1. I. Effect of Three Organic Waste Soil Fertilizers – Cow Manure, Institutional
Compost, and Tomato Processing Refuse – on the Yield of Corn and on Soil
Properties of Two Different Soil Types on a Northeastern Indiana Small Farm
II. Catherine Latimer, November 19, 2008, 236 W Reade Ave., Upland, IN 46989
III. Abstract
Like the growing quantities of organic wastes themselves, interest in the study and
utilization of alternative sources of fertilizer is growing itself. Many of these organic
waste sources can provide abundant useful nutrients to the soils for increase in crop
production in agriculture, but thus far many of these sources have remained untapped on
a large scale. The study of some of these locally-available organic waste composts would
be particularly useful in the region of northeastern Indiana, where farming is prolific.
Three sources in particular: cow manure, tomato refuse from a local ketchup-processing
facility, and previously unused food scraps from Taylor University’s Dining Commons,
will be stabilized for 5 months into viable compost before being applied to two fields of
different soils (Glynwood and Bono) on a small agricultural farm in Upland, Indiana.
The stabilized composts will then be separately applied to plots one month before the
planting of sweet corn. Total yield, as weighed by dry biomass, total soil organic C, total
soil N, and soil C/N ratio will be determined using methods available to the experimenter.
Additional soil samples will be sent away to a laboratory for further analysis of soil
health. All three composts are expected to influence the soils positively, though the

2. poorly drained Bono soil may benefit less than the Glynwood and the corn growing on
the Glynwood soil.
IV. Problem Statement
A. There are a vast number of studies available on the subject of organic fertilizer
alternatives and the ranges of their effects on crops, soil, agricultural, and environmental
health. Similar variables can be studied by a variety of methods and under an almost
endless set of varying conditions. Cai & Qin (2006) address dynamics of crop yields and
soil organic carbon in a long-term fertilization experiment in China, while Gabrielle et al.
(2005) studied field-scale modeling of carbon and nitrogen dynamics in soils amended
with urban waste composts. Differences in soil types were addressed by articles like
Cassman et al. (1993), who studied the input/output analysis of cumulative soybean
response to P on an Ultisol, or Castillo & Wright (2008), who studied soil P pools for
Histosols under sugarcane and pasture in the Everglades.
Microbial activity in the soil is a factor that has great influence on crop yields and
health, and can be highly influenced by the type of organic fertilizer used. This topic is
addressed by Abd-El-Malek et al. (1968), Lee et al. (2004), Gallardo-Lara & Nogales
(1987), Ros et al. (2006), and Tsai et. al. (2007), among others. These articles address
issues such as how initial and changing C/N levels in various compost types can effect
microbial activity, such as whether the soil microbes are competing with the plants for
Nitrogen or not; or issues such as how different compost types effect measures on
microbial biomass, and results on the bacterial community. Many of the variables used in
these studies to measure these responses were testing pH, temperature, organic matter

3. content, sodium concentrate, soil biomass, and soil enzyme activities in the rhizosphere,
etc. Most of this research found there to be a positive effect for soil microbial
populations under the use of organic fertilizers, though large doses of compost could
produce an inhibitory effect.
Compost types in these studies varied widely, as well, such as Baran et al.’s
(2001) study on composted grape marc as a growing medium for hypostases, Bustamante
et al.’s (2008) look at composts from distillery wastes as peat substitutes for transplant
production, or Cheung & Wong’s (1983) look at the utilization of sewage sludge versus
animal manures for growing vegetables, the effects of anaerobically prepared wheat straw
composts and city garbage composts on yields and N and P uptake by wheat.
Other related topics such as the economic benefits of utilizing alternative organic
fertilizers are addressed in studies such as van Assche & Uyttebroeck’s (1982) “Demand,
supply and application possibilities of domestic waste compost in agriculture and
horticulture,” Zobac & Vana’s (1974) study on the agronomical effectiveness of
industrially produced compost in dependence of the technology of production, and Ryan
et al’s (1985) short-term greenhouse evaluation of non-conventional organic wastes.
B. The study will be carried out on Victory Acres Farm, 5275 S. 800 E., Upland,
Indiana, located in Grant County, latitude 40.476 and longitude -85.494, elevation 935
feet above sea level. Annual precipitation counts and temperature are measured from the
nearest weather station in Hartford City, 11.5 miles South-East, and temperatures range
from a 15.2 degrees F low to an 84.1 degrees F July high. Annual precipitation
measurements also taken from the Hartford City weather station record Uplands annual
precipitation (combined rainfall/snowfall) to be 37.25 inches, with most rain occurring in

