1. PrPrøveforelesning, Oppgittøveforelesning, Oppgitt
EmneEmne
Water Phases (Solid, Liquid andWater Phases (Solid, Liquid and
Vapor)Vapor)
on Mars: Theoretical andon Mars: Theoretical and
ObservationalObservational
Evidence for Their Past and PresentEvidence for Their Past and Present
Distribution, Including Global InventoryDistribution, Including Global Inventory
joern@jernsletten.namejoern@jernsletten.name
http://joern.jernsletten.name/http://joern.jernsletten.name/
Mandag, 14. Juni 2004Mandag, 14. Juni 2004
Universitetet i BergenUniversitetet i Bergen
Det Matematisk-Naturvitenskapelige FakultetDet Matematisk-Naturvitenskapelige Fakultet
Institutt for GeovitenskapInstitutt for Geovitenskap
DoctorDoctor
PhilosophiaePhilosophiae
JJøørn Atlern Atle
JernslettenJernsletten

2. OutlineOutline
• Chronology
• Vapor
– Theoretical evidence
= Past & present distribution
– Observational evidence
= Past & present distribution
• Solid
– (same structure as Vapor section)
– Earth / Mars analogs
• Liquid
– (same structure as Vapor section)
– Earth / Mars analogs
• Global inventory
• Summary
• References Cited

3. Chronology Based on Crater CountsChronology Based on Crater Counts
( Adapted from McKee, 2003, after: Hartman and Neukum, 2001;
Jakosky and Phillips, 2001; Zuber, 2001; Tanaka et al., 1992 )

4. [Vapor]:[Vapor]: Early ObservationsEarly Observations
• No separable water vapor signal
= Sling psychrometer (Campbell, 1910)
• Water vapor ~3% of Earth atmosphere
= Prismatic spectrograph (Adams and St. John, 1926)
• Early obs. around λ7200 using large grating spectrograph
= No evidence for water vapor (Adams and Dunham, 1937)
• Partial pressure of water in Martian atmosphere
= Based on dissociation pressure of goethite (Adamcik, 1963)

5. [Vapor]:[Vapor]: Observational EvidenceObservational Evidence
• <1 – ~100 pr µm in atmosphere (Carr, 1996)
= Average ~10 pr µm; close to saturation
• First shown by Earth-based telescopic observations in the
1960s
• Viking Mars Atmospheric Water Detector (MAWD)
= Small amounts in the Martian atmosphere (Farmer et al., 1976)
= Global vapor content ~ 1.3 cu km water ice (Farmer et al., 1977)
• European Space Agency (ESA), Infrared Space
Observatory (ISO) (Burgdorf et al., 2000)
= Two complimentary spectrometers
 Infrared
= Total column density 12 ± 3.5 pr µm
• TES observations (Smith, 2002)
= ~100 pr µm north high lat.s, ~50 pr µm south, midsummer
= <5 pr µm, middle & high lat.s, fall & winter both hemispheres
• Some H2O–bearing minerals invisible (Kirkland et al., 2003)

6. [Vapor]:[Vapor]: TES vs. Synthetic SpectrumTES vs. Synthetic Spectrum
( Adapted from Smith, 2002 )

7. [Vapor]:[Vapor]: Temporal and Spatial VariabilityTemporal and Spatial Variability
• Seasonal max. 45-50 pr µm (Barker et al., 1970)
• Obs. at McDonald Observatory 1972–1974 (Barker, 1976)
= 469 individual photoelectric scans of Doppler-shifted H2
O lines
= Almost 1 full Martian year (Ls
= 118−269° and 301−80°)
= Planetwide abundance 5−15 pr µm
= Maximum abundance ~40 pr µm
 After solstice at about 40° latitude in each hemisphere
= Max. amount precedes max. insolation by 10–20° latitude
= During the "drier" seasons (5–20 pr µm) near the equinoxes on
Mars, the atmospheric water vapor changes by a factor of 2–
3x over a diurnal cycle with the maximum near local noon
= The effects of the 1973 dust storm during the southern summer
reduced the amount of water vapor over the southern
hemisphere regions to 3–8 pr µm
• Lat. of max. pr µm northern polar area => equatorial lat.s
= From northern summer through northern fall (Farmer et al., 1977)
= Not confirmed by TES (Smith, 2002)
• Deuterium cold trap u. atm. (Bertaux and Montmessin, 2001)

8. [Vapor]:[Vapor]: TES & MAWD TemporalTES & MAWD Temporal
VariationsVariations
( Adapted from Smith, 2002 )

9. [Vapor]:[Vapor]: TES Geographic DistributionTES Geographic Distribution
( Adapted from Smith, 2002 )
Divided by (psurf/6.1):

10. [Solid]:[Solid]: Calculated Possible Depths to theCalculated Possible Depths to the
Base of the Martian CryosphereBase of the Martian Cryosphere
( Adapted from tabular data, Clifford, 1993 ). The thermal model
used Equation 3.1, and with the following values for parameters:
Minimum: Qg
= 45 mW m-2
, K = 1.0 W m-1
K-1
, and Tmp
= 210 K;
Nominal: Qg
= 30 mW m-2
, K = 2.0 W m-1
K-1
, and Tmp
= 252 K;
Maximum: Qg
= 15 mW m-2
, K = 3.0 W m-1
K-1
, and Tmp
= 273 K

