2. Preface
My interest in this topic stems largely from my own attempts at parsing my
experiences as a studio artist versus my experiences studying design and
working towards merging my practice as a visual communicator so that what-
ever ends the projects that I am pursuing come to: they always come from
a place of sincerity and autonomy that I hope will better communicate to my
viewer. I once saw a lecture by Jerry Saltz where he claimed that in order to
really move people, you must be “naked” in your work. I think this statement
means different things for different people, and certainly for me, indicates a
certain amount of emotional vulnerability regarding personal work. However,
I think this statement still translates to the designer who is mediating for a
client. That is, people respond to sincerity no matter what the intention of the
final outcome. And of course, this is related to the idea of empathy in design.
Because empathy and sympathy are two different things. One who sympa-
thizes merely pays lips service to the idea that they intellectually understand
another persons’ experience. Empathy is more like being a medium in a
sense. One who is empathetic, actually feels the psychic energy of the person
or group that he or she is conferring with. It is funny that we use the term
medium both to describe a vehicle for transference of psychic energy and as
a tool for creating visual objects, because when we are creating visual works
we are using the tools of paint, pencils, paper, and bits and bytes to transfer
the energy of our emotions. So the empathetic designer actually absorbs
the emotions of the client and transfers them to a visual medium in order to
provide a conduit for others to experience the work.
It is those communicative pieces that really hit home emotionally with the
viewer, that ultimately resonate and stand the test of time, whether it be an
advertising campaign or a painting. For me, experimentation, in a sense, is the
idea of coming by something honestly. That is, I feel that if I can really get my
hands dirty and get into something by tinkering, that I can better understand
it and connect with it. For me, connecting with a medium is the surest way to
ensure that I can be sincere in my work and hence, become a more effective
visual communicator.
By connecting with the medium, I hope that it will also bring me full circle
back to connecting with my viewer. That is, aside from being a mediator
between the client and the audience, I hope to procure a separate relationship
with the medium itself, so that I can serve as a translator between the client
and the media.
2
3. introduction
The conventional approach to commu- new tools and innovative means for
nications design is to elevate prac- production can be discovered.
tice over theory; it is pursued with Aesthetic explorations are
a commodified end result in mind. typically most successful and innova-
However, communications design tive when pursued in an open-ended
would benefit from a greater empha- manner, where the ideas and ques-
sis on pure research outside the tions posed are the focus as opposed
constraints of commodified produc- to the product. Although this type
tion. Free exploration of materials, of research has long since been
methods and context would allow embraced by other fields such as art
practitioners to make profound and science, the field of design is just
discov¬eries such as new visual beginning to embrace this mode of
languages, new substrates and inquiry. This is largely due to the fact
new mediums. that design, particularly in the 20th
Communications design is century, was frequently employed in
currently studied primarily as an advertising, and many have come to
applied art. Since the late 19th centu- view that as its sole function. Conse-
ry, the profession has undergone quentially, a debate has emerged
a great deal of change. From early within the design community that
printers to the poster design of the questions the role of theory-based
early 20th century, communications inquiry as opposed to product-
design is often relegated to a role focused activity. The opposing points
primarily as a communication tool for of view inherent in this debate have
commerce. However, communica- typically been referred to as practice
tions design has a far greater role in versus theory.
society in general. From governmen-
tal and administrative communica-
tion to a widely disseminated tool
for public discourse, the modes and
methods of communications design
have always played a large role in
the dissemination of information in
society. For this reason, communica-
tions designers must actively pursue
a method of practice that allows
for freedom of exploration, so that
3
4. The Debate:
Practice
Versus Theory
“The commercial artist who wants to be
more than a “stylist” must either become
clear as to what his cultural contribution
may be, or else be overwhelmed by the
demands of clients, myths about public
taste, consumer research surveys, etc. ”
–Paul Rand
4
5. What is practice over theory? It is the idea
that graphic design is merely an activity that has the
direct intent of producing a polished, commodified
outcome. It is the idea that graphic design exists
strictly to serve the needs of the client and to func-
tion as a voice for corporations and commerce. It is
essentially part of a world view that emerged in the
early part of the 20th century and is closely associat-
ed with Modernism. This type of thinking emerged at
a time in which idealism was high, and many creative
thinkers across the globe sought to contribute to the
shaping of a new world view that was revolutionary,
expansive and universal in its political aspirations. A
quick survey of historical events of the time period
reveals a world, which was in constant flux. Rapidly
developing technologies and political upheaval were
the norm, and many divergent ideologies formed as a
result of reactions to these activities. Cultural move-
ments such as Futurism, Constructivism and De Stijl
developed on the heels of rapidly changing political
environments. Manifestos were written and ideolo-
gies touted and expressed through works of art,
poetry and other communicative mediums. It was a
time of truly uninhibited exploration that reflected the
tumultuous nature of the time period (Meggs).
However, after World War II, the political
climate in Europe and the United States became
more stable, and this ushered in the appearance of
the International Style in graphic design. Loraine Wild
discusses this time period in her essay, “That Was
6. Then: Corrections and Amplifica- courses, students quickly move into
tions. She talks about the fact that
” the realm of producing iterations that
after World War II graphic designers mirror the applied results of profes-
“championed a hidden process that sional practice. (McCoy). This model is
was supposed to deliver a visually an extension of the apprentice model
potent-product” and espoused the that was commonly used at the turn
belief that the designer should be of the century and probably reflects a
“invisible. Designers were consid-
” holdover from the days before design
ered mediators that created a seam- was established as a profession, and
less line of communication between printers piecemealed books and publi-
the client and the audience (43). cations in an indiscriminate fashion to
Andrew Blauvelt, creative quickly produce materials and mass
director at the Walker Art Center and disseminate them.
curator of the recent international It also seems to be a view
exhibition, Graphic Design, Now in that many seasoned designers from
Production, discusses this phenom- the turn of the century still hold. And
enon. He describes a “schism, which
” when one considers the Mad Men
crosses generational boundaries. He era of big business, big advertising
notes that many view theory as anti- and the United States, expansive
thetical to practice due to the inher- post-war elation and egotism, it
ent disconnect between thought and seems proper that designers who
action and also due to the common were indoctrinated into the profession
vagaries of design theory. Those who during this era would have such an
hold this opinion, consider the act attitude. After all, weren’t the citizens,
of designing to be “external” from after WWII, asked to do their part
the design process and ultimately by actively participating in the U.S.
counterintuitive to the flash of insight economy? (put in some post-war
needed for creativity (102-3). posters) If design was considered an
In her essay, “Education in an adolescent profession at the time that
Adolescent Profession, designer and
” McCoy wrote her article in 1998, it
educator, Katherine McCoy discusses can be considered a profession that
this phenomenon in relation to educa- was in its infancy in at the turn of the
tion. She discusses the fact that century. It rightly follows that graphic
the study of graphic design is often designers of the time were focused
focused on application that simulates on the physical, the here and now.
professional projects. The Bauhaus Not unlike a real-life infant first
Basic Course was the first course discovering her toes, designers
to establish the idea that all design focused on the physical products
proceeds from a basic foundational that they were producing and their
understanding of aesthetic principles, practical and lasting effects and
and this has become the model potentialities for bolstering the
for most graphic design education. newly reformed economy.
