Reports

1. Academic Writing: Reports
You will be able to…
Identify what goes in each section of a report
Explain and experiment with the stages of
planning and writing a report
Assess your current methods of report writing
Jane Murdoch,
Academic Skills Tutor,
skills@ljmu.ac.uk

2. Planning your report is essential because…
… a report communicates the findings of an investigation. So, think of planning it as going for a
walk: get to your destination clearly and logically, without detours.
A report has clear sections that tell
the reader:
what you did
why and how you did it
what you found out
why that is important
In your groups, can you match the
title of the report section with the
description of what goes in it?

3. Analyse
the brief
Research
and plan
Writing
Plan
Write
When does planning start?
What is it asking you to do? What is the
purpose of the report? What key issues
and concepts will you need to include?
What about a hypothesis? Get down some
initial ideas.
Gather evidence for your writing. What
do you need to know? What will your
reader need to know? How will you
collect your information? Are there key
points and themes starting to form?
How will you communicate your knowledge,
understanding and ideas?
You will need to
write and re-
write until your
ideas are clear
are
communicated
clearly

4. What is the first thing you need to make
sure you know before you analyse the brief?
In your groups, match the image of each
individual with the description of them.
Analyse
the brief

5. Conduct an investigation into levels of unconscious bias amongst LJMU
students. The report will be presented to LJMU’s Library Services to inform
their planning in terms of inclusivity and diversity.
In your groups, start to plan out the type of
information you would need to include in this
report. How will you decide?
How will you gather this information? What
influences your decision?
What are your aims and objectives?
Analyse
the brief

6. • This rough outline plan and the establishment of aims and objectives before you
do your research helps you focus on what information you are gathering, whether
that is through secondary or primary research.
• Don’t forget – as you research, your ideas may change.
Analyse
the brief
How about keeping this initial plan
and your breakdown of the brief
somewhere visible during your
research and planning process?
Keeps you focused!

7. Reading, Research and Note-Making
• Don’t forget to read for your methods section too, when relevant.
• Never just write everything down.
• Keep an eye on the brief and your aims and objectives– have a purpose.
Research
and plan
Remember that books and articles are not
written around your assignments. Ask
yourself whether it will help you, how
much of it is relevant and how/why.

8. • How you go about your research and
gathering your information will vary
greatly depending on your subject and the
actual brief, but you will always need to
read.
• Using your initial thoughts, start your
background reading. This will help you
start to plan what will go in your
introduction and will help you to interpret
your findings, ready to put in your
discussion.
• Don’t forget to use your aims and
objectives: these don’t only focus and
guide you in the research phase but help
you see how your sections will be
structured.
Research
and plan
In your groups, go back to the research aims
and objectives you wrote earlier. How would
these help you to structure your
introduction, your findings section and your
discussion?

9. A grid like this can help you keep track of your reading and analysis, and think
about how you will use or refer to it in your writing:
Author, title Topic Key idea Strengths/Weaknesses How to use
Bill Johnston (2010)
The First Year at
University: Teaching
Students in
Transition: Teaching
Students in
Transition (Helping
Students Learn)
Effect of
stress on
university
students
Students need to
have differences in
study practices
made clear at the
outset: this is
primarily the
responsibility of
the university
Very small sample
Longitudinal study
– appropriate
methods
Compare to
(Jones, 2014) who
emphasises
responsibility of
the student –
introduction (as
background)
Compare with own
methods-
introduction
Compare to own
findings -
discussion
Don’t forget, use diagrams like mind maps too if you prefer
Research
and plan

10. They can also help you keep track of your research and think about how you will
use it in your discussion and conclusion sections:
Aim Objective Finding Links to reading Analysis
Do your findings
challenge what
you have read, or
offer further
evidence for
established
arguments? How
do they compare?
What these
findings mean to
you in relation to
the brief – discuss
them, draw
conclusions,
consider
limitations and
recommendations.
Don’t forget, use diagrams like mind maps too if you prefer
Research
and plan

11. Evidence to use
/ works to cite
Key point 1 1
2
3
Key point 2 1
2
3
Key point 3 1
2
3
Key point 4 1
2
3
Conclusion Summarise
Plan each paragraph and briefly note the
evidence you will present.
Can you explain why you are including
that point?
It is important to remember that we all
plan at this stage differently BUT the
principle is the same.
Writing
Plan
Now make a detailed paragraph plan for each section,
with notes on where your reading will fit in.
Your analysis of the
brief, your aims and
objectives and your
focused research
and notes have
already started to
give you a
structure.

