3. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 3
5. Performance Limits
The interferometer performance can be limited by several factors and
causes:
Limits in the plane Displacement (Velocity) vs. Frequency
Cosine error
Limited coherence length of the laser source (temporal coherence limit)
Quantum noise
Spatial coherence and polarization effects
Dispersion of the propagation medium
Thermodinamic phase noise
Speckle-Pattern errors
4. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 4
Performance Limits
Limits in the plane Displacement (Velocity) vs. Frequency
“Type 1” limits define the minimum
measureble displacement, which is
often coincident with the resolution.
Cause:
Quantization (e.g.: /8 counting)
Photodetection noise (typ.: quantum
noise)
“Type 2” limits define the maximum
measurable velocity
Cause:
Limited bandwidth (B), or limited real-
rime processing capabilities of the
electronics
it limits the detection of the Doppler
frequency shift: fdoppler = 2(v/c) < B
“Type 3” limits (low-frequency) is more
severe for the dual-beam scheme
baseband signal processing prone to
EMI disturbance
1 Hz 1 kHz 1 MHz
1 nm
1 m
1 mm
DISPLACEMENT
(peak
amplitude)
FREQUENCY
SPEED
(m
/s)
1 m
0.006
0.6
60
6000
NOISE or Quantization
HF
cutoff
Doppler lim
it
low-frequency
displacement interferometers
vibrometers
2
1
1
3
5. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 5
Performance Limits
Consine error
Output photocurrent: Iph = I0 {1 + Vcos[2k(sm-sr)]}
The effectively measured pathlength is: ksmcos()
Where: = angle due t residual alignment errors
systematic error on the scale factor (responsivity) of the interferometer
In addition: variations of the amplitude of the fringes
and of the fringe visibility (0 < V < 1) can cause measurement errors
Missed fringe countings
Larger influence of EMI disturbance
He-Ne freq
stab laser
I
I
1
pol,0°
2
PD
PD
pol,90°
/8 plate
reference
corner cube
measurement
corner cube
sm
r
s
BS
x
y
linear pol
at 45°
k
6. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 6
Performance Limits
Coherence length of the laser source - 1
The e.m. field emitted by a real laser shows
phase jumps at random time instants
The average duration of the interval between two subsequent phase jumps is
called coherence time (c)
Definitions:
Coherent length: Lc = cc [m]
Linewidth: = 1/c [Hz]
is the FWHM of the power spectrum of the e.m. field
Typical values
He-Ne laser: Lc = 300 m = 300 kHz (c = 1 s)
Semiconductor laser (good) Lc = 30 m = 3 MHz (c = 100 ns)
Semiconductor laser (poor) Lc = 1.5 m = 60 MHz (c = 5 ns)
E
t
0
Optical
power
spectrum
7. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 7
Performance Limits
Coherence length of the laser source - 2
The coherence length of the laser must be compared with the difference (unbalance)
between the reference path and measurement path of the interferometer L = |sm-sr|
Interferometric signal:
Iph = I0 {1 + Vcos[2k(sm-sr)]}
fringe visibility V = exp[-(L/Lc)]
|sm-sr| >> Lc no interferometric signal is available (only noise)
it is not possible to perform interferometric measurements
|sm-sr| < Lc interferometric measurements are OK
BUT: phase noise can be generated
Non-zero linewidth (0) the instantaneous laser frequency shows
temporal fluctuations (t) = 0 + (t)
also the interferometric phase shows temporal fluctuations:
(t) = 2k(sm-sr) = (4/)(sm-sr) = (4(t)/c)(sm-sr) = (4/c)(sm-sr)[0+(t)] = 0+(t)
We have then a phase noise, whose variance is:
= (4/c)(sm-sr) = 2 2(sm-sr)/0 /0
we have an uncertainty s of the measurand (sm-sr):
s = /2k = (sm-sr) (/0) = (0/) (sm-sr)/Lc
V
L =|sm-sr|
Lc
1
8. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 8
Performance Limits
Quantum noise - 1
An interferometer can be used a Vibrometer: an instrument capable of measuring
small displacements (<< ), having zero-mean
Technique:
The “slow” (DC) phase difference between the
reference and measurement pathlengths
is kept constant (by some specific method)
The interferometer operates
around the point of maximum sensitivity
(half-fringe, linear part of the Iph vs. characteristic)
the system acts a linear transducer
of small displacements (<< )
The minimum measurable displacement is limited by the photocurrent noise
(NED = Noise Equivalent Displacement)
Photodiode + load resistance R the noise can be expressed as:
i2
n = 2q(Iph+Id)B + 4kTB/R 2qIphB = 2qI0B [A2]
(the term I0 = P = (q/h)P can be made arbitrarily large, by increasing P)
The term 2qI0B is called quantum noise , or shot noise
NOTE: the phase noise limit could be worse than the quantum noise limit !!!!