11. [Solid]:[Solid]: Constitutive Relation forConstitutive Relation for
IceIce
Glen's Flow Law is widely accepted as the constitutive relation
for ice when shear stress acts on its basal plane:
where έ is the strain rate; A is a temperature-dependent constant; τb
is the basal shear stress; and n is a power law exponent (Glen, 1958)
έ = A τb
n
Equation 4.15
 Regards ice as a plastic substance with a yield stress τ of 1 bar
(Paterson, 1981)
 Value of n generally taken as 3 (Paterson 1981; Johnston, 1981)
 Shear strain rate (flow velocity) is lower for colder ice as a
function of A
 A varies with temperature, and is equal, for example, to 6.8 x 10 -15
s-1
kPa-3
at 273 K, 4.9 x 10-16
at 263 K, 1.7 x 10-16
at 253 K, and 5.1
x 10-17
at 243 K
 n varies with applied stress, taking a value of 1 for Newtonian
deformation, and 3 for non-Newtonian deformation (Paterson, 1994)
 Available evidence indicates that n = 3 for most situations
(Russell-Head and Budd, 1979)

12. [Solid]:[Solid]: Deformation of FrozenDeformation of Frozen
GroundGround
The total strain in deforming frozen ground is the sum of an
instantaneous strain, ε(i)
, and a creep strain, ε(c)
. The primary
creep of frozen ground (and ice) in a state of constant stress
can be described by the creep law (Andersland et al., 1978):
ε(c)
= Kσn
tb
Equation 4.17
where K, n, and b are temperature-dependent material constants
The steady state creep strain is governed by the creep law
(Hult, 1966):
έ(c)
= G(σ, T) Equation 4.18
where έ(c)
is the steady state (secondary) creep rate; and the
function G(σ,T) is found by plotting the slope dε(c)
/dt against
the applied stress for various temperatures

13. [Solid]:[Solid]: Temperature DependenceTemperature Dependence
inin
the Creep Lawthe Creep Law
where έc
is the creep rate selected for the laboratory experiment
- for frozen soils is often taken as 10-5
min-1
(Andersland et al.,
1978); σc
is the uniaxial stress for the selected creep rate; σc
(T) and n(T) are
temperature-dependent creep parameters
The creep law can be rewritten in the form of a power expression
(Hult, 1966; Ladanyi, 1972):
έ(c)
= έc
[σ/σc
(T)]n(T)
Equation 4.19
 The equations for both primary and secondary creep emphasize the
temperature-dependence of creep deformation

14. [Solid]:[Solid]: Map of the Deformation MechanismsMap of the Deformation Mechanisms
of Iceof Ice
As a function of temperature, applied stress, and strain rate
( from Carr, 1996, after Shoji and Higashi, 1978 )

15. [Solid]:[Solid]: Debris-Ice Feature TerminologyDebris-Ice Feature Terminology
( Adapted from Whalley and Azizi, 2003 )

16. [Solid]:[Solid]: Typical Rock Glaciers inTypical Rock Glaciers in
Wrangell Mountains, AlaskaWrangell Mountains, Alaska
Rock glacier “a” has a single lobe, and rock glacier “b”
has a second lobe that appears to have advanced on
top of another lobe that advanced at an earlier time
( Adapted from Whalley and Azizi, 2003 )

17. [Solid]:[Solid]: Two Possible Rock-Ice SystemsTwo Possible Rock-Ice Systems
in Candor Chasma, Marsin Candor Chasma, Mars
Feature “A” resembles a rock glacier, and feature
“B” resembles a protalus rampart
( Adapted from Whalley and Azizi, 2003;
After Malin et al., 2000 )

18. [Solid]:[Solid]: Enlargements of CandorEnlargements of Candor
Chasma FeaturesChasma Features
Feature “A” resembles a rock glacier, and feature
“B” resembles a protalus rampart
( Adapted from Whalley and Azizi, 2003;
After Malin et al., 2000 )
Enlargement of feature A Enlargement of feature B

19. [Solid]:[Solid]: Degradation of Ice-rich MaterialDegradation of Ice-rich Material
• Insolation asymmetries → slope asymmetries
– Differential sublimation erosion
(Howard et al., 1982; Fenton and Herkenhoff, 2000 )
– Differential ground ice melting
(Kreslavsky and Head, 2003 )
• Sublimation erosion in degradation of slopes
– Mars
(Squyres, 1979; Howard et al., 1982; Moore et al., 1996; Fenton and Herkenhoff,
2000;
Kreslavsky and Head, 2003 )
– Moons; including Triton, Io, and Ganymede
(Smith et al., 1989; Moore et al., 1996, 1997, 1998 )

20. [Solid]:[Solid]: Profiles of Trough inProfiles of Trough in
Northern Polar Layered DepositsNorthern Polar Layered Deposits
(Adapted from Fenton and Herkenhoff, 2000)

21. [Solid]:[Solid]: Profiles of Trough inProfiles of Trough in
Northern Polar Layered DepositsNorthern Polar Layered Deposits
(Adapted from Fenton and Herkenhoff, 2000)

22. [Solid]: North-South Components of[Solid]: North-South Components of
SlopeSlope
AngleAngle > 5°> 5°
Equatorward Slopes Poleward Slopes

23. [Solid]:[Solid]: North-South Components ofNorth-South Components of
Slope Angle vs. LatitudeSlope Angle vs. Latitude

24. [Solid]:[Solid]: Equatorward and PolewardEquatorward and Poleward
CountsCounts

25. [Solid]:[Solid]: Correlations of Poleward N-SCorrelations of Poleward N-S
Components of Slope AngleComponents of Slope Angle

26. [Solid]:[Solid]: Correlations of Equatorward N-SCorrelations of Equatorward N-S
Components of Slope AngleComponents of Slope Angle

27. [Solid]:[Solid]: Equatorward-Poleward SlopeEquatorward-Poleward Slope
Angle DifferencesAngle Differences
101-pt. centered moving average smoothing101-pt. centered moving average smoothing