12. Planning your paragraphs: WEED
What is your paragraph about? This will be your topic
sentence. Try writing each of these first
Explanation: what do you mean?
Examples: illustrate your point with examples.
Do: What do I do with this information? How is it
relevant? Keep thinking ‘So what?’. Relate to brief and
particular section.
Writing
Plan
Your methods and findings sections are
mostly descriptive, so you may need think
about how you present them to show some
‘D’, e.g. a graph of significant statistics from
your research, your error analysis, or
justification for chosen methods.
Can you break the example introduction down into WEED?

13. The potential issues caused by the entanglement of cables and tubing
at hospital bedsides are numerous and can often seriously
compromise patient care and recovery. For example, in an intensive
care unit a mess of cables that becomes caught and pulled can
disconnect or snap a critical fluid line leading to the rapid
deterioration of a patient’s condition (Imhoff, 2004). This could then
be made more dangerous by anyone trying to reconnect the line by
pulling back at the cabling, potentially damaging a number of other
life supporting systems. Patients have also been known to become
strangled by tubing this is more common in paediatric care where
child patients become restless and induce further tangling by moving
about (Garros et al., 2003). In circumstances when a patient is bed-
bound for an extended amount of time, movement and exercise can
enhance recovery and reduce loss of muscle strength (Burtin et al.,
2009). However, the way that most wired monitoring systems are set
up limit the area in which a patient can move by effectively tethering
them to the machine. This has a wider impact on the NHS by
contributing to bed shortages because patients take longer to recover
to the point at which they can be discharged. A product is therefore
required that can replace the current system of bedside cables and
tubing to improve patient safety and recovery, which would be
beneficial to the individual patient and alleviate some of the
pressures on the health system.
What the paragraph is
about
Explanation/evidence
Examples/evidence
D: showing relevance
to question/issue, the
‘so, what?’

14. Let’s look at how you can write your sections

15. (Ernst, 1995)
This paper systematically evaluates the patenting behaviour of a sample of 50 business firms
within the German mechanical engineering industry. Based on a framework of multiple patenting
indicators, four different types of patenting strategies are identified. Furthermore, the
relationship between these strategies and company performance is analysed. It is shown that
patent-active companies perform best for the economic performance variables used. Finally, the
importance of different patenting indicators is assessed. It is found that the number of
international patent applications, the rate of valid patents and highly cited patents are positively
related to economic performance. Thus, a differentiated use of patent data is advisable.
Materials and methodology
Study outline and area
Results
Concluding statement
Interpretation

16. Report Summary/Abstract:
Patenting strategies in the German mechanical engineering industry and their
relationship to company performance
(Ernst, 1995)
This paper systematically evaluates the patenting behaviour of a sample of 50 business firms
within the German mechanical engineering industry. Based on a framework of multiple patenting
indicators, four different types of patenting strategies are identified. Furthermore, the
relationship between these strategies and company performance is analysed. It is shown that
patent-active companies perform best for the economic performance variables used. Finally, the
importance of different patenting indicators is assessed. It is found that the number of
international patent applications, the rate of valid patents and highly cited patents are positively
related to economic performance. Thus, a differentiated use of patent data is advisable.
Materials and methodology
Study outline and area
Results
Concluding statement
Interpretation

17. Introduction
An introduction should
give a brief
background, explain
relevant theories,
state the
problem/hypothesis
and your aims and
objectives.
In pairs, identify the aim, the context and the theory in the example introduction