4. July. The Indiana state soil is Miami, of which there are 794,994 acres of within the state,
and which contains a surface layer and a subsurface layer of brown silt loam, a subsoil of
dark yellowish brown clay loam, and a substratum of brown loam. These soils are used
mostly for corn, soybean, or winter wheat production, with steeper areas used for pasture,
hayland, or woodland. The Miami soils are calcerous, loamy till, are fertile and have a
moderate available water capacity. The two soils in particular that will be utilized in this
study are Glynwood and Bono types. Glynwood is a clay silt loam that consists of deep,
moderately well drained, slowly permeable soils on till plains and moraines. These soils
are formed in silty material over glacial till. Slopes range from 2 to 6 % and are strongly
acid to slightly acid in the upper part and neutral or mildly alkaline in the lower part.
Bono soils consist of deep, very poorly drained, slowly permeable soils in depressions on
lake plains. These soils form in lacustrine sediments. Slopes range from 0 to 2 %.
Fertilizers and composts for the study will also be obtained from various sources
and locations. Cow manure is already being obtained by Victory Acres Farm from their
neighboring farm as a fertilizer. Victory Acres has recently just set in place windrows on
the northwest edge of the South Vegetable Field for the purpose of composting their own
household food scraps and leaf litter. This will be the location for the dumping and
stabilizing of the Taylor Dining Commons compost. Initially, the source for this compost
will be obtained on Taylor University’s campus in Upland, IN – specifically from the
Dining Commons. The final source of compost will be from the Red Gold Processing
Facility located at 120 East Oak Street, Orestes, IN 46063.
C. 1) – 3) What is the effect on sweet corn yield of:
a) institutional compost derived from college dining hall organic waste

5. b) agricultural compost from cow manure
c) commercial compost from a tomato processing facility
4) What is the effect on health of calcerous, silty clay loam soils from each of
these three compost types?
5) Is the utilization of these organic waste composts reasonable for farms in the
northeastern Indiana region, and if so, how do these locally-derived compost types
compare to one another as determined by regional soil types?
V. Statement of Questions, Objectives, and Hypotheses
A. There is an increasing focus on the use and application of a large variety of
organic soil amendments and products from organic wastes, such as bio-fertilizers,
composts, green manures, fly-ash and sewage sludge in scientific literature. This is in
large part due to the problems created by the increasing waste and consumption of
growing populations around the world, bringing with it an increased drive towards
seeking out environmentally acceptable solutions towards alleviating these problems
(Ros 2006, citing Lalande et al., 2000).
Composts and bio-fertilizers created as products of organic wastes can be useful
in helping to supplement soils with certain essential nutrients, such as C, N, and P, needed
for healthy plant growth, as well as helping to increase soil organic matter content and
other biological and chemical properties within the soil (Ros, 2006). Soils can, in fact,
adsorb and utilize large amounts of organic waste into usable nutrients (Ryan, 1985).
However, the agronomic effectiveness of organic wastes can be highly variable
depending on their source. Solid wastes alone can be classified into at least six different

6. categories: agricultural, commercial, institutional, industrial, residential, and municipal.
(Ryan, 1985, citing McCalla et al., 1977). Focus on the utilization of any one of these
specific types would depend upon the importance and abundance of any of these sources
for a particular region, regional soil types and physical and chemical properties,
comparative prices of alternative materials available on a regional basis, and even social
attitudes towards to the utilization of various organic wastes (Ryan, 1985).
Timing of organic wastes to the soil is a crucial factor in agricultural utilization.
Compost should be allowed to stabilize, or humify, for 5-6 months miniumum before it is
added to the agricultural soil (Zucconi et al., 1981). This allows for the naturally-
occurring process of biological oxidative transformation to take place, creating a stable
product (de Bertoldi, 1982), and allowing for the metabolization and mineralization of
simple carbon compounds (de Bertoldi, 1982). If sufficient time is not allowed for this
process to take place away from the crop soil, micro-organisms in the agricultural soil
will degrade the amended organic matter and thus will actually compete with crops for
soil nitrogen, and which will produce intermediate metabolites and high concentrations of
ammonia in the soil that is not compatible with plant growth (Golueke, 1977). Nitrogen
content is another critical factor that is allowed to stabilize with mature compost. In
terms of absolute value, the process of ammonia volatilization during stabilization allows
for a decrease in nitrogen content (de Bertoldi, 1982). However, in terms of dry weight,
nitrogen increases with stabilization due to mineralization of the organic matter and thus
the loss of H2O and CO2. These levels can be monitored by C/N ratios, which should
decrease as the compost matures (de Bertoldi, 1982). As indicated above, high C/N ratios
are not favorable, as they are an indicator that micro-organisms must continue to oxidize

7. off excess carbon, but low C/N ratios will slow decomposition and increase nitrogen loss
(de Bertoldi, 1982). Extensive experimentation as cited throughout the literature
determined that the general optimum C/N ratio in the starting compost is about 25 (de
Bertoldi, 1982). As Table 5 indicates (as cited by de Bertoldi), cow manure and the
organic fraction of many solid urban wastes fall near or within this range, which is useful
in terms of this study (de Bertoldi, 1982).
For our experimental purposes for an area located a) in an agriculturally-
dominated region of the northeastern section of Indiana, b) close to a collegiate campus,
and c) close to a number of commercial vegetable processing plants, three of these solid
organic waste types will be utilized and tested: agricultural, institutional, and commercial.
Agricultural waste will be studied in the form of cow manure acquired from a dairy farm
located in Upland, IN close to the site of study. Institutional solid organic waste will be
collected from the dining facility on Taylor University’s campus, in the form of leftover
food scraps collected from the dining hall and kitchen. Commercial solid organic waste