28. • Average difference 0.25º ± 0.04º
– Equatorward slopes steeper than poleward slopes
• Northern hemisphere 0.29º ± 0.06º
• Southern hemisphere 0.20º ± 0.03º
[Solid]:[Solid]: Quantified Equatorward-PolewardQuantified Equatorward-Poleward
Slope Angle DifferencesSlope Angle Differences

29. [Solid]:[Solid]: Correlations of Equatorward-Correlations of Equatorward-
Poleward Slope Angle DifferencePoleward Slope Angle Difference

30. [Solid]:[Solid]: N-S Components of Slope AngleN-S Components of Slope Angle
at 30at 30°°-- 6060°° LatitudesLatitudes
• Average difference 0.16º ± 0.04º
– Equatorward slopes steeper than poleward slopes
• Northern hemisphere 0.11º ± 0.08º
• Southern hemisphere 0.22º ± 0.03º

31. [Solid]:[Solid]: Incidence AnglesIncidence Angles

32. [Solid]:[Solid]: North-South Components ofNorth-South Components of
Slope Angle vs. TemperatureSlope Angle vs. Temperature

33. [Solid]:[Solid]: Depth below the Surface at whichDepth below the Surface at which
Ground Ice is StableGround Ice is Stable
(Adapted from Carr, 1996; after Farmer and Doms, 1979)

34. [Solid]:[Solid]: Map of Epithermal Neutron FluxMap of Epithermal Neutron Flux
from the Neutron Spectrometer of the GRSfrom the Neutron Spectrometer of the GRS
Source: Boynton et al. (2002). Low values of epithermal flux indicate high hydrogen concentration (8). Contours (in white)
show the regions where water ice is predicted to be stable at 0.8 meters depth as predicted by the model of Mellon and
Jakosky (1993) (note that no predictions were made poleward of 60° latitude as no thermal inertia data were available)

35. [Solid]:[Solid]: Residual Polar Ice CapsResidual Polar Ice Caps
( Images courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science
Systems )

36. [Solid]:[Solid]: Polar Layered DepositsPolar Layered Deposits
Mars Orbiter Camera
image No. 46103;
( Images courtesy of
NASA/JPL/Malin Space
Science Systems )

37. [Solid]:[Solid]: Polygonal GroundPolygonal Ground
Mars Orbiter Camera image No. E09-00029;
( Image courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science
Systems )

38. LiquidLiquid
• Current atmospheric temperature and pressure
conditions preclude the existence of liquid water on
the surface of Mars
= 154-218 K, diurnal range 170-290 K at lower latitudes
= 6-10 mbar
 Past & present distribution

39. [Liquid]:[Liquid]: Coprates Chasma LayeringCoprates Chasma Layering
andand
Spur-and-Gully MorphologySpur-and-Gully Morphology
b. This close-up is centered at 14.5° South, 55.8° West;
Image covers an area of approximately 9.8 km by 17.3
km;
North is up ( MOC images courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin
Space Science Systems )
a. Context image b. Central ridge close-up

40. [Liquid]:[Liquid]: Floor Deposits in ParallelFloor Deposits in Parallel
Trough South of Coprates ChasmaTrough South of Coprates Chasma
Mars Orbiter Camera image No. MOC2-
420;
center of image is at 60.1º West
longitude, 15.2º South latitude
( Image courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin
Space
Science Systems )

41. [Liquid]:[Liquid]: Layered Floor Deposits in FarLayered Floor Deposits in Far
Western Candor ChasmaWestern Candor Chasma
Right image is 1.5 km wide, 2.9 km tall;
Mars Orbiter Camera image No. FHA-01278;
Context image Mars Orbiter Camera image No. FHA-01275;
( Images courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems
)
a. Context image b. Layered floor deposits

42. [Liquid]:[Liquid]: Nirgal Vallis Sand WavesNirgal Vallis Sand Waves
Mars Orbiter Camera
image No. E02-02651;
( Image courtesy of
NASA/JPL/Malin Space
Science Systems )

43. [Liquid]:[Liquid]: Nanedi Vallis ChannelNanedi Vallis Channel
Mars Orbiter Camera
image No. 8704;
( Image courtesy of
NASA/JPL/Malin Space
Science Systems )

44. [Liquid]:[Liquid]: Liquidized Debris FlowLiquidized Debris Flow
(Adapted from Baratoux et al., 2002)

45. [Liquid]:[Liquid]: Water FlowsWater Flows
Mars Orbiter Camera
image No. M09-03004;
( Image courtesy of
NASA/JPL/Malin Space
Science Systems )

46. [Liquid]:[Liquid]: Oceans?Oceans?
(Adapted from Clifford and Parker, 2001) (Adapted from Carr and Head, 2003)

47. [Liquid]:[Liquid]: Peña de Hierro, Main SourcePeña de Hierro, Main Source
AreaArea
Morris et al., 2004Morris et al., 2004
Kargel and Marion, 2004Kargel and Marion, 2004
Stoker et al., 2004Stoker et al., 2004
Fernández-Remolar et al., 2003, 2004Fernández-Remolar et al., 2003, 2004
Jernsletten and Heggy, 2004a,bJernsletten and Heggy, 2004a,b
A.k.a. MER-B in the Late Hesperian?A.k.a. MER-B in the Late Hesperian?
Jarosite =Jarosite = KFeKFe3+3+
33 (SO(SO44 ))22 (OH)(OH)66
 Basic hydrous potassium iron sulfate
 Yellow-brown, brown, orange-brown
 Light yellow streaks

48. [Global inventory]:[Global inventory]: Estimates for major HEstimates for major H22 OO
Reservoirs and TotalReservoirs and Total
Present-Day Inventory of Water on MarsPresent-Day Inventory of Water on Mars
( Sources: 1Farmer and Doms, 1979; 2Carr, 1987; 3Smith et al., 1999;
4Johnson et al., 2000; 5Clifford, 1993 )