18. The use of solar water heaters is rapidly increasing in
both homes and businesses, as these heaters provide
an environmentally friendly and cost-effective source of
energy (Tian and Castillo, 2016). However, significant
improvement to heating efficiency is required before
solar water heaters can be used without a
supplementary energy source. Various factors in the
design of the water heater affect how well solar energy
is converted into heat energy, and how effectively the
heat is then transferred to the water. This experiment
investigated two factors affecting the heating efficiency
of solar water heaters: mass flow rate and collector
design. Efficiency of a flat-plate collector was
measured, and the effects of different methods of
welding water tubes to the absorber plate were
compared.
Context
Theory
Aims and objectives

19. Introduction
The use of solar water heaters is rapidly increasing in
both homes and businesses, as these heaters provide
an environmentally friendly and cost-effective source of
energy (Tian and Castillo, 2016). However, significant
improvement to heating efficiency is required before
solar water heaters can be used without a
supplementary energy source. Various factors in the
design of the water heater affect how well solar energy
is converted into heat energy, and how effectively the
heat is then transferred to the water. This experiment
investigated two factors affecting the heating efficiency
of solar water heaters: mass flow rate and collector
design. Efficiency of a flat-plate collector was
measured, and the effects of different methods of
welding water tubes to the absorber plate were
compared.
Context
Theory
Aims and objectives

20. Methods First pour agar into six petri dishes. Then inoculate
the plates with the bacteria. Then put the plates
into the incubator….
Six petri dishes were prepared with agar and
inoculated with the bacteria. The plates were
incubated for ten hours.
This method:
• Uses past tense
• Is clear and concise
• Mentions the materials in the methods
• Should be summary of the methods you used, written in
paragraphs
• Should be written so that others can repeat the experiment
following your method
• Always use past tense
Your methods section will vary
considerably depending on your
subject and the actual research you
are writing up.

21. How would the methods section look if you
were writing up your research on the
relationship between university students’
study habits and their levels of anxiety before
exams?
A copy of the adapted survey used in the current study is
available in appendix G. The survey was re-created using a
SharePoint survey form, and was hosted on the internal company
intranet, accessible by a specific URL, as this was the most
efficient way to distribute the survey to a large number of
participants. The survey took approximately five minutes to
complete per respondent (as evidenced in the pilot). The survey
was secured as ‘read-only’ so that no changes could be made by
any respondents, and was configured to prevent participants
submitted multiple responses (and potentially skewing the data).

22. Methods
How would the methods section look if you
were writing up your research on the
relationship between university students’
study habits and their levels of anxiety before
exams?
A copy of the adapted survey used in the current study is
available in appendix G. The survey was re-created using a
SharePoint survey form, and was hosted on the internal company
intranet, accessible by a specific URL, as this was the most
efficient way to distribute the survey to a large number of
participants. The survey took approximately five minutes to
complete per respondent (as evidenced in the pilot). The survey
was secured as ‘read-only’ so that no changes could be made by
any respondents, and was configured to prevent participants
submitted multiple responses (and potentially skewing the data).

23. Results/Findings
• Present the main data, often in graphs, figures or tables
• Use the past tense
• Use a logical order: maybe try using your objectives as a
guide
• Include calculations
• If there is an analysis of the errors or uncertainties, include
them here

24. Discussion
• Comment on the results you obtained
• Interpret what the results mean
• Identify and comment on any trends
• Compare the experimental results with any
predictions
• Suggest explanations for unexpected results
how the experiment could have been improved

25. This requires critical analysis
• Standing back and thinking about all
the elements of a topic
• Not taking information at face-value
• Thinking about context
• Considering an issue from different
perspectives
• Analysing and evaluating
information, ideas and perspectives
before making a judgement
• Critical thinking is about asking and
answering questions: ‘Why? How?
What if? What next? So what?’

26. Have a look at the paragraph from an example discussion. Can you identify where the following
are:
Suggested explanation for unexpected results
Recommendation to overcome limitations
Awareness of and explanation for limitations
Comparison of results with hypothesis or expected results
The aim of this experiment was to identify decomposition rates
of leaf breakdown to establish rates of energy transfer.