However, upon completion of basic
6
7. The remnants of this kind of that fail to contribute anything of
thinking are still ubiquitous and can value to society. He states, “we have
be found simply by looking around. reached a saturation point at which
The artifacts of communications the high pitched scream of consumer
design continue to riddle our visual selling is no more than sheer noise”
landscape with a litany of ephemera (Garland,154-5). He goes on to
that seems a hollow replication of suggest that there are more mean-
aesthetics divorced from any depth ingful uses for the talents that are
of meaning, historical context, or wasted on these pursuits. Although,
cultural significance. A simple trip this essay was published in the
to the subway serves as verification sixties, it still rings true in the
of this fact. (add photos of subway present day.
ads) Subway posters alone account However accurately Garland’s
for an entire category of produced sentiments reflect and describe the
materials that offer images and type almost assured indignation of many
that is divorced from any meaning a contemporary designer, it remains
save an immediate association with that his argument is a bit more of an
a product that screams a message emotional response to the situation.
at the viewer. These messages tend But what are the actual consequenc-
to range from being incoherent to es of this phenomenon?
indiscriminate, and likewise offer By many accounts, the conse-
even less to their audience in terms quences are a minimization of public
of visual appeal. discourse, and especially in the Unit-
In his seminal essay, “First ed States, many see this as synony-
Things First, Ken Garland, a British
” mous with allowing the majority of
graphic designer, offers an intense our mass communications materials
diatribe against this litany of vacuous to be generated by and for, or as a
communication. His manifesto was voice for, the omnipotent corporation.
originally penned during a meeting In recent years, a derisive criticism
of the Society of Industrial Artists in of the activities of major corporations
London in 1964. In this manifesto, has become more and more evident
he discusses the fact that, at the in mainstream culture. Particularly
time, graphic designers were indoc- in the wake of recent events involv-
trinated into a profession that touted ing economic and political issues
the production of work that directly surrounding the use and abuse of the
supported the function of advertis- power of corporations, the general
ing. He caustically describes this public has come to mistrust the clean
phenomenon as a system, which and morally inculpable message of
lauds the exploitation of a designer’s the all powerful and ubiquitous
creativity and skill in service to such corporation (Lavin).
banal items as cat food, detergent, Cultural critics such as Kalle
toothpaste and more. He argues that Lasn have emerged in dissent of
these pursuits amount to trivialities what are deemed to be, the major
7
8. social inequities that have resulted online petitioning and “tv jamming, ”
from the abuse of the power of the which is basically subvertising on tele-
corporation. As founder of Adbuster’s vision (131-3). Lasn suggests that this
magazine, Lasn has been fighting the type of activity can effectively, break
homogenization of public discourse the “media consumer trance and
through disruptive communication for momentarily challenges […] whole
years. He suggests that the United world outlook[s] (Lasn).
States, and in fact the rest of the Lasn expounds on these
globe, has been subjected to such concepts in his more recent book,
an array of manipulative media that Design Anarchy, a book whose
“a continuous product message has intended audience is graphic design-
woven itself into the very fabric of ers themselves. The book raises
our existence. He goes as far as to
” many questions about the role of the
compare our relationship to media graphic designer and their influence
as being similar to the substance on culture and overall is experimental
“soma, which was used to control
” in its layout and conception. Through-
the masses in the Aldous Huxley out the book, handwritten narratives
book, Brave New World. He compares comingle with typeset pronuncia-
our fixation on media as an addic- tions and splashes of color, crudely
tion to cool. He describes our media scrawled illustrations and neatly
addiction as a “global pandemic” placed logos. The layout presents
and a “monoculture. He discusses
” juxtapositions of both ideas and of
consumer capitalism as inherently imagery in such a way that certainly
unethical, and suggests random acts seems to jar the viewer and incite
of civil disobedience to jar the participation. It does so not only
system. Lasn ascribes to the view- through its overall message, which is
points of the Situationists, led by Guy a call to action for designers to break
Debord, who believed in instigating their own media trance, but also
civil disobedience to fight what they through its combination of surprising
termed the “society of the spectacle” and incendiary visual elements that
(re-quote p. xvi). As an answer to this represent a certain ambiguity that
phenomenon, Lasn promotes the use calls for the reader to form their own
of “subvertisement” to jar the viewer judgments (Design Anarchy).
into action and awareness. Subver- Dutch designer, Jan Van
tisements involve mimicking the Toorn also criticizes one-sided public
design elements of a corporate ad, discourse in both his ideas and in the
however, imposing a message that physical manifestation of his work.
is in effect at odds with the values He deems the type of messaging
of the corporation and instead draws that is typical for large corporations,
attention to the negative aspects a “closed message. He argues this
”
associated with consumerism. He type of work merely reflects the
also advocates the use of “cyberjam- attitudes and beliefs of the propri-
ming, which involves the use of
” etors of that information and for that
8
9. reason designers typically create interpretation and cause the viewer
materials that offer a clean and clini- to think and engage their critical facul-
cal interpretation of a corporation’s ties in a way that ultimately leads
message. He argues for disruption to participation.
of expected outcomes and like Lasn, Van Toorn’s complex ideology
“breaking the charm of the spec- regarding the practice of communica-
tacle” to increase the time it takes for tions design is influenced by many
a viewer to parse information. In this progressive philosophers and think-
way, he suggests that a viewer may ers and is the result of his intense
be more aptly engaged in the process study on these topics. Van Toorn is
of interpretation, and his or her criti- influenced by the writings of Bertolt
cal facilities will stimulated and thus Brecht, Magnus Enzensberger, and
his or her intelligence awakened. Victor Schlovsky just to name a few.
(requote-Stam) Enzensberger’s was a poet
and cultural critic, and one of his
Van Toorn states, key philosophies focused on the
differences between repressive and
In our culture, the tradition is to emancipatory media. He defines
strive for a closed product: a kind repressive media as that which has
of statement composed of form a central source, a single sender or
and content that is somehow communicator and many recipients.
complete in itself [..] graphics Emancipatory media, by contrast,
designers find themselves in involves decentralization and treats
a situation which supports the every recipient as a potential commu-
institution and that becomes part nicator. The theory of emancipatory
of the product. If you strive for media states that each recipient is
a closed message, both in form encouraged to mobilize. He states,
and in content, then you are not “repressive media encourages
being true to the communicative passive consumption and depoliticiza-
character of the message, to the tion and is produced by specialists
real aim of the communication. and kept under bureaucratic control.
Producers of information try to Emancipatory media encourages
hide their real aims and motives. interaction and feedback, contributes
Information becomes a commod- to the political learning process, and
ity. Design is the ultimate answer is collectively produced and autono-
to that. (97)
” mous” (Poyner, 95).
These ideas reflect Barthes’
Van Toorn ultimately ascribes to the ideas that the receiver becomes
ideologies of Roland Barthes and plac- author, through interpretation. Receiv-
ing authorship with the viewer. He ers bring the meaning to the message
believes that by offering the viewer and hence play a part in authoring it.
something more challenging that you Barthes believed in “polysemy, which
”
thereby slow down the process of is the idea that one object or image
9
10. can have many meanings, and the ideas of Bertolt Brecht, a playwright
meaning is created when the viewer who thought that audiences should
interprets the image. He referred to view plays with emotional detach-
images as texts and postulated that ment. Brecht felt that plays should
their meaning was literally created not function as transcriptions of
in the process of being read by the reality but instead that they should
viewer, thus placing authorship with retain characteristics that make audi-
the viewer instead of the creator ences aware that they are viewing
(Baldwin and Roberts, 34-5). a representation of reality. He used
These ideas are based on disruptive techniques, to reveal the
the basic concepts of semiotics as mechanics of making a play, such as
defined by Charles Sanders Pierce, having actors speak stage directions
an American philosopher from the aloud. This demystified the act a bit
late 19th century (13). Pierce used and drew on participatory elements,
the term semiosis to describe the such as having the actors address
transfer of meaning from author to the audience directly. He termed this
viewer and acknowledged that the act type of activity as, “the alienation
of signifying, or creating meaning, is effect” (97).