49. SummarySummary
• 10-12 pr µm water vapor in Martian atmosphere
= Always close to saturation
= Direct observational evidence from MAWD, TES, telescopic obs.
• Presence of water ice evidenced by
= Polar ice caps
= Polar layered terrain
= Terrain deformation
 Analogs to terrestrial rock glaciers & protalus ramparts
 Poleward / equatorward slope assymmetries
= Direct observational evidence from Odyssey / GRS / HEND
 Gamma Ray Spectrometer / High Energy Neutron Detector
• Past presence of liquid water evidenced by
= Layering / apparent sedimentation
= Morphologic evidence
 Apparent river channels / lake beds / shore lines
 Apparent signatures of water flow
= Direct observational evidence from MER-B Opportunity (!)
 Jarocite, “blueberries”
 Analog to acidic metal-rich brine pools in Rio Tinto, Spain
• Equivalent ocean 100’s m global inventory
=> Abundant evidence for water on Mars

50. Adamcik, J. A. (1963),Adamcik, J. A. (1963), The water vapor content of the Martian atmosphere as a problem of chemical equilibrium,The water vapor content of the Martian atmosphere as a problem of chemical equilibrium, Planet. Space Sci., 11Planet. Space Sci., 11(4),(4), 355-359.355-359.
Adams, W. S., and C. E. St. John (1926), An attempt to detect water-vapor and oxygen lines in the spectrum of Mars with theAdams, W. S., and C. E. St. John (1926), An attempt to detect water-vapor and oxygen lines in the spectrum of Mars with the
registering microphotometer,registering microphotometer, Astrophys. J., 63Astrophys. J., 63, 133-137., 133-137.
Adams, W. S., and T. Dunham (1937), Water-vapor lines in the spectrum of Mars,Adams, W. S., and T. Dunham (1937), Water-vapor lines in the spectrum of Mars, Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 49Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, 49(290), 209-211.(290), 209-211.
Andersland, O. B., F. H. Sayles, and B. Ladanyi (1978), Mechanical properties of frozen ground, Chapter 5 inAndersland, O. B., F. H. Sayles, and B. Ladanyi (1978), Mechanical properties of frozen ground, Chapter 5 in Geotechnical engineeringGeotechnical engineering
for cold regionsfor cold regions, edited by O. B. Andersland and D. M. Anderson, pp. 216-275, McGraw-Hill, New York, New York., edited by O. B. Andersland and D. M. Anderson, pp. 216-275, McGraw-Hill, New York, New York.
Baratoux, D., N. Mangold, C. Delacourt, and P. Allemand (2002), Evidence of liquid water in recent debris avalanche on Mars,Baratoux, D., N. Mangold, C. Delacourt, and P. Allemand (2002), Evidence of liquid water in recent debris avalanche on Mars,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 29Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(7), 60-1 – 60-4.(7), 60-1 – 60-4.
Barker, E. S. (1976), Mars: Detection of atmospheric water vapor during the southern hemisphere spring and summer season,Barker, E. S. (1976), Mars: Detection of atmospheric water vapor during the southern hemisphere spring and summer season, Icarus,Icarus,
2828(2), 247-268.(2), 247-268.
Barker, E. S., R. A. Schorn, A. Woszczyk, R. G. Tull, and S. J. Little (1970), Mars: Detection of atmospheric water vapor during theBarker, E. S., R. A. Schorn, A. Woszczyk, R. G. Tull, and S. J. Little (1970), Mars: Detection of atmospheric water vapor during the
southern hemisphere spring and summer season,southern hemisphere spring and summer season, Science, 170Science, 170, 1308-1310., 1308-1310.
Bertaux, J.-L., and F. Montmessin (2001),Bertaux, J.-L., and F. Montmessin (2001), Isotopic fractionation through water vapor condensation: The Deuteropause, a cold trap forIsotopic fractionation through water vapor condensation: The Deuteropause, a cold trap for
deuterium in the atmosphere of Marsdeuterium in the atmosphere of Mars ,, J. Geophys. Res., 106J. Geophys. Res., 106(E12),(E12), 32879-32884.32879-32884.
Boynton, W. V., W. C. Feldman, S. W. Squyres, T. H. Prettyman, J. Brückner, L. G. Evans, R. C. Reedy, R. Starr, J. R. Arnold, D. M. Drake, P. A. J.Boynton, W. V., W. C. Feldman, S. W. Squyres, T. H. Prettyman, J. Brückner, L. G. Evans, R. C. Reedy, R. Starr, J. R. Arnold, D. M. Drake, P. A. J.
