Basic Concepts and issues of research

1. Research Methodology Chapter 2
Basic Concepts and Issues in Research
1
Jakiun J. Mustafa
Variables and Their Types
Variable is a concept which can take on different quantitative values. For example; height, weight,
income, age etc. The main focus of the scientific study is to analyze the functional relationship of the
variables. A variable is a quantity which can vary from one individual to another. The quantity which can
vary from person to person.
“Variable is a property that taken on different value”----------Kerlinger
It is any feature or aspect of an event, function or process that, by its presence and nature, affects some
other event or process,which is being studied.
(i) Continuous Variable:
It is that which can assume any numerical value within a specific range.
(ii) Discrete Variable:
A variable for which the individual values fall on the scale only with distinct gaps is called a discrete
variable.
(iii) Dependent Variable or Criterion variable:
If one variable depends or is a consequence of other, it is termed as dependent variable. Criterion variable
is the basis on which the effectiveness of the experimental variable is studied.
(iv) Independent Variable or Experimental Variable:
The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable. The
variable whose effect is going to be known is known as experimental variable.
Controlled Variable:
The effectiveness of an experimental variable is examined by comparing with other variable, known as
controlled variable.
(vi) Confounding Variable:
Those aspects of study or sample, that might influence the dependent variable (outcome measures) ,and
whose effect may be confused with the effects of the independent variable. They are of two types;
Intervening and extraneous variable.
(vii) Intervening Variable:
There are a number of abstract variables in educational/social experiments, which intervene the effect of
experimental or criterion variable. For controlling intervening variable appropriate research design should
be used. Intervening variables are hard if not impossible, to observe because they usually have to do with
an individual’s feelings like boredom, stress,fatigue, excitement etc. Extraneous variable on the other
hand, are more readily observed or measured and thus are more easily controlled.

2. Research Methodology Chapter 2
Basic Concepts and Issues in Research
2
Jakiun J. Mustafa
(viii) Extraneous Variable:
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the dependent
variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there
is a relationship between children’s gain in social studies achievement and their self-concept. Here self-
concept is independent variable and achievement in social study is dependent variable. Intelligence may
as well affect the social studies achievement; but since it is not related to the purpose of the study
undertaken by the researcher,it will be termed as extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on
dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error.’
A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to
the independent variables and not to some extraneous variable(s).When the dependent variable is not free
from the influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and independent
variable is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
Extraneous variable can be controlled by removing the variable causing distraction. It may be eliminated
by selecting cases with uniform characteristics and through randomization.
(ix) Organismic Variable:
There are some variables which cannot be manipulated. They are accepted by the researcher as they are.
They are levels of intelligence, sex, class levels, and the like. The researcher can classify the subjects by
sex but he cannot modify to suit his research condition. If a researcher attempts to compare boys and girls
on some learning task, any differences might be attributed to sex differences but not necessarily so. The
differences between boys and girls could be due to differences in intelligence, training, motivation or a
myriad of other conditions present in all human beings and not necessarily to biological differences
between sex. Those variables which cannot be manipulated and cannot themselves point out causal
relations are called organismic variables.
Levels ofmeasurement
Nominal level
This is the simplest , and the lowest type of measurement. When measuring using a nominal scale, one
simply names or categorizes responses. Gender, handedness, favorite color, and religion are examples of
variables measured on a nominal scale. The essential point about nominal scales is that they do not imply
any ordering among the responses. For example, when classifying people according to their favorite
color, there is no sense in which green is placed "ahead of" blue. Responses are merely categorized.
Nominal scales embody the lowest level of measurement.
Ordinal level
A researcher wishing to measure consumers' satisfaction with their governance system might ask them to
specify their feelings as either "very dissatisfied," "somewhat dissatisfied," "somewhat satisfied," or "very
satisfied." The items in this scale are ordered, ranging from least to most satisfied. This is what
distinguishes ordinal from nominal scales. Unlike nominal scales, ordinal scales allow comparisons of the
degree to which two subjects possess the dependent variable. For example, our satisfaction ordering
makes it meaningful to assert that one person is more satisfied than another with their governance system.
Such an assertion reflects the first person's use of a verbal label that comes later in the list than the label
chosen by the second person.