not a one-way process. He suggested Van Toorn’s ideas of engaging
that the meaning of a signifier is the viewer in an act of participa-
effected by the background of the tion is evidenced in one particular
viewer or reader, and their personal spread from his book, Design’s
interpretations and experiences will Delight. In typical Van Toorn fashion,
influence how it is read (Crow, 34). he has composed a series of photos
The writings of Victor together in the same layout that are
Shklovsky, a Russian formalist seemingly unrelated. A photo of a
critic, also influence Van Toorn’s work. family on a train is superimposed
Schlovsky’s ideology centers on the by a smaller photo of a newscast
notion that people need to be jarred that depicts a young African Ameri-
to break out of their normal percep- can boy hugging Mickey Mouse.
tual modes and “habitualization” that The caption of the newscast reads:
lead them to fail to question or recog- America Under Attack. At first the
nize their surroundings. He touts grouping of images are difficult to
“defamiliarization” in art or “making discern and are seemingly nonsen-
strange. He calls the process
” sical or unrelated. However, upon
ostranenie (Crow, 95). inspecting the caption, one realizes
Van Toorn typically is known that the newscast was from Septem-
for creating forms that reflect this ber 11, 2001, and the photo of the
type of process. His constructions family on the train is an Iraqi family
are intentionally awkward, and their on their way to Disneyworld Paris.
manifestation reveals the process by This knowledge immediately helps to
which they were created. This aspect construct the narrative, but it is still
of his work is also reflective of the ambiguous enough that it requires
10
11. the participation of the reader to
decode. That is, one must bring their
own knowledge of the events and
images depicted to realize the rela-
tionship between the photos and the
inferred meaning. There is other text
on the page stating, “ideas become
markets, “five media giants …
”
strengthens the influence of market
and politics on journalism. Max
”
Bruinsma comments on the implied
meaning in this spread stating, “close
reading of this spread can be summa-
rized as ‘the war on terrorism hides
genuine problems of clashing cultures
behind the repressive narratives of
the global (western) entertainment
industry” (Bruinsma). However, the
piece is open enough to allow for
different readings, and ultimately
plays on irony and the suppositions of
the viewer to achieve its communica-
tive effect. In this way it is exemplary
of his theories about communications
design as a participatory media.
Overall, Van Toorn’s work
and his philosophy is decidedly
experimental and focused on theory
rather than outcome. He creates
open-ended statements that offer
the possibility for different readings,
and thus his overall message is not
set in stone. Instead he allows the
viewer to interpret his work in a way
that is not always completely predict-
able, and this sense is always fresh
and innovative. His work, as a result
does not feel formulaic but instead is
reflexive and fluid.
11
13. To discover new means and create a strategy to consider sources
methodologies that promote break- and options. Use visual diagraming -
ing out of the typical functions of depicting ideas, concepts and rela-
design, and hence nurture creativ- tionships in pictoral form.
ity and innovation, we can look to 3) Generate Ideas and Select Solu-
other disciplines as a model. The tions - prototyping stage. Come up
natural sciences employ a number of with ideas and solutions and decide
research methods that bear a relation- which ones are most appropriate
ship to those that are often pursued to refine.
in design. For instance, probably the 4) Implement Solution and Evaluate
best known method for scientific Result - apply an outcome and gauge
inquiry that exists is the scientific the results. Gauging results could
method. The scientific method begins take the form of informal discussion,
with defining a problem, creating a market research or observation of
hypothesis, testing the hypothesis how people interact with a form.
and forming conclusions based
on the experimentation that The scientific method
is performed. follows a similar approach, and
Communications design this method is frequently taught
is frequently pursued in a similar in schools. The scientific method
fashion. Many define the activity of follows this basic structure:
designing as problem solving, and
thus a problem solving methodology 1) Define the problem
is employed. 2) Gather background information
In his book on the fundamen- 3) orm a hypothesis (or educated
F
tals design, Introduction to 2-Dimen- guess about the outcome)
sional Design: Understanding Form 4) Make observations
and Function, John Bower outlines 5) Test the hypothesis
the typical process of problem solving 6) Draw conclusions
as related to communications design.
This methodology is akin to problem One can quickly see the
solving in other disciplines and is similarities between a problem solv-
derived from psychology: ing approach to design and the scien-
tific method. Bower identifies two
(partial transcription) different problem solving approaches
1) Learn Conditions - familiarize your- in design as research and strategy.
self with all aspects of the situation. He states that these methodologies
Think of the audience that the project are particularly effective in situations
will be directed towards and the of applied design. That is, in situations
physical environment in which where a specific product or outcome
the work will exist. is clearly definable, methodologies
2) Identify and Define the Problem - that more closely mirror the scientific
examine the information gathered and method can effectively assist the
13
14. designer in creating systems that a method of teaching that is
produce a desired effect such as not merely about accumulating knowl-
increasing sales. In these situations edge but instead should stimulate the
designers can use specific tools such discovery of novel approaches that
as ethnographic research or market fundamentally change that knowledge
research to create effective strategies (74-5). William McComas’s article
to solve such problems (33-44). “Ten Myths about Science” furthers
However, not all communica- reiterates this point. McComas points
tions design is geared towards such out that, “close inspection will reveal
a cleanly definable goal. Bower notes that scientists approach and solve
that other qualitative, as opposed to problems with imagination, creativity,
quantitative methods are desirable in prior knowledge, and perseverance.
the creative process. Intuition is one These, he suggests, “are the same
such methodology that relies more on methods used by all problem-solvers. ”
the designer’s own personal insight. Both scientists argue that science is
Bower notes that both methodologies a discipline that requires the creativ-
can be successful, however, intuition ity and idiosyncratic response of its
is a large part of the creative process practitioners and that true innova-
and at times can yield more compel- tion cannot be developed without
ling results (17 Bower).
, allowing for unexpected outcomes
Many scientists seem to (McComas).
share this viewpoint in regard to Although, neither author
the pursuit of science as a creative states it outwardly, the overall argu-
discipline . In fact, many scientists ment seems to support pure research
feel that the scientific method is as a more viable way of approaching
almost antithetical to actual discov- problem solving. Although, differing
ery. Alexakos Konstantinos, in his methodologies may exist within this
article “Teaching the Practice of category, pure research is defined as
Science, Unteaching the Scientific an approach to inquiry in which the
Method, advocates for the use of an
” overall aim is not necessarily to solve
approach that involves open inquiry. a specific problem that is posed, but
He argues that the scientific method rather to explore possibilities within
is an overly formulaic approach that the context of curiosity. That is, pure
is limiting and does not take into research, involves open-ended inquiry
account the creative and at times about the natural world, simply
idiosyncratic aspects of humanness for the sake of understanding the
that are involved in science. He notes world. Pure research, in contrast to
that students who are constantly applied research, therefore does not
drilled with this approach, lean on it necessarily result from a predeter-
as a cookie-cutter method and do not mined purpose.
employ true creativity. Similarly, the Scientists frequently employ
NTSA (Standard’s for Science Teacher pure research as a viable method for
Preparation) also advocates for inquiry. That is, scientists explore the
14
15. known universe in order to answer breakthrough in applied science.
questions about the way it works. Another example of a pure
Pure research, by its very definition science discovery that was later
is more exploratory and open ended. applied to practical results is the
However, it frequently informs appli- discovery of the photoelectric cell by
cation later. Pure research defines George E. Hale, whose discovery was
laws by which applied results can based on his observation of the sun’s
later be gleaned. For instance, pure corona in 1894. No immediate use for
science discoveries often furnish laws this knowledge was found, however,
that are later used in application of it was later applied to the creation of
applied science (Feibleman, 306). In motion pictures (307-8).