8. will be collected from the Red Gold Processing Facility in Orestes, IN. This compost is
composed of the peels and seeds leftover from processing ketchup in the factory. The
peels and seeds are dumped into a bog area where it is turned on a regular basis, allowing
the waste to aerate and stabilize into viable compost.
Recommendations regarding the effectiveness of alternative organic waste
amendments available in this region of Indiana must be based on field testing that
compares each treatment type on the same crop, with equivalent application rates, and on
soil types that are representative of local agricultural utilization. In this study each
treatment type was applied at equivalent rates and under identical application techniques
to all soils one month before planting of sweet corn (Zea mays var. rugosa) took place.
Sweet corn is a variety of maize with high sugar content that is harvested when it is still
immature, and is representative of a common commercial crop in the Midwest (citation).
Effectiveness of treatment types will be determined by total yields of corn, C/N
ratios in the soil – determined by carbon loss on ignition and the Kjeldahl method – and
by further laboratory soil analysis to determine soil pH, cation exchange capacity, percent
organic matter, soluble salts, and the levels of agriculturally significant soil nutrients.
Table 1 below, as cited from Ros, 2006, shows a reasonable example of the
different chemical properties of different composts similar to some of those used in this
study. Of particular interest to this study are the total organic C, total N, and C/N. Study
of this data can aid in forming predictions for our own data;

9. B. The null hypotheses for this study would be that there would be no difference
between the control plot and all treatment types, on either soil type. The central
hypothesis is that there will a large difference between the control and the various
treatment types on both soil types, and that treatments will vary according to average
initial C/N ratios as cited in the literature, as well as according to the turnover rates, or
stabilization periods, of each treatment. A sub-hypothesis would be that soil types will
cause a variation between response to treatments, with Bono soils being less productive
than Glynwood soils.
C. This entire experiment should last about nine months, and all resources needed
are being provided by the experimenter herself, Victory Acres Farm, Professor Robert
Reber and the Taylor University Environmental Science Department, and the Red Gold
Processing Facility in Orestes, Indiana.
VI. Methods
A. The independent variables in this study are the differences in organic waste
composts used – commercial, agricultural, and institutional. These variables were chosen
because they are locally found alternatives to traditional fertilizer types. The two

10. different soil types being utilized for the planting of the corn crops – Glynwood clay silt
loam, and Bono – are also independent of changes in the others, though soil health will be
dependent on changes in variable compost types. These soil types were chosen as
independent variables because they are highly representative of the different types of
soils found in local agricultural settings. Sweet corn yield, soil health, as determined by
soil C/N ratio (determined by carbon loss on ignition and % nitrogen as by the Kjeldahl
test) and by various nutrient measurements, pH testing, % organic matter, and cation
exchange capacity in both Glynwood and Bono soil types are variables dependent on
adjustments in treatments. Sweet corn was chosen because it is a popular local crop that
responds readily to changes in soil health levels. Soil C/N ratios are an easy and
inexpensive way to test general soil health and response to compost treatments, and
overall soil health testings were already part of an ongoing investigation by farm
ownership.
B. Other sources of variation that could effect the results of this study include
duration of compost stabilization from the cow farm, as the historical utility of this
compost type by VAF has had a much faster turnover rate than the 5-6 month stabilizing
period recommended. Dan Perkins has agreed to attempt to let this manure begin to sit
and stabilize when other compost stabilizations are beginning, though he may have to use
some of the cow manure on other fields before the 5 months is completed. Other factors
that might effect this study are historical use of the two fields being tested, and how
initial nutrient levels in these soils might differ due to differences in past applications and
utilizations. As the Bono soil fields have not been as highly utilized for agriculture yet by

11. VAF, Dan Perkins has directed the use of a lesser-utilized Glynwood soil field in hopes
that this will help to control these variables a little bit better.
C. & D. Before sweet corn planting can begin, all composts must be sufficiently
stabilized. As this takes a minimum of five months to occur, collection of Taylor
University Dining Commons food scraps will commence on Dec. 1, 2008. Two 44-
gallon Brute plastic waste containers will be placed in the DC – one in the kitchen for the
disposal of kitchen scraps, and one in the dish room. Instead of emptying all food scraps
into the garbage, as is current practice, some trays will be emptied into one of these Brute
containers until it is full, and both containers will be collected by the experimenter at the
end of each day. This process will continue for 13 more days until the DC closes, and
will recommence on Jan. 5th
, 2009. At the end of each day during these two periods, both
bins will be transported to Victory Acres Farm, where they will be spread into preexisting
windrows already set in place on the northwestern edge of the South Vegetable Field, but
not yet highly utilized, for composting food scraps and leaf litter. Dan Perkins, VAF’s
CSA Manager, will turn this compost once a month with his bucket loader. Field
experiments have determined that 1-3 weeks minimum are needed for the organic waste
compost to digest into the soil (de Bertoldi & Zucconi 1980; Zucconi & de Bertoldi
1982). All composts used for this experiment will be stabilized and ready to apply to the
soil by April 30th
, giving the soil once month to incorporate it before corn planting.
Another compost alternative will be obtained on April 30th, 2009, 30 days before
planting, from the Red Gold Processing Facility in Orestes, IN. As this compost will
already be stabilized on the Red Gold premises, it will simply be picked up and
transported to VAF.