Englert, A. E. Metzger, I. G. Mitrofanov, J. I. Trombka, C. d’Uston, H. Wänke, O. Gasnault, D. K. Hamara, D. M. Janes, R. L. Marcialis, S.Englert, A. E. Metzger, I. G. Mitrofanov, J. I. Trombka, C. d’Uston, H. Wänke, O. Gasnault, D. K. Hamara, D. M. Janes, R. L. Marcialis, S.
Maurice, I. Mikheeva, G. J. Taylor, R. L. Tokar, and C. Shinohara (2002), Distribution of hydrogen in the near surface of Mars: Evidence forMaurice, I. Mikheeva, G. J. Taylor, R. L. Tokar, and C. Shinohara (2002), Distribution of hydrogen in the near surface of Mars: Evidence for
subsurface ice deposits,subsurface ice deposits, Science, 297Science, 297, 81-85., 81-85.
Burgdorf, M. J., T. Encrenaz, E. Lellouch, H. Feuchtgruber, G. R. Davis, B. M. Swinyard, T. de Graauw, P. W. Morris, S. D. Sidher, M. J. Griffin, F.Burgdorf, M. J., T. Encrenaz, E. Lellouch, H. Feuchtgruber, G. R. Davis, B. M. Swinyard, T. de Graauw, P. W. Morris, S. D. Sidher, M. J. Griffin, F.
Forget, and T. L. Lim (2000), ISO observations of Mars: An estimate of the water vapor vertical distribution and the surface emissivity,Forget, and T. L. Lim (2000), ISO observations of Mars: An estimate of the water vapor vertical distribution and the surface emissivity, Icarus,Icarus,
145145, 79-90., 79-90.
Campbell, W. W. (1910), Water vapor on Mars,Campbell, W. W. (1910), Water vapor on Mars, J. Royal Astron. Soc. Canada, 4J. Royal Astron. Soc. Canada, 4, 212-213., 212-213.
Carr, M. H. (1987), Mars: A water-rich planet?, inCarr, M. H. (1987), Mars: A water-rich planet?, in MECA symposium on Mars: evolution of its climate and atmosphereMECA symposium on Mars: evolution of its climate and atmosphere, edited by V. Baker et al., hosted, edited by V. Baker et al., hosted
by National air and space museum, Smithsonian institution, Washington, D. C., July 17-19, 1986,by National air and space museum, Smithsonian institution, Washington, D. C., July 17-19, 1986, LPI Technical Report 87-01LPI Technical Report 87-01, pp. 23-25,, pp. 23-25,
Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, Texas.Lunar and Planetary Institute, Houston, Texas.
Carr, M. H. (1996),Carr, M. H. (1996), Water on MarsWater on Mars. Oxford University Press, New York, New York.. Oxford University Press, New York, New York.
Carr, M. H., and J. W. Head (2003), Oceans on Mars: An assessment of the observational evidence and possible fate,Carr, M. H., and J. W. Head (2003), Oceans on Mars: An assessment of the observational evidence and possible fate, J. Geophys. Res., 108J. Geophys. Res., 108(E5), 8-1 –(E5), 8-1 –
8-28.8-28.
Clifford, S. M. (1993), A model for the hydrologic and climatic behavior of water on Mars,Clifford, S. M. (1993), A model for the hydrologic and climatic behavior of water on Mars, J. Geophys. Res., 98J. Geophys. Res., 98(E6), 10973-11016.(E6), 10973-11016.
Clifford, S. M., and T. J. Parker (2001), The evolution of the Martian hydrosphere: Implications for the fate of a primordial ocean and the current state ofClifford, S. M., and T. J. Parker (2001), The evolution of the Martian hydrosphere: Implications for the fate of a primordial ocean and the current state of
the northern plains,the northern plains, Icarus, 154Icarus, 154, 40-79., 40-79.
Farmer, C. B., and P. E. Doms (1979), Global and seasonal water vapor on Mars and implications for permafrost,Farmer, C. B., and P. E. Doms (1979), Global and seasonal water vapor on Mars and implications for permafrost, J. Geophys. Res., 84J. Geophys. Res., 84(B6), 2881-2888.(B6), 2881-2888.
Farmer, C. B., D. W. Davies, and D. D. LaPorte (1976), Mars: Northern summer ice cap – water vapor observations from Viking 2,Farmer, C. B., D. W. Davies, and D. D. LaPorte (1976), Mars: Northern summer ice cap – water vapor observations from Viking 2, Science, 194Science, 194, 1339-, 1339-
1341.1341.
Farmer, C. B., D. W. Davies, A. L. Holland, D. D. LaPorte, and P. E. Doms (1977),Farmer, C. B., D. W. Davies, A. L. Holland, D. D. LaPorte, and P. E. Doms (1977), Mars: Water vapor observations from the Viking orbitersMars: Water vapor observations from the Viking orbiters,, Science,Science,
194194, 1339-1341., 1339-1341.
References Cited – 1 of 3References Cited – 1 of 3