3. Research Methodology Chapter 2
Basic Concepts and Issues in Research
3
Jakiun J. Mustafa
Interval level
Interval scales are numerical scales in which intervals have the same interpretation throughout. As an
example, consider the Fahrenheit scale of temperature. The difference between 30 degrees and 40 degrees
represents the same temperature difference as the difference between 80 degrees and 90 degrees. This is
because each 10-degree interval has the same physical meaning (in terms of the kinetic energy of
molecules)
Ratio level
the ratio scale of measurement is the most informative scale. It is an interval scale with the additional
property that its zero position indicates the absence of the quantity being measured. You can think of a
ratio scale as the three earlier scales rolled up in one. Like a nominal scale, it provides a name or category
for each object (the numbers serve as labels). Like an ordinal scale,the objects are ordered (in terms of
the ordering of the numbers). Like an interval scale,the same difference at two places on the scale has the
same meaning. And in addition, the same ratio at two places on the scale also carries the same meaning.
Research objectives
In general, research objectives describe what we expect to achieve by a project.
Research objectives are usually expressed in lay terms and are directed as much to the client as to the
researcher. Research objectives may be linked with a hypothesis or used as a statement of purpose in a
study that does not have a hypothesis.
Even if the nature of the research has not been clear to the layperson from the hypotheses, s/he should be
able to understand the research from the objectives.
A statement of research objectives can serve to guide the activities of research. Consider the following
examples.
Objective: To describe what factors farmers take into account in making such decisions as whether to
adopt a new technology or what crops to grow.
Objective: To develop a budget for reducing pollution by a particular enterprise.
Objective: To describe the habitat of the giant panda in China.
In the above examples the intent of the research is largely descriptive.
In the case of the first example, the research will end the study by being able to specify factors which
emerged in household decisions.
In the second, the result will be the specification of a pollution reduction budget.
In the third, creating a picture of the habitat of the giant panda in China.
These observations might prompt researchersto formulate hypotheses which could be tested in another
piece of research. So long as the aim of the research is exploratory, ie to describe what is, rather than to
test an explanation for what is, a research objective will provide an adequate guide to the research

4. Research Methodology Chapter 2
Basic Concepts and Issues in Research
4
Jakiun J. Mustafa
Research hypothesis
The word hypothesis consists of two words –Hypo+Thesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the
verification. ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of the problem. Thus the literal meaning of the term
hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the
problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some rationale.
Again, ’hypo’ means the composition of two or more variables which are to be verified and ‘thesis’
means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference.
Definitions of Hypothesis:
“Any supposition which we make in order to endeavor to deduce conclusions in accordance with facts
which are known to be real under the idea that if the conclusions to which the hypothesis leads are known
truths, the hypothesis itself either must be or at least likely to be true.”
J.S. Mill
“A hypothesis is a tentative generalization the validity of which remains to be tested. In its most
elementary stage the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea which becomes basis for
further investigation.”
Lundberg
Research questions
The research question defines the “area of interest” but it is not a declarative statement like a hypothesis
Research question: main broad questions -general focus
Research question may be complemented by a few Investigative Questions: secondary/sub questions-
specific -to narrow the focus-important for data measurement
 A clear research statement or problem must translate into a research question.
 Research question to be fact-oriented, information –gathering question.
 Research question must be capable of being confirmed or refuted.
Both qualitative and quantitative studies suit for some topics.
 – topics loosely defined- research question
become clear only during the research process
 Data is used to narrow the focus in qualitative study- literature review helps.
Quantitative study
 Topic is narrowed into a focused Research question.
 Focusing the question helps in developing a testable hypothesis in quantitative study.
 Research questions refer to relationship among a small number of variables.
 Listing the variables is needed to focus the topic on research questions

5. Research Methodology Chapter 2
Basic Concepts and Issues in Research
5
Jakiun J. Mustafa
Research Question -Example
 Single question
Which methods and tools should be developed to make current manufacturing control /
supervision systems reusable and swiftly modifiable?
 Multiple questions
“Q1: What are the main components of logistics costs that determine the logistics and transport
network design?
Q2: To what extent are the existing network design and evaluation models sufficient and how can
collaboration be incorporated in the network design methodology?
Q3: How can economies of scale and scope, present in the network, be taken into account in the
network design?
Q4: Is it possible to set boundaries to the development path of the network, and search for a
feasible path instead of searching solely for a feasible solution?
Ethics in research
Research that involves human subjects or participants raises unique and complex ethical, legal,
social and political issues. Research ethics is specifically interested in the analysis of ethical
issues that are raised when people are involved as participants in research.