12. VAF CSA Manager, Mr. Perkins, obtains and stores cow manure from the
neighboring cow farm, Carter Farms, and presently uses this as fertilizer. This will also
be utilized on the experimental fields, as described below.
On April 30th
each of these three treatments can be incorporated into their
treatment plots by ploughing at a 0-25 cm depth, and applied in equivalent doses of 15 t
ha−1.
Since the experimenter is aware of specific differences among the groups of
objects within this experimental group, the experiment out-line was set up as a
completely randomized block design to control variation by accounting for spatial effects.
Three randomized blocks of dimensions 20 meters x 28 meters will be tested on two
different soil types, chosen based on differences in soil qualities, giving a total of six
randomized test blocks. Each of the six blocks is divided into four different treatment
plots of dimensions 20 meters x 8 meters each. Planting should take place on May 30st
,
2009. Three rows of corn should be planted per treatment plot, planting the seeds 30 in.
apart, with rows 2 meters apart, resulting in 24 corn plants per row, for a total of 72 plants
per plot, 288 plants per block, 864 plants per soil type, and 1,728 individual corn plants
total. For the purpose of comparison, one of these four sections is a control treatment
(C), which will receive no fertilizer or compost. Each row should be irrigated with 1 to
1½ in. of water once a week. Be sure to water from the bottom, never from above –
watering from above can wash the pollen away.
By the end of the growing period, which will take 50 days, all corn can be
harvested, being careful to transfer all 72 ears to labeled, separate bags for each treatment
plot. These bags will be transported to Taylor University’s Randall Science Center and

13. stored in the greenhouse to dry for one week. Dry biomass can then be taken by
weighing all corn plants from each treatment plot.
Also upon completion of harvesting, four 6 in. x 6 in. soil cores should be taken
from each plot. The location of each of these cores should be obtained using a random
number table. These cores should be labeled and refrigerated until further analysis can be
performed up on them. Three samples from each plot should be used for loss on ignition
(LOI) analysis, and three samples should be used for the Kjeldahl method. LOI will be
run at Taylor University using a muffle furnace. Only samples for one treatment/block
should be analyzed at one time. The procedure follows the method described by Schlute
and Hopkins (1996).
Equivalent volumes (approximately 8 g) of <2-mm air-dry soil should be placed
into 15-mL crucibles and then oven-dried at 105 degrees C overnight. Samples then
should be cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The samples should then be combusted at
360 degrees C for 2 hours in the muffle furnace. After this two hour combustion period,
samples should be transferred to an oven at 105 degrees C for several hours. Samples
will then be cooled in a desiccator and weighed. LOI will be calculated using the
following equation:
Repeat this process for all three core samples per 24 treatment/control blocks. The
weight-loss-on-ignition is a common method of approximating the organic and carbonate

14. content of sediment samples (Heiri et al. 2001). % Nitrogen in the soil samples can be
determined using the Kjeldahl method.
Another four 6 in. x 6 in. soil cores should be selected from each plot using a
random number table. These soil samples should then be properly labeled and sent
immediately to A & L Great Lakes Laboratories, Inc. in Ft. Wayne. This company will
analyze soil pH, % organic matter, cation exchange capacity (CEC), soluble salts, P, K,
Mg, Ca, H, Na, Cu, S, Zn, Fe, Mn, and B.
Testing should be done using a general linear model. Residuals should be
checked for normality and saved from this model. Fixed factors are soil type, block, and
treatment. An F test should be used to test for interactions between the blocks and the
soil types, and between the blocks and the treatments. If there is interaction, then the data
fits our assumptions. If the F Test reveals no interactions, then two further statistical tests
can be run to indicate whether a) soil types differ, or b) treatments differ. A probability
plot can then be constructed using MiniTab from the saved residuals, and using this data
it can be determined whether the data is normal (p>0.01). ANOVA can then be used to
determine whether P values are significant for block (expected to not be significant), soil
(expected to be significant), and treatment (expected to be significant). For those that are
significant a multiple comparison analysis can be run and the effect of qualitative factors
will be separated by the a Tukey’s MRT or Duncan’s MRT at the 5% level of significance.
An Example of Experimental Data