science, laws are defined as observ- Although, pure research often
able facts about the known universe, leads to practical application, James
and theories are hunches at explain- K. Fiebleman argues that research
ing these laws (McComas). Without should not be hampered in light of
observing the known universe, predicated applications. He argues
there would be no laws to test and that the “seriousness of purpose”
hence, no science to apply, as in involved in pure scientific research
applied science. For this reason, pure is comparable to religion or art and
research is a necessary step toward that while scientists focusing on
achieving practical results. Without application and technology may be
pure research, or what is sometimes very skilled, they equally tend to
referred to as “pure science, ” have “lesser imagination” (309). He
applied science could not exist. goes on to eloquently sum up his
In the scientific world, there thoughts on these matters in a way
are many historic examples of the that is reflective of the assumptions
success of pure research. For exam- asserted in this document: “In the
ple, Louis Pastuer discovered the effort to extend knowledge it is not
basic principle that dead or attenuated strategically wise to hamper investiga-
organisms can induce the produc- tion with antecedent assurances
tion of antibodies in the blood. Later, of utility” (307).
virologist and medical researcher, Lawrence Berkeley Lab is
Jonas Salk, applied the inherent logic a currently active institution that
of this theory when he discovered employs pure research as a large part
the vaccine for polio. He literally built of their research curriculum. Berkeley
upon the groundwork of knowledge Lab is a sprawling 200-acre facility
that Pasteur had already established, located in the hills of California near
moving beyond Pasteur’s original the UC Berkeley campus. Funded
conclusion to develop an unexpected in part by the U.S. department of
outcome that had hugely positive energy, Berkeley lab hosts thousands
results. Had he not been aware of the of scientists and researchers who
previous work of Pasteur, he would have made many discoveries over the
never have had the means for such a years. The lab was founded by Ernest
15
16. Orlando Lawrence, a physicist who Boson particle, or the “God Particle. ”
invented the cyclotron. The cyclotron This discovery is considered a mile-
is a particle accelerator that helped to stone in scientific research, with
significantly advance our understand- broad reaching implications about our
ing of high-energy physics. Lawrence universe and how it works. Although
won the Nobel prize for this discovery confirmation of the specifics of the
and founded Berkeley Lab in 1931. particle and whether or not it carries
The facility was based on his belief the exact attributes predicted by
that research is best approached scientific theorist, Peter Higgs, is not
from collaboration between teams entirely clear, the discovery has been
of people with different backgrounds a cause for a great deal of celebration
and expertise. Thirteen Berkeley and is the ultimate testament to the
scientists have won the Nobel prize, power of pure research.
and thirteen have won the National
Medal of Science. The New York Times said this of
Berkeley Lab has made many the discovery:
discoveries of applied science but
continues to maintain hundreds of Confirmation of the Higgs boson
projects globally that employ pure or something very much like it
research and seek to help us better would constitute a rendezvous
understand our world. The Supernova with destiny for a generation of
Cosmology Project one example of physicists who have believed
an international collaboration led by in the Boson for half a century
Berkeley scientists, which was devel- without ever seeing it. The finding
oped in order to investigate super- affirms a grand view of a universe
novae and the principles of physics described by simple and elegant
surrounding their creation and symmetrical laws — but one
and existence (LBNL). in which everything interesting,
Berkeley hosts or contributes like ourselves, results from flaws
to a number of other experiments or breaks in that symmetry.
globally including The Large Hadron
Collider, a device located in Geneva The Higgs Boson is
Switzerland, where protons and ions presumed to be the physical mani-
are collided in order to study the festation of an “invisible force field”
debris created from the collisions and that essentially imbues all objects in
substances such as quark-gluon plas- our universe with mass. It is respon-
ma (LBNL). At the time I began writ- sible for the existence of life. Without
ing this document, the Collider was this material, nothing in our universe
in operation but had not produced would have physical integrity, and
any dramatic results. Since then, objects would whiz around and pass
the Collider has been responsible through your hands like air (Overbye).
for confirmation of the existence of Among other pure research
something very similar to the Higgs projects, Berkeley scientists also
16
17. study dark matter and cosmic rays In the book, Drive, author
at the South Pole, using a telescope Daniel H. Pink talks about the fact
like device called IceCube which that people need personal autonomy
probes the surface of the earth. The to tap into their drive or motivation to
Homestake Mine is another project in do something. He cites a study with
the works, located in South Dakota, monkeys, in which the animals actu-
which will house an underground ally seek to solve puzzles without a
laboratory called DUSEL where astro- banana reward, for the pure pleasure
physics and physics experiments will of it. Pink coins the term “intrinsic
be conducted. Geoscience and motivation, to describe this phenom-
”
microorganisms that inhabit extreme enon. He defines intrinsic motivation
environments will also be as motivation that comes from within.
studied here (LBNL). He says that “if-then” rewards actu-
Pure research is an ally require people to forfeit some
extremely important aspect of many of their personal autonomy, and that
of Berkeley’s projects, and this is is why this particular type of reward
evidenced not only through their system does not work.
dedication to pure research experi- Pink also cites another study
mentation but also through their that follows a group of artists for a
development of outreach programs period of time. Some of the artists
aimed at educating students about created work for which they received
the importance of experimental commercial recognition and hence
research. Among them is a project monetary compensation. Other
called ESLI, which stands for, ethical, artists received little or no compen-
legal and social issues in science. sation. Over a period of years, the
This project exists in the form of a artists were studied. A group of
web page that is intended to gener- curators was asked to blindly judge
ate discussion about ethical, legal and the works. The artists who initially
social issues in science and is recom- received no compensation produced
mended for educators and students in more creative work than those who
junior high and high school. The page received compensation. However,
is dedicated largely to discussing pure this does not necessarily indicate that
research and to educating students the production of less creative work
on the importance of pure research was caused by the receipt of money.
(LBNL ESLI). The fact is that some of the artists,
But why is pure research so who received little compensation at
effective? Essentially, it is because the beginnings of their careers, later
the practice offers practitioners the became successful and did receive
ability to explore, unhindered by the compensation. The study concluded
pressures of producing an immediate- that the fact that the artists were
ly useful product or solution. It allows intrinsically motivated was the cause
for the use of abductive reasoning, of their creative work. That is, the
as opposed to inductive reasoning or artists that were dedicated to making
alghorithmic thinking. work, due to internal motivations,
17
18. rather than extrinsic rewards, were For the children, the offering of
more likely to weather the difficult payment seemed to indicate that
periods of receiving lower incomes. there was something undesirable
Therefore, they remained dedicated about doing the task.
to their work, despite the lack of Overall, Pink’s research seems
external rewards and were hence to indicate that creativity thrives
more creative overall in their execu- when it is self-directed. Practitioners
tion of work. are more inspired when they feel
Another study cited in the personally compelled to pursue the
book, involved young children in answers to their internal questions,
a classroom setting. Researchers hence internal motivation, as he
noticed that some of the children in states, is the best foundation for true
the classroom chose to draw when innovation in creative practices. This
given free time in class and seemed relates to the philosophies that are
to enjoy drawing. The researchers at the core of pure research. Pure
broke the children into 3 groups. research suggests that a scientist
They told the first group of children may pose questions about the natural
that if they drew, they would receive world out of sheer curiosity, which
a reward. The reward was a “good naturally arises from a place of inter-
player” certificate. The second group nal motivation. Regardless of the
was asked if they wanted to draw. payment structure (or lack of payment
The children who chose to draw structure) in scientific laboratories,
were later awarded with a certificate, the initiation of projects based on
although they had not been told about pure research tend to arise from an
the possibility of receiving one. The internal source that naturally predis-
third group was simply asked if they poses the practitioner to bear some
wanted to draw and did not receive kind of internal motivation and hence,
an award, nor were they told of any autonomy regarding their pursuit.