51. Fenton, L. K., and K. E. Herkenhoff (2000), Topography and stratigraphy of the northern Martian polar layered deposits using photoclinometry,Fenton, L. K., and K. E. Herkenhoff (2000), Topography and stratigraphy of the northern Martian polar layered deposits using photoclinometry,
stereogrammetry, and MOLA altimetry,stereogrammetry, and MOLA altimetry, Icarus, 147Icarus, 147, 433-443., 433-443.
Fernández-Remolar, D. C., N. Rodriguez, F. Gómez, and R. Amils (2003), Geological record of an acidic environment driven by iron hydrochemistry:Fernández-Remolar, D. C., N. Rodriguez, F. Gómez, and R. Amils (2003), Geological record of an acidic environment driven by iron hydrochemistry:
The Tinto River system, J. Geophys. Res., 108(E7), 16-1 – 16-15.The Tinto River system, J. Geophys. Res., 108(E7), 16-1 – 16-15.
Fernández-Remolar, D. C., O. Prietos-Ballesteros, and C. R. Stoker (2004), Searching for an acidic aquifer in the Rio Tinto basin, first geobiologyFernández-Remolar, D. C., O. Prietos-Ballesteros, and C. R. Stoker (2004), Searching for an acidic aquifer in the Rio Tinto basin, first geobiology
results of MARTE project, Abstract no. 1766, 35.th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Houston, Texas, March 15-19.results of MARTE project, Abstract no. 1766, 35.th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Houston, Texas, March 15-19.
Glen, J. W. (1958), The flow law of ice, in Physique du mouvement de la Glace / Physics of the movement of ice, Symposium de Chamonix, 16-24Glen, J. W. (1958), The flow law of ice, in Physique du mouvement de la Glace / Physics of the movement of ice, Symposium de Chamonix, 16-24
September, pp. 171-183,September, pp. 171-183, International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication 47International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication 47..
Hartmann, W. K., and G. Neukum (2001), Cratering chronology and the evolution of Mars,Hartmann, W. K., and G. Neukum (2001), Cratering chronology and the evolution of Mars, Space Science Reviews, 96Space Science Reviews, 96, 165-194., 165-194.
Howard, A. D., J. A. Cutts, and K. R. Blasius (1982), Stratigraphic relationships within Martian polar cap deposits,Howard, A. D., J. A. Cutts, and K. R. Blasius (1982), Stratigraphic relationships within Martian polar cap deposits, Icarus, 50Icarus, 50, 161-215., 161-215.
Hult, J. A. H. (1966),Hult, J. A. H. (1966), Creep in Engineering StructuresCreep in Engineering Structures, Blaisdell, Waltham, Massachussetts., Blaisdell, Waltham, Massachussetts.
Jakosky, B. M., and R. J. Phillips (2001), Mars' volatile and climate history,Jakosky, B. M., and R. J. Phillips (2001), Mars' volatile and climate history, Nature, 412Nature, 412, 237-244., 237-244.
Jernsletten, J. A., and E. Heggy (2004a), Sounding of subsurface water through conductive media in Mars analog environments using transientJernsletten, J. A., and E. Heggy (2004a), Sounding of subsurface water through conductive media in Mars analog environments using transient
electromagnetics and low frequency ground penetrating radar, oral presentation, Abstract no. 2089, 35.th Lunar and Planetary Scienceelectromagnetics and low frequency ground penetrating radar, oral presentation, Abstract no. 2089, 35.th Lunar and Planetary Science
Conference, Houston, Texas, March 15-19.Conference, Houston, Texas, March 15-19.
Jernsletten, J. A., and E. Heggy (2004b), Sounding of groundwater through conductive media in Mars analog environments using transientJernsletten, J. A., and E. Heggy (2004b), Sounding of groundwater through conductive media in Mars analog environments using transient
electromagnetics and low frequency GPR,electromagnetics and low frequency GPR, Eos Trans. AGU, 85Eos Trans. AGU, 85(17), Jt. Assem. Suppl., Abstract no. P53A-01, poster presentation, AGU 2004(17), Jt. Assem. Suppl., Abstract no. P53A-01, poster presentation, AGU 2004
Joint Assembly, Montreal, Canada, May 17-21.Joint Assembly, Montreal, Canada, May 17-21.
Johnson, C. L., S. C. Solomon, J. W. Head, R. J. Phillips, D. E. Smith, and M. T. Zuber (2000), Lithospheric loading by the northern polar cap of Mars,Johnson, C. L., S. C. Solomon, J. W. Head, R. J. Phillips, D. E. Smith, and M. T. Zuber (2000), Lithospheric loading by the northern polar cap of Mars,
Icarus, 144Icarus, 144, 313-328., 313-328.
Johnston, G. H. (1981), editor,Johnston, G. H. (1981), editor, Permafrost engineering design and constructionPermafrost engineering design and construction, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Toronto, Canada., John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Toronto, Canada.
Kargel, J. S., and G. M. Marion (2004), Mars as a salt-, acid-, and gas-hydrate world, Abstract no. 1965, 35.th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference,Kargel, J. S., and G. M. Marion (2004), Mars as a salt-, acid-, and gas-hydrate world, Abstract no. 1965, 35.th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference,
Houston, Texas, March 15-19.Houston, Texas, March 15-19.
Kirkland, L. E., K. C. Herr, and P. M. Adams (2003), Infrared stealthy surfaces: Why TES and THEMIS may miss some substantial mineral deposits onKirkland, L. E., K. C. Herr, and P. M. Adams (2003), Infrared stealthy surfaces: Why TES and THEMIS may miss some substantial mineral deposits on
Mars and implications for remote sensing of planetary surface,Mars and implications for remote sensing of planetary surface, J. Geophys. Res., 108J. Geophys. Res., 108(E12), 11-1 – 11-11.(E12), 11-1 – 11-11.
Kreslavsky, M. A., and J. W. Head (2003), North-south topographic slope asymmetry on Mars: Evidence for insolation-related erosion at high obliquity,Kreslavsky, M. A., and J. W. Head (2003), North-south topographic slope asymmetry on Mars: Evidence for insolation-related erosion at high obliquity,
Geophys. Res. Lett., 30Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(15), PLA 1-1 – PLA 1-4.(15), PLA 1-1 – PLA 1-4.
Ladanyi, B. (1972), In situ determination of undrained stress-strain behavior of sensitive clays with the pressuremeter,Ladanyi, B. (1972), In situ determination of undrained stress-strain behavior of sensitive clays with the pressuremeter, Canadian Geotech. J., 9Canadian Geotech. J., 9, 313–, 313–
319.319.
Malin, M. C., K. S. Edgett, S. D. Davis, M. A. Caplinger, E. Jensen, K. D. Supulver, J. Sandoval, L. Posiolova, and R. Zimdar (2000), image FHA01275,Malin, M. C., K. S. Edgett, S. D. Davis, M. A. Caplinger, E. Jensen, K. D. Supulver, J. Sandoval, L. Posiolova, and R. Zimdar (2000), image FHA01275,
Malin Space Science Systems Mars Orbiter Camera Image Gallery,Malin Space Science Systems Mars Orbiter Camera Image Gallery, http://www.msss.com/moc_gallery/ab1_m04/images/FHA01275.htmlhttp://www.msss.com/moc_gallery/ab1_m04/images/FHA01275.html..
McKee, M. (2003), Martian timeline,McKee, M. (2003), Martian timeline, http://astronomy.com/content/dynamic/articles/ 000/000/001/357xsrza.asphttp://astronomy.com/content/dynamic/articles/ 000/000/001/357xsrza.asp..
Mellon, M. T., and B. M. Jakosky (1993), Geographic variations in the thermal and diffusive stability of ground ice on Mars,Mellon, M. T., and B. M. Jakosky (1993), Geographic variations in the thermal and diffusive stability of ground ice on Mars, J.J.
Geophys. Res., 98Geophys. Res., 98(E2), 3345-3364.(E2), 3345-3364.
Moore, J. M., M. T. Mellon, and A. P. Zent (1996), Mass wasting and ground collapse in terrains of volatile-rich deposits as a solarMoore, J. M., M. T. Mellon, and A. P. Zent (1996), Mass wasting and ground collapse in terrains of volatile-rich deposits as a solar
system-wide geological process: The pre-Gallileo view,system-wide geological process: The pre-Gallileo view, Icarus, 122Icarus, 122, 63-78., 63-78.
References Cited – 2 of 3References Cited – 2 of 3