15. VII. Budget and Schedule

16. A. & B. See attached chart for three-column budget. Most equipment and soil
testing provided by Victory Acres Farm free of charge.
-(2) 44-gallon Brute waste containers purchased from eBay = $32.00 total, to be
delivered to Taylor University location by Dec. 1st
, 2008.
-Golden Bantam sweet corn seed should be purchased from Main Street Seed and Supply
Company @ $1.50/342 seeds on April 1st
, 2009. 1,728 seeds can be purchased for $7.50
online.
-During the period of collecting dining commons compost and transporting it to Victory
Acres Farm, one 7.1 trip a day will be made for 14 days straight between Dec. 1st
, 2008
and Dec. 14th
, 2008. Trips will resume again when the Dining Commons reopen from
Jan. 5th
, 2009 to Jan. 28th
, 2009. Beginning Feb. 7th
, 2009 trips will only be made from
Taylor University’s Dining commons to VAF once a week, for 12 weeks. With estimated
gas prices at $3.00/gallon and a vehicle that performs at aout 27 miles/gallon, the total
cost of all of these trips will be $40.90.
-Gas between Upland, IN and the Red Gold Processing Facility at 120 East Oak Street,
Orestes, IN 46063, estimated cost at approximately $3.00/gal. One round-trip will be
conducted on April 30th
, 2009, and will be 37.6 miles. Experimenter’s vehicle performs
at approximately 27 miles/gallon, thus one trip should cost $4.18.
-As this would be a joint project undertaken with Victory Acres Farm and building on
their previous work, the farm will cover the costs of all equipment needed to rotate and
haul all compost once it has been transported to the farm . The farm is already in the
habit of rotating their compost windrows once a month, and this compost rotation will be
done with a bucket loader and tractor, and will continue to be performed once a month by

17. Dan Perkins beginning Dec. 1st
, 2008 until all composts are applied to the soil on April
30th
, 2009.
-All transport of cow manure was already being undertaken by the farm, as well, and this
they will also continue at their own expense and on their schedule.
-On April 30th
, 2009, all compost types will be ploughed into their designated plots. Dan
Perkins will perform this task.
-On May 30th
, 2009 the sweet corn seeds will be sown into each plot on VAF. Dan
Perkins and Catherine Latimer will do this task together.
-On July 20th
, 2009 all corn will be harvested, as a joint task by Dan Perkins and
Catherine Latimer.
-Corn will be transported to Randall Science Center on Taylor University’s campus by
Ms. Latimer and stored to dry for one week. Upon completion of this week, biomass per
plot will be weighed and recorded.
-VAF has already been sending their soil samples to A & L Great Lakes Laboratories, Inc.
for soil analysis, and continues to do so for the next several years, so this cost is also a
moot point for the purposes of my budget. These samples will be obtained upon harvest
on July 20th
, 2009 and mailed directly.
-LOI (loss on ignition) testing equipment and Kjeldahl testing equipment, to be used a
week after harvesting, on July 27th
, will be provided by the Taylor University
Environmental Science Department, as authorized by Professor Robert Reber.
-Analysis of data will begin following this testing, with continual reporting to and
meetings held with Professor Reber and Dr. Ken Constantine, both of Taylor University.

18. Three-Column Budget Proposal
2008-2009
Purposes Begin End Total
Salaries $0
Corn Seed Apr. 1, 2009 Apr. 1, 2009 $7.50
Tractor w/Bucket Loader Dec. 1, 2008 Jul. 31, 2009 $0
2 44-gal. Plastic Waste Containers Dec. 1, 2008 Jul. 31, 2009 $32
Gas for Transport: Taylor Univ. to VAF Dec. 1, 2008 Dec. 14, 2008 $11.83
Jan. 5, 2009 Jan. 28, 2009 $18.93
Gas for Transport once a week Feb. 7, 2009 Apr. 25, 2009 $10.14
Gas for Transport: Upland-Orestes Apr. 30, 2009 Apr. 30, 2009 $4.18
A & L Great Lakes Laboratories Analyses $0
LOI (loss on ignition) test Jul. 27, 2009 Jul. 27, 2009 $0
Kjeldahl Test Jul. 27, 2009 Jul. 27, 2009 $0
$84.58
VIII. Results and Discussion
While it is expected that treatment type will effect differences in corn yield and
soil health respond, soil type is not expected to make a significant difference here.
Expectations for the effectiveness of each treatment is based upon general ranges in
initial C/N ratios as cited throughout the literature. The organic fraction of stabilized
municipal and institutional wastes tended on average towards a more stable C/N ratio
than compared to wastes derived from solely plant material or solely manure origins, as
cited by de Bertoldi et al., Gallardo, etc.. Thus, for the purposes of this experiment,
expectations would be for a higher yield of corn and higher soil health in the plots treated
with stabilized dining commons waste, and slightly lower yield and health for those
treated with the tomato refuse, slightly lower yield and health for plots treated with
stabilized cow manure, and the lowest yield and soil health for the untreated control plot.
Stabilized tomato refuse-originated compost will possibly be higher than that of cow
manure origin possibly because the Red Gold facility has had such a large stabilizing