possibility of a reward. The research- When no specific intended outcome
ers returned a few weeks later to is immediately foreseeable, the
see if there had been any change in practitioner may align his or her goals
the children’s behavior. They found more acutely with answering the
that the two groups who received questions at hand, rather than relying
no reward or who had received an on monetary or commercial systems
unexpected reward were still drawing of approval as a goal, and this atmo-
just as frequently as before. However, sphere can lend itself to increased
the children who had expected innovation and creativity (Drive).
and received a reward had almost Additionally, Pink seems to
completely lost interest in drawing. suggest that somehow the commodi-
Somehow the experiment had turned fication of the creative process can
play into work for the children, and tend to lend itself to an inhibition of
they chose to avoid the activity as innovation. Here we find an unknow-
soon as it was deemed undesirable. ing dissenter to the traditional
18
19. design-as-product-as-commodity process. In his book, Change by
conundrum. This viewpoint has impor- Design. He also suggests that
tant implications for design. As successful design projects follow a
designers who are bound to merely process that is open-ended and less
emulate toothpastes and continue to rigid than some scientific or problem
emit that “high pitched scream” that solving approaches. He envisions the
Kenneth Garland so aptly referred to, steps of this process as being akin
run the risk of producing less creative, to a series of overlapping spaces of
less innovative work. This dichotomy activity, the order of which can be
tends to pit the artist against the rearranged based on the needs of the
business man in a never-ending tug project. He identifies these spaces of
of war of whose activity/motivation is activity as, inspiration, ideation,
more valid? Of course someone like and implementation.
Kalle Lasn has his opinion, but some During inspiration, many ideas
companies are more interested in are produced. During ideation, ideas
changing this relationship to better are narrowed down and prototypes
facilitate innovation. One such are generated. And during imple-
company is Method. mentation, the final ideas are chosen
Method co-founders were and implemented in the practical
interviewed by Good magazine, world. Overall, he defines the design
where they expressed a somewhat process as an exploratory process
different viewpoint about encourag- that should allow for “unexpected
ing cooperation between designers discoveries” along the way (16-17).
and business. Typically, people use However, Brown also notes
inductive or deductive reasoning to the need for constraints in experi-
solve problems. That is, in induction, mentation and suggests that what
conclusions are reached based on distinguishes designers from artists
a set of observations. In deduction, and some scientists is that, in addi-
conclusions are reached based on tion to experimenting, they embrace
generalized facts that have been constraints (18). He uses legendary
predetermined. However, in abduc- design team, Charles and Ray Eames
tive reasoning, novel solutions are as an example of an extremely
invented without a known or prede- successful duo that implemented an
termined source. “While an engineer experimental approach that produced
may study problems and devise extremely innovative results.
solutions from a known set of tools, However, he also notes the
designers must imagine solutions extremely methodical nature of their
that don’t come from a preexisting experimentation. That is, they had
set of techniques” (Ryan, Eric, and strict parameters within which they
Adam Lowry). experimented. This relates to his
This relates to Tim Brown’s discussion about the use of conver-
theories about convergent and gent and divergent thinking in design.
divergent thinking within the design In western culture, specifically, we
19
20. are trained to use deductive reason- brain, and linear problem solving from
ing or convergent thinking, in that the left. However, scientists noted
we frequently draw upon a series of that when some sort of brain damage
data, analyze it and converge to one had occurred, and the two parts of
choice. However, he suggests that the brain communicated differently,
divergent thinking is the phase of that more novel creative solutions
thinking in which ideas are generated, were produced. That is, the two sides
and the more ideas are generated, of the brain are thought to inhibit each
the larger the base from which there other in certain ways. However, when
is to choose. He suggests that design those inhibitions were removed,
thinking is a process of moving different talents were developed. For
between convergent and divergent instance, some people who develop
modes of thinking to continu- an aphasia or other language difficulty
ously produce innovative ideas and later in life experience the instance
conversely narrow the possibilities to of increased musicality or artistic
obtain an ultimate solution. He also talent (Erikson).
adds that analysis and synthesis are All of this research seems to
secondary components to the design point to the fact that designers, as
thinking process and equally impor- creative thinkers, are using their orga-
tant (Brown and Katz). nizational as well as intuitive faculties
All of this seems to suggest to approach problems and projects.
the continuous interplay of struc- However, when constraints are
tured left brained thinking verses, released, and the intuitive portion of
open-ended right brained thinking as the mind is allowed to freely explore,
hallmarks of the creative process. This more creative solutions can be
echoes the findings of neuroscience reached. This supports the idea that
researchers. According to the theory experimentation is vital to the devel-
of representational change, one of opment of new solutions. As creative
the preconditions for creative prob- thinkers, if we cannot disrupt the
lem solving is letting go of perceived typical view or constraints of a visual
constraints. This idea was demon- communications problem, then how
strated when scientists used an MRI can we arrive at novel solutions? For
scan to digitally visualize the activity that matter, how can our audiences
of the brain. When subjects were arrive at novel solutions if we cannot
given a visuospatial problem to solve disrupt their typical thought patterns
that involved divergent thinking, MRI as well? If we look to the audience as
scans confirmed that activity occurred author and truly value their participa-
in both the left and right hemispheres tion, then we have to offer them the
of the brain, suggesting that both opportunity to stretch their faculties
sides of the brain are involved in and meet us somewhere beyond the
creativity– as opposed to the more horizon of typical solutions in a realm
widely held belief that most creativ- of higher thought and consciousness.
ity comes from the right side of the
20
22. Pure
Research
in Art =
Visual
Research
“Information presented at the right time
and in the right place can potentially be
very powerful. It can affect the general
social fabric…The working premise is the
think in terms of systems: the production
of systems, the interference with and the
exposure of existing systems…Systems
can be physical, biological, or social. –
”
Hans Haacke
22
23. Pure research has long been Additionally, Pollock is a great
a traditional method of inquiry in example of an artist who developed
the world of fine art. Of course, this a unique and innovative style through
phenomenon is largely championed pure visual research. His “action
by the myth of the fine artist itself. paintings” represent a stylistic and
Aside from situations in which processual departure from anything
commissions are exchanged, at that was being done at the time, such
the request of the client, most fine that he inspired many documenta-
artists function within a tradition that ries and writings. Pollock was apt at
ultimately champions the genius of explaining his technique, and there
the artists themselves and leaves the was a great deal of interest in filming
process of creating and discovering his process. In one particular video,
solely to them. This type of inquiry is Pollock is shown painting outdoors
generally termed “visual research” on a large canvas on the ground. He
and is particularly touted in academia. moves around the canvas in a very
Visual research generally falls under physical way, pouring paint or at
the heading of pure research, in that it times even using a stick. He states
can be defined as research where the that, “technique is just a means at
practitioner him or herself initiates the arriving at a statement” and feels
questions or goals, and this stems that his paintings are imbued with his
from curiosity or inner drive instead of emotions. He states that he sees a
from a client or request for a solution painting as “having a life of its own”
to an external problem. and seeks to allow it to take its own
Some of the best examples course accordingly. Furthermore, he
of pure research in art and how it has describes the fact that he wishes to
manifest itself ultimately as innova- “express [his] feelings rather than
tion can be found in the process art of illustrate them” (Jackson Pollock on
the 1960’s. Process art encompasses His Process).
a genre of work in which the process
of making the work is central to the
subject matter of the work. That is,
the process of making the work is
not only evident in the final product
Process Art: Visual
but represents the goal or intended Research as Reflexive
subject matter of the work. Artists
such as Richard Serra, Eva Hesse Experiment
and many more are attributed with
working in this manner, and Jackson
Pollock is considered to have played a
key role in planting the seeds of this Jackson Pollock’s methodol-
movement (Process Art). ogy can be traced to influences
such as Surrealism and Jungian
psychology. Specifically, Surrealist
23
24. Automatism bears a close relationship experimentation and the combination
to his process. Pollock’s early experi- of varying systems of application from
ences studying art at the Art Students different disciplines, he developed an
League in New York City under Thom- extremely unique style and methodol-
as Hart Benton led him to work as an ogy that are still studied and emulated
easel painter for the Works Progress 60 years after his death (O’Connor).