52. Moore, J. M., E. Asphaug, D. Morrison, K. C. Bender, R. J. Sullivan, R. Greeley, P. E. Geissler, C. R. Chapman, and C. B. PilcherMoore, J. M., E. Asphaug, D. Morrison, K. C. Bender, R. J. Sullivan, R. Greeley, P. E. Geissler, C. R. Chapman, and C. B. Pilcher
(1997), Landform degradation and mass wasting on the icy Galilean satellites, Abstract no. 1407, 28.th Lunar and(1997), Landform degradation and mass wasting on the icy Galilean satellites, Abstract no. 1407, 28.th Lunar and
Planetary Science Conference, Houston, Texas, March 17-21.Planetary Science Conference, Houston, Texas, March 17-21.
Moore, J. M., J. R. Spencer, E. Asphaug, D. Morrison, J. E. Klemaszewski, R. J. Sullivan, F. C. Chuang, R. Greeley, K. C. Bender, P.Moore, J. M., J. R. Spencer, E. Asphaug, D. Morrison, J. E. Klemaszewski, R. J. Sullivan, F. C. Chuang, R. Greeley, K. C. Bender, P.
E. Geissler, C. R. Chapman, C. B. Pilcher, and the Galileo SSI Team (1998), Mass movement and landform degradation onE. Geissler, C. R. Chapman, C. B. Pilcher, and the Galileo SSI Team (1998), Mass movement and landform degradation on
Callisto and Ganymede as observed during the Galileo nominal mission: The role of sublimation, Abstract no. 1553, 29.thCallisto and Ganymede as observed during the Galileo nominal mission: The role of sublimation, Abstract no. 1553, 29.th
Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Houston, Texas, March 16-20.Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Houston, Texas, March 16-20.
Morris, R. V., S. Squyres, R. E. Arvidson, J. F. Bell, P. C. Christensen, S. Gorevan, K. Herkenhoff, G. Klingelhöfer, R. Rieder, W.Morris, R. V., S. Squyres, R. E. Arvidson, J. F. Bell, P. C. Christensen, S. Gorevan, K. Herkenhoff, G. Klingelhöfer, R. Rieder, W.
Farrand, A. Ghosh, T. Glotch, J. R. Johnson, M. Lemmon, H. Y. McSween, D. W. Ming, C. Schroeder, P. de Souza, M. Wyatt,Farrand, A. Ghosh, T. Glotch, J. R. Johnson, M. Lemmon, H. Y. McSween, D. W. Ming, C. Schroeder, P. de Souza, M. Wyatt,
and the Athena Science Team (2004), A first look at the mineralogy and geochemistry of the MER-B landing site inand the Athena Science Team (2004), A first look at the mineralogy and geochemistry of the MER-B landing site in
Meridiani Planum, Abstract no. 2179, 35.th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Houston, Texas, March 15-19.Meridiani Planum, Abstract no. 2179, 35.th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Houston, Texas, March 15-19.
Paterson, W. S. B. (1981),Paterson, W. S. B. (1981), The Physics of GlaciersThe Physics of Glaciers, 2.nd Edition, Pergamon Press, New York, New York., 2.nd Edition, Pergamon Press, New York, New York.
Paterson, W. S. B. (1994),Paterson, W. S. B. (1994), The Physics of GlaciersThe Physics of Glaciers, 3.rd Edition, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England., 3.rd Edition, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England.
Russell-Head, D. S., and W. F. Budd (1979), Ice-sheet flow properties derived from bore-hole shear measurements combined withRussell-Head, D. S., and W. F. Budd (1979), Ice-sheet flow properties derived from bore-hole shear measurements combined with
ice-core studies,ice-core studies, J. Glac., 24J. Glac., 24, 117-130., 117-130.
Shoji, H. and A. Higashi (1978), A deformation mechanism map of ice,Shoji, H. and A. Higashi (1978), A deformation mechanism map of ice, J. Glac., 85J. Glac., 85, 419-427., 419-427.
Smith, M. D. (2002), The annual cycle of water vapor on Mars as observed by the Thermal Emission SpectrometerSmith, M. D. (2002), The annual cycle of water vapor on Mars as observed by the Thermal Emission Spectrometer,, J. Geophys. Res.,J. Geophys. Res.,
107107(E11), 25-1 – 25-19.(E11), 25-1 – 25-19.
Smith, B. A., L. A. Soderblom, D. Banfield, C. Barnet, A. T. Basilevksy, R. F. Beebe, K. Bollinger, J. M. Boyce, A. Brahic, G. A. Briggs, R. H. Brown, C.Smith, B. A., L. A. Soderblom, D. Banfield, C. Barnet, A. T. Basilevksy, R. F. Beebe, K. Bollinger, J. M. Boyce, A. Brahic, G. A. Briggs, R. H. Brown, C.