19. lagoon already in place for a few years, while the compost based on cow manure used by
VAF has a much higher turnover rate, and thus less time to reach an equilibrium in C/N
ratios. As the soils in this area were actually not very different from one another, it is
expected that results should be similar on both soil types, though there will likely be a
decrease in yield on the Bono soils due to poorer drainage. If yields are similar across
soil types, however, this could certainly be viewed as a positive thing for Indiana farmers,
as this would mean less discrimination would be needed in the planting of their fields.
Thus, the null hypothesis should be rejected and the central hypothesis confirmed.
Evaluation of the fertilizing value of a compost by determining crop yield, or
biomass produced, is a method that has generally produced positive results in the
literature (Gallardo, 1987). Zobac and Vana (1974) showed that the application of
organic fertilizer treatments increased yield in corn, and numerous studies have shown
similar effects for other crops as well, including sorghum, potatoes, tobacco, tomatoes,
and ryegrass (Gallardo, 1987). Many of these studies combined application of manure
with various compost and found better yields than with manure or compost alone (Shisler
& Grable, 1976), and several found similar results for the combined application of
compost together with a mineral fertilizer (Gallardo, 1987).
Many of these studies were undertaken on a longer-term basis than were possible
under the parameters of this experiment. Some of these experiments compared long-term
use of composts against use of NPK commercial fertilizers and found that, though
composts might be less efficient for obtaining immediate crops than the commercial
fertilizers (Terman et al., 1973; Mays et al., 1973; Diez & Weigelt, 1980; Ryan et al.,
1985, as cited in Gellardo, 1987), continual high-dosage use of composts over a longer-

20. term period could prove to be more efficient than normal mineral fertilizers (Hortenstine
& Rothwell, 1973).
As far as measuring composting effectiveness by C/N ratio, this data varies
widely for compost materials, even sufficiently stabilized materials (Gallardo, 1987).
However, in general it has been found that immature composts tend to contain C/N ratios
above 30, and that these ratios are less effective, creating a need for increased
competition for soil nitrogen between micro-organisms degrading the compost and the
crops themselves (Koma Alimu et al., 1977), while those under 20 can cause a smaller
increase in micro-organisms, thus indicating that soil nitrogen is not being biologically
immobilized (Abd-El-Malek et. al., 1968). However, over time, biological activity and
the C/N ratio in soils treated with compost amendments tend towards an equilibrium
(Gallardo, 1987), making them a viable option for long-term use.
Further study on an experiment like the one conducted here would be useful over
a longer time period – preferably over several seasons, to see if any significant changes
will be observed. Not only would reporting be more accurate over a longer time scale,
but if soils continued to stabilize under the various compost treatments over time, then
this would lend even further weight to the use of alternative fertilizer treatments over
time – helping farmers to save money, as most of these organic wastes are disposed of
free of charge from the sources where they were obtained. Long-term effectiveness of
alternative organic waste fertilizer treatments would not only benefit the local farming
community economically, but it would also help reduce local additions to regional
municipal waste landfills, creating an environmental benefit as well.

21. Considering that the corn plants gave different responses according to the
investigated doses and analyzed parameters, it would also be useful to investigate
increasing incremental doses higher than 15 t ha−1 to confirm up to which dose for which
there is no more change in response of corn yield and/or soil health for each treatment
type.
The creation of economic indices for each of these treatment types might be
another useful application of the use of this data, as much of the benefit of this study,
though environmentally rewarding, will most likely be viewed by the farming community
as most beneficial in economic terms.
IX. Literature Cited and Annotated
Abd-EI-Malek, Y., A. I. Naguib, and M. A. Guirguis. 1968. The effect of organic matter
additions on soil respiration, soil nitrogen and activity. Annales De L'Institut Pasteaur,
115: 657-68.
This study was useful for its experiments on C/N ratios, soil respiration, and
microbial activity in soil treated with various organic fertilizers. The study found that
C/N ratios under 20 can cause a smaller increase in micro-organisms in the soil, thus
indicating that soil nitrogen is not being biologically immobilized.
Akinnifesi F. K., J. Mhango, G. Sileshi, and T. Chilanga. 2008. Early growth and survival
of three miombo woodland indigenous fruit tree species under fertilizer, manure and dry-
season irrigation in southern Malawi. Forest Ecology and Management, 255:546-557.
This article looks at three different members of the miombo fruit tree species and
their response to fertilization, manure application, and dry-season irrigation, particularly
on early growth and survival. The study showed poor response to manure application,
some response to fertilizer, and greatest response to irrigation. This article will be useful
in looking at the response of one species of plant to three different variables that might
influence growth, health, etc. and in shedding light into methods of such a type of study.
Abstract
Although a large number of miombo tree species bear edible fruits which are important
sources of vital nutrients and incomes to rural households, their conservation and
cultivation remain challenging because of lack of information on their ecology and
management. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of
fertilization, manure application and dry-season irrigation on the early growth and
survival of the miombo fruit tree species, Uapaca kirkiana, Sclerocarya birrea and