Administration’s Federal Art Project, Another group of artists who
which offered him a steady enough employed open-ended experimenta-
income to allow him to experiment. tion that led to important innova-
In 1936 he joined an experimental tions was a loosely defined group of
workshop where he learned about conceptual artists whose activities
industrial paints and enamels such spanned largely from the time period
as as duco. He later applied these of the mid sixties and into the mid
experiments to the poured and spat- seventies. Lucy Lippard was one
tered paintings that he is known for. of the most prolific art critics and
In 1938, Pollock underwent psychiat- theorists of the time period who
ric treatment and worked with Jung- documented these activities, and
ian analysts who used his drawings her seminal publication Six Years: The
as part of their therapeutic process. Dematerialization fo the Art Object
From here, he began exploring uncon- from 1966 to 1972 is probably one
scious symbolism in his work and of the most thorough collections
developed a personal iconography of documentation about this work.
surrounding his mental processes. Lippard lived in New York City during
Although Pollock’s process at the time and was deeply involved in
at times seems chaotic, he actually documenting, curating, and collaborat-
employed a measured and intentional ing with artists such as Sol le Witt and
methodology to the implementation Robert Ryman, who are closely asso-
of his paintings. He tended to “write ciated with minimalism. In her words,
them out” from left to right on long this interaction led to her affiliation
pieces of canvas and at times was with many other artists who were
known to go back and correct certain actively experimenting and subvert-
areas so that they would “work” ing art world norms through their
visually (O’Connor). He is even cred- exploration of immaterial or “little
ited with utilizing a grid system that c” conceptual art, as it was dubbed
he learned through his experiences by Le Witt. The work of this period
as a mural painter. Additionally, his “focused on the de-mythologization
method of painting (particularly his and de-commodification of art” and
characteristic method of painting questioned authorship through owner-
on the floor with unusual tools such ship from the perspective of art as a
as sticks), bears a relationship to commodity (xiv). This movement in art
the methods of the North American is closely related to communications
Indian sand painter. Overall, through design through its immediate goals
24
25. of communication, its largely textual active during the period that Lippard
basis, and its focus on proliferation discusses. One of his most famous
and inexpensive means of production. pieces was a series that was actu-
Lippard states “for me, conceptual art ally censored form an exhibition at
offered a bridge between the verbal the Guggenheim museum because
and the visual, and she toyed with
” of its incendiary content. The piece
syntactic experiments in her writing, was related to Ruscha’s in the sense
such as replacing textual paragraphs that it presented factual photographic
with pictorial information that was information. It consisted of a series
intended to communicate verbal of photos of New York City tenement
narratives visually (x). During this time buildings accompanied by docu-
she sought to create hybrid forms of mentation collected from the public
critical communication that reflected records archive at the County Clerk’s
her influences from this movement. office. The documentation merely
At one point, when she was asked to reflected real estate speculation and
write a text about Marcel Duchamp the relationship between different
for the MOMA. Instead she produced investors and partners related to
a series of ready-mades chosen those real estate holdings and offered
randomly with a system she devised no personal reflection on the informa-
involving the dictionary (Lippard). tion being presented. Another portion
Similarly, Ed Ruscha, an artist of the exhibition included demo-
whose work frequently employs the graphic information about museum
use of typography and methods of go-ers, gathered through a poll that
mass production associated with Haacke circulated and updated onsite.
communications design, toys with Although the piece did not openly
the notion of image as text and vice make any inflammatory assumptions,
versa. In one particular series of the work was deemed to be extreme-
projects created 1962-66 he produced ly offensive by the proprietors of the
books of photographs that catalogued Guggenheim, and Haacke’s exhibition
images of buildings, gas stations, was cancelled. Haacke considered
small fires, and apartment buildings. the piece to be a an example of a
The books were entirely without text, social “real time system. Although
”
and he considered them to be strictly the piece did not follow any traditional
factual and more akin to the idea of formal qualities associated with fine
readymades than to art. He purposely art, it has remained an influential and
employed the use of mass production memorable piece.
techniques to create the books and Lee Lozano is another artist
stated that this was, in part, the inten- who was among the most influential
tion of the projects (11-12, Lippard). conceptual artists at the time, and
Hans Haacke is another she considered the fact that her work
artist whose work bears a relation- was unsellable to be more democrat-
ship to the practice of communica- ic. She was known for documenting
tions design, and he was also very common daily activities as art, and for
25
26. pushing the envelope in the art world that illustrate the inherent strengths
in such a way that, like many of her of an exploratory method of inquiry
contemporaries, “bordered on hostil- and how this can be transformed into
ity. One piece in particular consisted
” innovation. Although, these artists
of her throwing up a number of Art activities are definitively located
Forums and letting them fall to the within the realm of the profession of
ground. The piece was aptly named fine art, the knowledge gained and
with the snarky title, “Throw-Up questions posed are clearly related to
Piece” (Smith). communications design.
Lippard states “For artists
looking to restructure perception and
the process/product relationship of
art, information and systems replaced
traditional formal concerns of compo-
sition, color, technique, and physical
presence. Systems were laid over life
the way a rectangular format is laid
over the scene in paintings, for focus.
Lists, diagrams, measurements,
neutral descriptions, and much count-
ing were the most common vehicles
for the preoccupation with repetition,
the introduction of daily life and work
routines.. ”
Despite this works’ focus
on communication, however, she
observes that at this time, commu-
nication was largely associated with
distribution. And while distribution
and accessible formats suggested
democratic communication, the
content did not (xvi, Lippard). That
is, the content of the work remains
largely obtuse, self-referential and
difficult to access, and in this sense
bears a relationship to the work
of Jan Van Toorn. In an attempt at
more solidly fusing the connections
between this work and the practice
of communications design, I have
chosen this sampling of artists,’
because their work clearly reflects
an intersection of methodologies
26
29. While pure research seems to She states,
be a method of inquiry that is more “Unburdened by any consid-
closely associated with fine art, it is erations of practical application,
not without precedent in the field of [an] uninhibited play with materials
design. Aside from Jan Van Toorn, resulted in amazing objects striking
whose experimentation is paramount in their newness of conception in
to his practice and reflects methods regard to the use of color and compo-
very closely associated with those sitional elements– objects of often
central to visual research in fine art, quite barbaric beauty […] such a free
many others have made experimenta- way of approaching a material seems
tion central to their design practice. worth keeping in mind […] Courage
Anni Albers (1899-1994) was is an important factor in any creative
a textile designer, weaver, writer, and effort. It can be most active when
printmaker who inspired a recon- knowledge in too early a stage does
sideration of fabrics as an art form, not narrow the vision. ”
both in their functional roles and It was Alber’s belief that
as wall hangings. Albers studied at creative possibilities must be
the Bauhaus, beginning in 1922 and explored freely before considering the
eventually began teaching there. utility of an object. She states that
She is known both for her innova- in later stages, utility can become a
tive approach to textile design and necessary constraint to experimen-
also for her teaching methods. In her tation. Annie was married to the
essay, “Weaving at the Bauhaus” influential teacher, writer, and color
she discusses experimentation in her theorist, Joseph Albers, who also
work. Her innovative methodology taught at the Bauhaus. After the clos-
included the following steps: ing of the Bauhaus, the two went on
to teach at Black Mountain College,
1) Begin at the beginning. another influential and experimental
2) Discard traditional ideas. art and design school. Their innova-
3) Focus on the materials. tions continue to be influential today
3) Disregard any previously
(“An Introduction”).
