject,
challenge, strongly believe that, counter
the view/argument that, etc.
Reporting Verbs

24. • Jones (1999) argues, in his
study of thermodynamics, that...
• As Jones (1999) argues in his
study of thermodynamics,...
• In his study of thermodynamics,
Jones (1999) argues that...
• It is possible (and often quite
attractive stylistically) to invert
the subject and verb when
reporting:
• e.g. Thermodynamics, argues
Jones (1999), is..
• Reporting the work of others
often needs an extra sentence
introduction or 'lead-in':
• e.g. In considering Smith's
discussion on
thermodynamics, Jones (1999)
argues that ...

25. Reflect
• Think about your own academic
writing.
• Which do you aspect do you
want to improve?