= 2ks
t
t
Iph
I0
9. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 9
Performance Limits
Quantum noise - 2
Iph = I0 {1 + Vcos[2k(sm-sr)]}
Signal term: Is = (I0V)2ksm
Signal-to-noise ratio:
(S/N) = I2
s/i2
n = (I0V2ksm)2
/ 2qI0B
The NED can be found by letting
(S/N) = 1 and solving for sm
NED = (/2V)(qB/2I0)1/2 =
= (/2V)(hB/2P)1/2
It is possible to calculate the
equivalent quantum phase noise:
n = 2kNED = V(2hB/P)1/2
Letting:
P = 1 mW ; B = 1 Hz
the performance limits are:
10-8 rad and 1 fm
10
10
10
10
-5
-3
-7
-9
1 100 10k 1M 100M
Measurement Bandwith B (Hz)
Phase
noise
(rad)
or
1/(S/N)
ratio
n
633 nm =0.9,
V=1
Equivalent
Power
P (W)
0.1 W
10 W
1 mW
100 mW
10 W
1 nm
1 pm
1 fm
NED
-
noise-eqiovalent-displacement
(m)
10. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 10
Performance Limits
Comparison: phase noise / quantum noise
Example 1
He-Ne Laser: P=1mW; =300kHz (Lc=300m);
Phase noise: s = (0/) (sm-sr)/Lc = 0.066 nm (for |sm-sr|= 0.1 m )
s = 6.6 nm (for |sm-sr|= 10 m )
Quantum noise: NED = 1 fm (for B = 1 Hz)
NED = 1 pm (for B = 1 MHz)
whenever the pathlength difference is NOT kept 0, then the phase noise is
the main limit to the interferometer performance
Example 2
Semiconductor laser: P=10mW; =3MHz (Lc=30m);
Phase noise: s = (0/2) (sm-sr)/Lc = 0.33 nm (for |sm-sr|= 0.1 m )
s = 3.3 nm (for |sm-sr|= 1 m )
Quantum noise: NED = 0.31 fm (for B = 1 Hz)
NED = 0.31 pm (for B = 1 MHz)
11. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 11
Performance Limits
Spatial coherence and polarization effects
Need for spatial coherence: it is necessary that the transverse spatial distribution of the
fields Em(x,y) e Er(x,y) onto the photodetector be the same
Spatial coherence factor:
sp = ∫AEm(x,y) Er*(x,y)dxdy /[∫A|Em(x,y)|2dxdy ∫A|Er (x,y)|2dxdy]1/2
sp 1 only for the case of single-mode beams with the same diameter (and radius of
curvature, in the gaussian beam approximation)
With multi-mode beams (thet contain N modes each) only modes with the same spatial
distribution contribute to sp sp 1/N
The two beams must have the same polarization state (linear, circular, or elliptical)
Polarization factor:
pol = EmEr/(|Em||Er|)
All the above effects, combined, define the final effective visibility:
V = (sp pol)exp[-(L/Lc)]
12. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 12
Performance Limits
Dispersion of the propagation medium
A laser interferometer with beam(s) propagation in air performs measurements with a
scale factor related to: /nair
For a He-Ne laser it is possible to determine with a precision of 8 digits
Variations of nair ?
In standard conditions (T = 15°C, P = 760 mbar):
(nair –1)st = (272.6 + 4.608/(m) + 0.061/(m)
2)10-6 = 0.000280 (@ = 632.8 nm)
Effects of pressure: the quantity (nair –1) is proportional to the number of moles per unit
volume n/V = P/RT:
nair –1 = (nair –1)st (P/760)(288/T)
The coefficients that account for variations of nair upon temperature and pressure changes
are:
d(nair –1)/dT =- (nair –1)st (288/T2) ≈ -1 ppm/°C
d(nair –1)/dP =- (nair –1)st (1/760) ≈ + 0.36 ppm/mbar
Variation of T=10°C and P=10mbar influence the 5th and the 6th digit of the
displacement measurement
to achieve an acuravy better than 10-6
, temperature and pressure sensors must be used
to achieve the correct value of the scale factor of the interferometer
13. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 13
6. Speckle-Pattern
Operation on diffusive surfaces
In many practical cases it is impossible to use the interferometer onto a
cooperative target
The operation of laser interferometers (and of most laser instrumentation)
on targets with rough, diffusive surfaces involve the phenomen of
speckle-pattern
When light with high temporal and
spatial coherence is projected onto a
diffusive surface, the back-diffused light
has a granular structure, similar to a bi-
dimensional white noise
This phenomenon is called
speckle-pattern
Speckle = small point, or colored stain
He-Ne laser on paper
14. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 14
Speckle-Pattern
Origin of the Speckles
The speckle-pattern is the field emitted in a semi-space by a diffuser illuminated by
coherent light
Diffusing surface: it has random height variations, with amplitude z >>
laser beam
D
z
diffuser
z
s t
l
s
P
P+P'
P+P''
E(P)
E(P+P')
E(P+P'')
x
y
z
_
_
_