employed device for In more recent years, graphic
handling the materials. design, as a discipline has embraced
a more experimental approach. Ian
She notes that the among the Noble, Director of the MA and MFA
reasons that such innovative work programs at Kingston University in
came out of the Bauhaus weaving London, has been a central figure in
course is due to the fact that the writing and discussing this phenom-
students came in without any enon and in ushering in new think-
former training. ing about design practice. He is the
author of multiple books about this
29
30. topic, including numerous books versus legibility has become a central
about visual research and one book issue, and designers have begun to
entitled, Experimental Layout. He is embrace ‘disorganized’ visual organi-
strongly influenced by the work and zation. Appropriateness for particular
ideas of Jan Van Toorn. He is primarily approaches is linked to the audience’s
concerned with the process of graph- sensibilities, however there remains a
ic design’s impact on society, visual newly found embrace of
research, and “a reflexive process ambiguity (32).
exploring the relationship between In addition to stylistic play,
making and reflecting on the theory new theoretical frameworks have
of practice that is directly concerned begun to emerge as well. Designers
with a user-centered approach to have begun to analyze their practice,
designing. (The Design School:
” embracing the notion of their activi-
Ian Noble) ties as being intellectual. Designers
His book, Experimental are attempting, more and more, to
Layout, begins by discussing early look beyond their formal sensibili-
experimental design in Europe, in ties and generate new meaning for
which white space, asymmetry and their activities. They are reflecting on
sans serif type became stylistic the practice of designing itself and
tropes that were widely used. This therefore constructing validity to their
early work also focused on the use activities outside of the role as merely
of grid and the geometry or propor- a vessel for information from an
tion of the piece. The experimental unrelated field.
nature of graphic design at this time As communications
had its conceptual roots in ideal- design grows as a discipline, this
ized notions about society and the reflection and re-examination of the
creation of a new social order. It practice has naturally led to experi-
was based in avant-garde thinking mentation.
and the utopian ideal of universality
in visual communication. However, Katie Salen states,
these ideals became more and more
diluted as they were more widely “Research and exploration are key
adopted, and were eventually not elements in the growth of a disci-
much more than a visual style that pline. Graphic design continues to
was increasingly associated with adjust, and to accommodate new
corporations and industry with little approaches, which define the activ-
to no connection to its original values. ity of what has been called visual
In more recent years, graphic design communication. The breadth of the
has begun to embrace the notion of field is now no longer only contained
“multiplicity of meaning, and layer-
” by the vocational demands of techni-
ing and complexity have emerged cal rationality and competence. In
as stylistic components. Readability fact the discipline has to an extent
30
31. become its own benefactor, and
the more eclectic and idiosyncratic
methods of designers and design
groups […] have become significant
factors in the further development of
the subject in general.”
31
33. Having established the that the larger parts of a composition
importance of experimentation in had the same structure as smaller
communications design and examin- ones, the same proportions. He found
ing the existing precedent for it, that the components of a song could
the next step is to look at how an be replaced with any sort of sound.
experimental research approach Cage was confounded by
can be framed in a way that allows the academic notion that music was
a structure for extracting the maxi- meant as a means of communica-
mum benefit of the activity. That tion. He felt that at times when he
is, by examining specific research purposely sought to evoke a specific
practices rather than merely theories, feeling in his work, that people
we can establish a starting point that tended to have the opposite reaction.
acknowledges the achievements of He vowed to find a reason for making
the past and charts a course for music, other than communication. It
the future. was then that he began to study Zen
John Cage, although not a Buddhism and was exposed to the
graphic designer, was an artist and Indian singer and musician, Gira
musician who is known for experi- Sarabhai, who believed that the func-
mentation and for creating systems tion of music is not to communicate
to assist him in his creative process. but rather to calm the spirit and open
He studied architecture in Europe it to divine forces. At this time he
and developed an interest in modern was also exposed to the writings
painting. However, around that time of Ananda K. Coomaraswammy,
he decided to dedicate his life to who believed that art should
music. When he returned to the US imitate nature.
he studied under Arnold Shoenburg Before he left the Cornish
who believed that harmony was struc- school, Cage invented the prepared
tural, not just “coloristic” as Cage piano. It was his way of merging
puts it. After studying together for a percussion with the piano. He was
time, Shoenburg decided that Cage confronted with a situation where he
would never be able to write music was asked to compose music for a
due to his basic lack of a “feeling” for performance with an African theme,
harmony. It was then that Cage began however there was no room for the
to experiment with percussion instruments, so he had to devise a
compositions. His wife at the time way to achieve the sound of multiple
was studying bookbinding, and they percussion instruments with one
would have small concerts at the instrument. He created the prepared
house with all of the bookbinders piano as a solution. He created it by
playing instruments. placing objects between the strings.
While working at the Cornish In this way, the piano functioned as
School of Music in Seattle he discov- a sort of “percussion orchestra” but
ered “micro-cosmic-macrocosmic with a lower volume.
rhythmic structure, which suggested
”
33
34. At this time his interest in experiments including experiments
music experimentation was strong, in visual art and visual research. The
and he spent two years trying to details about the specific methodol-
establish an experimental music ogy he used are a bit foggy in areas,
program, sponsored either by a and Cage himself admitted at times,
college or some other funding source. forgetting the process. However,
However, his idea never received the basic principle that he employed
enough support to be actualized. involved removing his own intention
He ended up joining the faculty for in his work. That is, when making
Moholy Nagy’s school of design in decisions about creative projects,
Chicago and went on to work with one tends to bring their own subjec-
Merce Cunningham. Like Anni Albers, tive experiences and tastes to the
he also taught for a time at Black equation. This was his attempt at
Mountain College, which was devoted circumventing those types of subjec-
to experimentation. It was there that tive selections. He used it to attempt
he met Buckminster Fuller and other to free himself from making decisions
controversial innovators. At Black and instead made his sole responsibil-
Mountain College Cage organized an ity that of asking the questions of the
event that is by some considered the IChing (Marshall).
first “happening. The event included
” The IChing itself is a visual
an exhibition of paintings, poetry system of 64 hexagrams. Each hexa-
readings, dance performances, and gram has 6 lines. Each line has four
lectures, the timing of which was all different possibilities. The line can
based upon chance operations. be solid, broken, solid “changing, ”
In the late 40’s he found out or broken “changing. The lines are
”
through experimentation that “silence formed through a process of selec-
is not acoustic” and instead attributed tion that is based on randomization or
it to an altered decision or changing chance as Cage prefers to call it. One
one’s mind. His work then became an can use either coins or yarrow stalks,
exploration of “non-intention. It was
” which are dried stalks of the yarrow
then that he developed a complex plant and resemble, long smooth
system of composition, which includ- sticks. One begins by concentrating,
ed the use of the chance operations asking a question, and then proceeds
of the IChing, in his words, “making to divide the sticks into sections. In
my responsibility that of asking ques- determining the character of the first
tions instead of making choices. One ” line of the hexagram, the questioner
of the projects that exemplifies the places one stick to the side, as a
experimental spirit of his work is his symbolic witness to the act. Then the
“Music of Changes” piece. This piece stalks are divided into two sets. The
was created using the IChing. first set is laid to the side, and the
(http://johncage.org/autobiographi- second set is counted out. The group-
cal_statement.html) ing is counted in sets of four, and laid
Cage used the IChing in many on the table until four or fewer stalks
34
35. remain. These stalks are clear whether Cage used the “yarrow
placed between the ring finger and stalk” method for divination or the
the middle finger of your left hand. “coin method” which is slightly less
Then the questioner picks up the laborious. Regardless, he embraced
grouping of stalks that was first laid the idea of chance and of changes,
to the side, divides this group into which is a central theme of
roughly half (without counting, this is the IChing.
part of the randomization) repeats Cage was at times vague
the above process. about how he used the IChing in his
After all of the sticks have methodology. However, in her book,
been counted through, the questioner John Cage – Visual Art: To Sober
ends up with either 9 or 5 stalks. The and Quiet the Mind, Kathan Brown
number is always the same due to discusses the process that Cage
probability and the number of stalks used in creating one of his first print
that were started with. If there are projects. Brown owned a printmaking
9 stalks, the value of 2 is assigned, press called Crown Point Press, and
and if there are 5 stalks, the value 3 is Cage began making etchings there
assigned. The questioner rights down towards the end of his life– for the
this number and begins again, until last 14 years. He would number the
he or she has done this three times. tools and ask the IChing which ones
Those numbers are then added up. At to use. Then he would ask how many
this point the only possible numbers marks to make, and how many should
that can be produced are 6, 7 8, or 9.