22. Vanguaria infausta with Mangifera indica as relative control. At 33 months after
planting, growth and survival of U. kirkiana and S. birrea were lower in plots that
received fertilizer, compost and irrigation compared with those that did not. The best
growth and survival in U. kirkiana was obtained when irrigation was applied with neither
fertilizer nor manure. The best growth in S. birrea was recorded where plants received
irrigation without fertilizer and manure, while survival was highest when none of the
treatments was applied. Growth and survival of V. infausta was not affected by manure
application, but fertilizer and irrigation increased root collar diameter, leaf, shoot and
branch numbers. At 33 months after planting, U. kirkiana and S. birrea had not reached
reproductive maturity, while V. infausta and M. indica had started fruiting in the second
year. It is concluded that fertilization, manure and irrigation do not increase early growth
or survival of U. kirkiana and S. birrea contrary to the commonly held assumption about
factors that affect growth and survival in this species. The poor response to fertilizer and
dry-season irrigation could be attributed to either their adaptation to infertile soils and
unimodal rainfall regimes in their natural stands or delayed response that could not have
been observed in the short period of the study.
Alumi, F. X., I. E. Soe Angnie, B. H. Janssen. 1977. Evaluation of municipal refuse from
Dahomey (Benin) as an organic manure. In: Proceedings of a Symposium on Soil
Organic Matter Studies. Vol. II, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 291-300.
This study found that immature composts tend to contain C/N ratios above 30,
and that these ratios are less effective than at other C/N ratios, creating a need for
increased competition for soil nitrogen between micro-organisms degrading the compost
and the crops themselves.
Amlinger F., B. Götz, P. Dreher, J. Geszti, and C. Weissteiner. 2003. Nitrogen in biowaste
and yard waste compost: dynamics of mobilisation and availability—a review. European
Journal of Soil Biology, 39:107-116.
This study looks at the application of biowaste composts as opposed to other
forms of ferilizer in farming and the resultant dynamics of nitrogen in the soil through the
compilation of several studies. Predictions are made that, with regular application of
biowaste compost, balances between N-supply and N-uptake and losses should be
reached within 40-100 years. This is useful to my study in the specific focus on nitrogen
effects in soils from the specific application of biowaste compost over time.
Baran A., G. Çaycı, C. Kütük, and R. Hartmann. 2001. Composted grape marc as
growing medium for hypostases (Hypostases phyllostagya). Bioresource Technology,
78:103-106.
A specialized type of biological compost material – composted grape marc – was
tested in seven different ratios mixed with different concentrations of CGM, peat and
perlite. Some replicates were grown in greenhouse conditions. Physical and chemical
properties were tested, as well as some horticultural parameters, with findings that up to
50% composted grape marc is effective with mixtures of peat for good nutrient fertilizing
and low cost. This is useful to my study in showing a good design for testing different
mixtures of one kind of biological compost and its effects at different levels on increased
nutrient levels in plants.

23. Bustamante M. A., C. Paredes, R. Moral, E. Agulló, M. D. Pérez-Murcia, and M. Abad.
2008. Composts from distillery wastes as peat substitutes for transplant production.
Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 52:792-799.
The purpose of this study was to see if composts from distillery wastes would be a
viable substitute for peat in order to avoid further environmental damage from peat
harvesting. The composts were mixed with variations of grape marc, cattle manure, and
poultry manure, and tested on four different vegetable species on nine variations of
substrates. Germination, morphological and nutritional responses were studied. This
study shows a good example of testing another type of biological compost on variable
crop species in variable environments.
Abstract
The use of composts from distillery wastes as alternative growing media ingredients for
transplant production instead of peat, whose harvesting constitutes a severe
environmental damage, was studied. Two composts were prepared with exhausted grape
marc and cattle manure (C1), and with exhausted grape marc and poultry manure (C2).
Four vegetable species, lettuce (Lactuca sativa), chard (Beta vulgaris), broccoli (Brassica
oleracea) and coriander (Coriandrum sativum) were grown. Nine substrates were
compared: limed white peat (control); compost C1; compost C2; and six mixtures
containing 25%, 50% and 75% by volume of each compost with the corresponding peat
as diluent. The germination and the effects on the transplant morphological and
nutritional aspects of the different mixtures peat/compost considered were studied. All
media elaborated showed adequate physical, physico-chemical and chemical properties
compared to peat for their use as growing media in horticulture, being these two
composts suitable ingredients for the partial substitution of peat, in quantities of 25–50%
by volume, without causing any loss in the yield and in the results obtained for the
nutritional status when compared to those obtained using the control.
Cai Z. C., S. W. Qin. 2006. Dynamics of crop yields and soil organic carbon in a long-
term fertilization experiment in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain of China. Geoderma, 136:708-
715.
This was a long-term fertilization experiment over 14 years, applying different
treatments of N, P, and K in inorganic and organic forms of fertilizer on wheat and maize
plants. Soil organic carbon and crop yields were the responses measured. This is another
example of a thorough, varied study of the effects of different types of fertilization on
plant growth and soil health.
Abstract
We analyzed the dynamics of crop yields and soil organic carbon content (SOC) in a
long-term fertilization experiment carried out in the Huang-Huai-Hai Plain of China. The
experiment with crop rotation of winter wheat and summer maize started in 1990 and had
seven treatments receiving N, P, and K at the same rates if it was applied. The treatments
were inorganic fertilization (NPK, NP, PK, NK), organic fertilization (ON), half amount
of N from inorganic fertilizer and another half from compost (1/2ON), and no
fertilization as control (CK). On average, over 14 years (1990–2003), both wheat and
maize yields were the highest and most stable in the NPK treatment. Average wheat and
maize yields were 23.7% and 18.0% lower in ON, respectively, and slightly but