The resulting field in point P results from
the sum of many vectors, each being
originated by a different point of the
diffuser the phase relation between
the different contributions is
A displacement from P towareds P+P’
or P+P’’, implies that the field in these
points gradually loses coherence with
respect to the field in P
The spatial contour of a single speckle
(grain) is defined as the volume where
the fields correlation with point P is >
0.5
Individual speckle grains take the
shape of an ellipsoid, with the major
axis aligned towards the center of the
diffuser area illuminated by the laser
15. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 15
Speckle-Pattern
Speckle size - 1
Transverse and longitidinal size of the speckle
grains are statistical variables
we are interested in knowing the average
values of the longitudinal dimension sl (along
z) and of the transverse dimension st (in the xy
plane)
For a diffuser with circular laser illuminating
spot with diameter D, it is:
st = z/D; sl = (2z/D)2
with z = distance from the center fo the diffuser
The longitudinal dimension is much larger than
the transverse one
The projection along the normal axis of
speckle grains that lie outside the normal is
identical to that of the in-axis speckle grains
laser beam
D
diffuser
z st
sl
x
y
z
16. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 16
Speckle-Pattern
Speckle size - 2
Each speckle can be considered as a volume corresponding to a single spatial
mode, with acceptance a=A = 2
Demonstration:
Acceptance: a = Area Solid Angle = A
Solid angle under which the source (diffuser) is seen from point P: = (D/2z)2
Area: A = (st/2)2
Letting A = 2 (single mode condition) 2 = (st/2)2
(D/2z)2
st = (4/)(z/D)
The set of rays that define is (trasversally) smaller than s for longitudinal extent
equal to: st/, con = D/2z si = (2/)(2z/D)2
Formulae shown in previous slides are obtained (apart from multiplicative factors 1)
D
z
source
sl
s
t
17. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 17
Speckle-Pattern
Speckle size - 3
Example
Plaser = 1 mW
D = 2.5 mm
z = 0.5 m
= 632.8 nm
st = z/D = 126 m
sl = (2z/D)2 = 25 mm
A photodetector with diameter Dfot = 10mm receives a total power given by:
Pr = BA = (Plaser/A)A (Dfot/2z)2
= Plaser(Dfot/2z)2
= 0.1 W
The photodetector receives N speckles:
N =Adet/Aspeckle = (Dfot/2)2/ (st/2)2 = (Dfot/st)2 = 6300,
The useful power to generate the interferometric signal is the one that belongs to a
single spatial mode (that is, a single speckle grain)
Puseful = 0.1 W / 6300 = 15 pW
laser beam
D
diffuser
z st
sl
x
y
z
Dfot
18. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 18
Speckle-Pattern
Speckle size - 3
Example
Plaser = 1 mW
D = 0.25 mm
z = 0.5 m
= 632.8 nm
st = z/D = 1.26 mm
sl = (2z/D)2 = 25 mm
A photodetector with diameter Dfot = 10mm receives a total power given by:
Pr = BA = (Plaser/A)A (Dfot/2z)2
= Plaser(Dfot/2z)2
= 0.1 W
The photodetector receives N speckles:
N =Adet/Aspeckle = (Dfot/2)2/ (st/2)2 = (Dfot/st)2 = 63,
The useful power to generate the interferometric signal is the one that belongs to a
single spatial mode (that is, a single speckle grain)
Puseful = 0.1 W / 63 = 1.5 nW
laser beam
D
diffuser
z st
sl
x
y
z
Dfot
19. G. Giuliani - INTERFEROMETRY_02 19
Performance Limits
Speckle-Pattern
When performing interferometric measurements on diffusive surfaces there are additional
error sources
Intensity effect
The field Em could represent a “dark” speckle fading of the interferometric signal (“signal drop-
out”)
Possible solutions:
Improve the focusing on the target surface (make D as small as possible)
speckle size increases (st 1/D)
speckle number N decreases the back-diffused power is distributed over a smaller
numberof speckles larger signal-to-noise ratio
Use of a second sensor in parallel (sensor diversity) probability of signal drop-out decreases
Move the laser spot onto the target surface in the transverse direction a different area of the
diffuser is illuminated the speckle distribution changes a “bright speckle” may hit the
photodetector (“bright speckle-tracking”)
Phase effect
Within each speckle, a phase error ( 2) can occur
General consequence:
It is not possible to measure accurately large target displacements
only vibration measuments are possible (laser vibrometry)
IphR
He-Ne
Zeeman
laser
IphM
r
s
PDm
PD r
F
D
wl