, be particular lengths. He would ask
Each of these numbers determines the questions ahead of time and
whether the line is broken, unbro- bring a printout of the answers to
ken, broken changing, or unbroken the studio, so that he could quickly
changing. This process is completed make decisions and work on the
6 times to produce a hexagram. spot without throwing coins or using
The hexagram is a visual symbol the yarrow sticks each time. Appar-
that corresponds to a text. The text ently he also at times generated a
is intended to answer the question reference sheet with a listing of the
originally posed by the questioner. hexagrams and simply selected the
The length and laboriousness next one on the list to make a choice.
of this process is intended to ensure His methodology usually focused
that the questioner is truly focused on the number 64, since that is the
on his or her question and is intended number of hexagrams that comprise
as a sort of meditation. John Cage’s the IChing. At times he would decide
fascination with this oracle is probably that the first half of the numbers,
related to his study of Zen Buddhism say 1-34 would determine one item
and to the idea that music could be or alteration, and 34-64 would deter-
a means for calming and mediation mine another. (Brown, Kathan
as opposed to a communicative and Marshall).
endeavor. However, it is not entirely
35
37. Cage’s process was Parisian poets. The poet Guillaume
methodical and obsessive, which Apollinaire coined the term Surreal-
makes it by its very nature interest- ism, and although he left the defini-
ing. However, the most interesting tion of the term somewhat vague,
part about his process may be the he seemingly defined it as a form
intentionally produced element of of expression that not was not only
chance. By its very nature chance, or hyper real, or exceeding realness, but
randomization can present creative also involved a “strong element of
practitioners with different possibili- surprise. This intention was decidedly
”
ties that they may have otherwise to be achieved through “unexpected
discarded or failed to consider. Unex- juxtapositions” (Ades and Gale).
pected adjacencies may be observed The central ideas of the
whenidiosyncratic outcomes are Surrealists were largely based on the
embraced, and truly new and innova- ideas of the poet André Breton. He
tive ideas can be discovered. penned The Surrealist Manifesto and
Chance = the x factor that described Surrealism as, “Psychic
produces unexpected outcomes. automatism in its pure state, by
An apt metaphor for this phenom- which one proposes to express
enon can be found in the mathemati- -- verbally, by means of the written
cal concept of chaos theory. Chaos word, or in any other manner -- the
theory suggests that deterministic actual functioning of thought. Dictat-
systems can produce unexpected ed by the thought, in the absence
outcomes. Cage’s experiments set up of any control exercised by reason,
deterministic systems– systems for exempt from any aesthetic or moral
which there is a decided outcome i.e. concern” (Surrealist Manifesto). The
a song or print or painting and uses a Surrealists believed that the most
variable factor to alter the outcome. potent juxtapositions that arise are
Historically there is a from unconscious, rather than
precedent for this phenomenon in conscious deliberation. Breton and his
visual art. Randomization was a key colleagues used ‘automatic writing’
theme in the development of work to tap into this unconscious flow. The
by the Surrealists. The Surrealists first experiments with this method
frequently played games of chance took place around 1919. They were
and participatory games to create influenced by the automatic writing of
works of unusual potential. Surreal- spiritualist mediums, who would fall
ism was an intellectual movement, into a state of hypnosis and continue
which spread internationally around to write or communicate in a manner
the turn of the 20th century. It was that was perceived to be drawn from
inspired by psychoanalysis and the a mystic or supernatural source.
ideologies of Marxism. The move- Although, the Surrealists were aware
ment began primarily as a literary of the similarity of their practice to
movement, and its core theories that of mediums, they believed that
were formulated by a group of their writings came from an internal
37
38. unconscious source, as opposed to a visualization and crowd sourcing
supernatural source. (Wikipedia) He uses online mechani-
The second source of inspira- cal turks to randomize data collection
tion that precluded the formulation of and also tends to call upon unknown
these experiments was derived from participants for input, as another
Freudian psychoanalytic techniques. form of randomization. In this sense
Breton developed an interest in these Koblin plays on the ideas of Cage
techniques specifically through his and the Surrealists, putting
experience as a wartime psychiatry randomization to use to produce
specialist. He had tried psychoanalytic unexpected outcomes.
techniques on soldiers who sustained In one particular project, called
shell shock, and found that their Bicycle Built for Two Thousand, Koblin
seemingly “irrational monologues” used Google’s online Mechanical Turk
were extremely imaginative. Surreal- to collect audio clips of people imitat-
ists also believed in the “poetry of ing notes from the song, Daisy Bell.
chance encounters. Surrealism in the
” Participants were not aware of what
visual arts developed many different the outcome of the project would be.
manifestations over the years, and When they entered the site, a tone
many artists that were supposedly was played, and the participant was
creating in this prescribed “automat- asked to mimic the tone to the best
ic” fashion were criticized, because of his or her ability. The result was
although their subject matter was an eerie amalgamation of over
automatic, in the sense that it drew 2800 voices singing the song.
from dreams and the subconscious. In two more recent
Surrealist purists argued that their projects Koblin, utilized the Exquisite
execution or process was deliberate Corpse method specifically. One
and therefore not a true representa- project called, The Johnny Cash
tion of the core theories of Surrealism Project invites visitors to the site
(Ades and Gale). to create one frame of an ongoing
Surrealist Automatism was video portrait, accompanied by the
among the most important tech- last song that he recorded before his
niques that were developed, although death. The result is a continuously
many systematic games of chance changing stream of imagery that
were used. The Exquisite Corpse overall creates an idiosyncratic
game was one such game, which and beautiful portrait.
drew upon the elements of chance (thejohnnycashproject.com)
to produce the final outcome. In another recent project
Aaron Koblin is a multimedia entitled, The Exquisite Forest, he also
designer who utilizes chance in his uses the Exquisite Corpse game to
work and specifically has utilized the realize an exceptionally imaginative
method of the “Exquisite Corpse” outcome. This project involves crowd-
in his most recent undertaking. He sourcing a series of animations based
is known for innovative uses of data on similar themes, which are
38
39. then archived into an interactive
“tree” formation. The result is a
multi-faceted, idiosyncratic narrative
that continues to grow and change
as users submit online (Exquisite
Forest).
Overall, Koblin’s work is
a great example of how randomization
and chance operations can enhance
creative projects, and in that sense
his work is decidedly experimental.
The unknown factors produced by
his crowdsourcing techniques bring a
fresh approach to the chance opera-
tions that John Cage implemented
and also draw on the experiments of
the Surrealists in an unexpected way.
His work is a great example of how
randomization can produce unexpect-
ed results that garner innovation.
As designer’s if we are to
achieve innovative results it is clear
that pursuing our activities in an open-
ended way that allows for random
unexpected insights and novel
solutions must be pursued. Visual
research should be approached in a
such a way that allows practitioners
not only to explore the answers to
their own, self initiated questions but
also that allows for the appearance of
results that might otherwise not have
been considered. Randomization is
one way to achieve this, and should
be incorporated into visual research.
39
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