27. It was expected that the leaves would show a far higher rate of decomposition
in the shore zone, where there are more chances for sediments to rub against
them. However the two zones show no significant difference in leaf
breakdown, although these results are non-conclusive due to the limitations
of this experiment. The two zones of leaf decomposition were physically too
close, and over the incubation period reeds were observed growing close to
the limnetic zone. This may have negatively affected the accuracy of the
results by reducing the differences in habitat at these sites, as seen in other
experiments (Jones et al. 2017). The results also had large standard
deviations, possibly due to these physical constraints or human error in
weighing leaves. Further studies with more diverse zones and precise
procedures should be undertaken in order to explore leaf decomposition and
rates of energy transfer more effectively.
Comparison of results
with hypothesis or
expected results
Suggested
explanation for
unexpected
results
Awareness of
and
explanation for
limitations
Recommendation
to overcome
limitations

28. It was expected that the leaves would show a far higher rate of decomposition
in the shore zone, where there are more chances for sediments to rub against
them. However the two zones show no significant difference in leaf
breakdown, although these results are non-conclusive due to the limitations
of this experiment. The two zones of leaf decomposition were physically too
close, and over the incubation period reeds were observed growing close to
the limnetic zone. This may have negatively affected the accuracy of the
results by reducing the differences in habitat at these sites, as seen in other
experiments (Jones et al. 2017). The results also had large standard
deviations, possibly due to these physical constraints or human error in
weighing leaves. Further studies with more diverse zones and precise
procedures should be undertaken in order to explore leaf decomposition and
rates of energy transfer more effectively.
Comparison of results
with hypothesis or
expected results
Suggested
explanation for
unexpected
results
Awareness of
and
explanation for
limitations
Recommendation
to overcome
limitations

29. Conclusion: keep thinking ‘so what?’
In your groups, read the example
conclusion and discuss why this is a good
conclusion.
What does it tell you about what to
include in a conclusion?

30. • The concentration of salicylic acid in
commercially available aspirin tablets was
determined through UV spectroscopy.
• The mean concentration from three different
tablets was determined to be 301.1+/-4.36
mg per tablet, which is within commercially
permitted limits.
• The results for individual tablets were found
to be dependent on the accuracy of
measurements during the process, and the
purity of the other reagents.
• Standardised solutions might further improve
the accuracy of the results. These findings
show that analytical chemistry techniques
such as spectrometry can be used for fast,
accurate determination of compound
composition. This is important in many
industries, where consistency is crucial for
effective use of the product, or is vital to the
safety of the product.
Indicates to what extent the aims of the
experiment were achieved.
Elaborates how the aim of experiment was
achieved
Summarises the main reasons for any
discrepancies and recommends improvements
to overcome experimental limitations
Briefly recaps key findings

31. but, however, on the
other hand, yet
CONTRAST
for example, that is ILLUSTRATION
similarly, moreover,
furthermore, in addition
EXTENSION
therefore, consequently,
as a result, thus
CONCLUSION
then, after that,
ultimately
THE NEXT STEP
Signposting and transition phrases
help clarity
As discussed above,…
It is also important to consider…
Before proceeding to
examine X, it will be
necessary to …
When considering all the points
outlined above …
A contrasting approach is ….
And finally…

32. Generalisations:
Many writers agree that…
Omit rhetorical questions:
How can this problem be addressed without
the appropriate support?
Remove redundant words and phrases:
Looking at the evidence, It seems that
further protection of woodlands is not
needed.
Past history
Only use words you are sure you understand to avoid misuse and lack of clarity.
Writing with academic language is about precise and accurate word-usage, not over
blown and long-winded expression. So watch out for these ….
Avoid overly complicated language:
A multipronged tool was utilized to process a starch
resource.
= A fork was used to eat a potato.

33. So, what will you start trying to do to
make improvements to your report
planning?
This is a really useful online tool you
could use to help organise your
report planning.
https://www.kent.ac.uk/ai/ask/