Chyba, S. A. Collins, T. Colvin, A. F. Cook, D. Crisp, S. K. Croft, D. Cruikshank, J. N. Cuzzi, G. E. Danielson, M. E. Davies, E. De Jong, L.Chyba, S. A. Collins, T. Colvin, A. F. Cook, D. Crisp, S. K. Croft, D. Cruikshank, J. N. Cuzzi, G. E. Danielson, M. E. Davies, E. De Jong, L.
Dones, D. Godfrey, J. Goguen, I. Grenier, V. R. Haemmerle, H. Hammel, C. J. Hansen, C. P. Helfenstein, C. Howell, G. E. Hunt, A. P.Dones, D. Godfrey, J. Goguen, I. Grenier, V. R. Haemmerle, H. Hammel, C. J. Hansen, C. P. Helfenstein, C. Howell, G. E. Hunt, A. P.
Ingersoll, T. V. Johnson, J. Kargel, R. Kirk, D. I. Kuehn, S. Limaye, H. Masursky, A. McEwen, D. Morrison, T. Owen, W. Owen, J. B. Pollack,Ingersoll, T. V. Johnson, J. Kargel, R. Kirk, D. I. Kuehn, S. Limaye, H. Masursky, A. McEwen, D. Morrison, T. Owen, W. Owen, J. B. Pollack,
C. C. Porco, K. Rages, P. Rogers, D. Rudy, C. Sagan, J. Schwartz, E. M. Shoemaker, M. Showalter, B. Sicardy, D. Simonelli, J. Spencer, L.C. C. Porco, K. Rages, P. Rogers, D. Rudy, C. Sagan, J. Schwartz, E. M. Shoemaker, M. Showalter, B. Sicardy, D. Simonelli, J. Spencer, L.
A. Sromovsky, C. Stoker, R. G. Strom, V. E. Suomi, S. P. Synott, R. J. Terrile, P. Thomas, W. R. Thompson, A. Verbiscer, and J. VeverkaA. Sromovsky, C. Stoker, R. G. Strom, V. E. Suomi, S. P. Synott, R. J. Terrile, P. Thomas, W. R. Thompson, A. Verbiscer, and J. Veverka
(1989), Voyager 2 at Neptune: Imaging science results,(1989), Voyager 2 at Neptune: Imaging science results, Science, 246Science, 246, 1422-1449., 1422-1449.
Smith, D. E., M. T. Zuber, S. C. Solomon, R. J. Phillips, J. W. Head, J. B. Garvin, W. B. Banerdt, D. O. Muhlerman, G. H. Pettengill, G. A. Neumann, F.Smith, D. E., M. T. Zuber, S. C. Solomon, R. J. Phillips, J. W. Head, J. B. Garvin, W. B. Banerdt, D. O. Muhlerman, G. H. Pettengill, G. A. Neumann, F.
G. Lemoine, J. B. Abshire, O. Aharonson, C. D. Brown, S. A. Hauck, A. B. Ivanov, P. J. McGovern, H. J. Zwally, and T. C. Duxbury (1999),G. Lemoine, J. B. Abshire, O. Aharonson, C. D. Brown, S. A. Hauck, A. B. Ivanov, P. J. McGovern, H. J. Zwally, and T. C. Duxbury (1999),
The global topography of Mars and implications for surface evolution,The global topography of Mars and implications for surface evolution, Science, 284Science, 284, 1495-1503., 1495-1503.
Squyres, S. W. (1979), The evolution of dust deposits in the Martian north polar region,Squyres, S. W. (1979), The evolution of dust deposits in the Martian north polar region, Icarus, 40Icarus, 40, 244-261., 244-261.
Stoker, C. R., S. Dunagan, T. Stevens, R. Amils, J. Gómez-Elvira, D. C. Fernández-Remolar, J. Hall, K. Lynch, H. Cannon, J. Zavaleta, B. Glass, and L.Stoker, C. R., S. Dunagan, T. Stevens, R. Amils, J. Gómez-Elvira, D. C. Fernández-Remolar, J. Hall, K. Lynch, H. Cannon, J. Zavaleta, B. Glass, and L.
Lemke (2004), Mars analog Rio Tinto experiment (MARTE): 2003 drilling campaign to search for a subsurface biosphere at Rio Tinto Spain,Lemke (2004), Mars analog Rio Tinto experiment (MARTE): 2003 drilling campaign to search for a subsurface biosphere at Rio Tinto Spain,
Abstract no. 1766, 35.th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Houston, Texas, March 15-19.Abstract no. 1766, 35.th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, Houston, Texas, March 15-19.
Tanaka, K. L., D. H. Scott, and R. Greeley (1992), Global stratigraphy, inTanaka, K. L., D. H. Scott, and R. Greeley (1992), Global stratigraphy, in MarsMars, edited by H. H. Kieffer et al., pp. 345-382, The University of Arizona, edited by H. H. Kieffer et al., pp. 345-382, The University of Arizona
Press, Tucson, Arizona.Press, Tucson, Arizona.
Whalley, W. B., and F. Azizi (2003), Rock glaciers and protalus landforms: Analogous forms and ice sources on Earth and Mars,Whalley, W. B., and F. Azizi (2003), Rock glaciers and protalus landforms: Analogous forms and ice sources on Earth and Mars, J. Geophys. Res.,J. Geophys. Res.,
108108(E4), GDS 13-1 – GDS 13-17.(E4), GDS 13-1 – GDS 13-17.
Zuber, M. T. (2001), The crust and mantle of Mars,Zuber, M. T. (2001), The crust and mantle of Mars, Nature, 412Nature, 412, 220-227., 220-227.
References Cited – 3 of 3References Cited – 3 of 3