24. significantly lower (1.9% and 1.5%, respectively) in 1/2ON than those in NPK.
Unbalanced inorganic fertilization without K (NP) was not sustainable for achieving high
yields. There was a significant logarithmic relationship between roots and compost input
and SOC content in 0–20 cm in 2003. Over the time of the study SOC storage in 0–20 cm
increased by 12.2 Mg C ha− 1 in ON, 7.8 Mg C ha− 1 in 1/2ON, and 3.7 Mg C ha− 1 in
NPK, and decreased by 1.6 Mg C ha− 1 in NK and 1.4 Mg C ha− 1 in CK. Measured
dynamics of SOC and model simulation predictions showed that the SOC in NPK, ON
and 1/2ON almost reached equilibrium in 2003. These results indicate that although the
balanced application of chemical fertilizers of N, P, and K maintains the crop production
in the region, it is not an ideal practice from the point view of carbon sequestration in
soil. Application of compost alone has a reverse effect on crop yields and carbon
sequestration in soil. Therefore, mixed application of organic and inorganic fertilizers is a
compromise between food security and soil carbon sequestration in the region.
Cassman K. G., P. W. Singleton, and B. A. Linguist. 1993. Input/output analysis of the
cumulative soybean response to phosphorus on an ultisol. Field Crops Research, 34:23-
36.
Cumulative effects of P input regimes on soybean yield, N and P budgets, and soil
P availability in four consecutive crops in a 2-year period on a Humoxic tropohumult soil
were compared in this study. Contributions of biological N2 fixation were regarded in
response to the soil P supply. It was found that a positive net P balance resulted in
increased extractable P in topsoil, a reduction in the proportion of P fixed from
subsequent additions, and there was greater apparent P uptake efficiency from applied
fertilizer in subsequent crop cycles. This article helped me particularly with some my
methods for measuring P and N2 fixation in soybeans and associated roots and soils.
Abstract
Although biological N2 fixation (BNF) by legumes can provide significant N inputs to
crop systems on highly weathered tropical soils, potential inputs from BNF largely
depend on soil P supply. We compared the cumulative effects of P input regimes on yield,
N and P budgets, and soil P availability in four consecutive soybean crops in a 2-year
period on a Humoxic tropohumult. In each crop cycle, nodulating (nod) and
nonnodulating (nonnod) isolines were subplots in P-regime mainplots (kg P ha−1 by crop
cycle): P0 = control without P inputs; LP = 50, 35, 35, 35; MP = 100, 70, 70, 70; and HP
= 300, 210, 210, 210. Seed yields of the nod isoline in the HP regime were 3700 kg ha−1
in the two summer seasons and 2400 to 2500 kg ha−1 in the fall seasons, with a mean
increase of 85% compared to yields of the nod P0 control. Nonnod seed yields and N
accumulation were unaffected by the P regime, averaging 870 and 48 kg ha−1,
respectively. The contribution of BNF to nod soybean N assimilation was linearly related
to P uptake, and mean P uptake by nod plants was 60% greater than by nonnod soybaen,
despite 35% greater root length of nonnod plants at 0–50 cm depth. For the four crop
cycles, total BNF input to the system ranged from 330 kg N ha−1 (P0, or 65% of total
aboveground N, to 710 kg N ha−1 (HP), which was 78% of total aboveground N. After
accounting for P removal at harvest, a net P input of just 99 kg P ha−1 after four crops
increased cumulative seed yield by 3600 kg ha−1 and BNF by 227 kg N ha−1 in the LP
treatment. A positive net P balance also resulted in (1) an increase in extractable P in the 0
to 25 cm topsoil, (2) a reduction in the proportion of P that would be fixed from

25. subsequent additions as indicated by a shifted P sorption isotherm, and (3) greater
apparent P uptake efficiency from applied fertilizer in subsequent crop cycles. As a result,
the yield response of nod soybean per unit P input increased from 13 kg seed kg−1 P
applied in the first crop to 44 kg seed kg−1 P applied in the fourth crop of the LP
treatment. Cumulative effects of this magnitude emphasize the need to consider the
longer-term nutrient balance of the crop system in developing cost-effective P
management strategies on highly weathered soils. The potential for greater P input use
efficiency with time when inputs exceed outputs means that farmers' average and
marginal return from investment in P fertilizer will also increase with time.
Castillo M. S., A. L. Wright. 2008. Soil phosphorus pools for Histosols under sugarcane
and pasture in the Everglades, USA. Geoderma, 145:130-135.
The effects of phosphorous fertilizer in soil heath, nutrient cycling, and sugarcane
and pasture health were studied for the purposes of long-term land management and
future land use. The effects of a nutrient fertilizer on soils and associated plant species is
relevant to my focus of study. Histosols are a common soil type in Indiana, so the
comparison was useful.
Abstract
Land use changes in the Everglades Agricultural Area (EAA) in southern Florida may
influence the distribution and availability of P. Cultivated soils in the EAA are being
converted back to their historic use as seasonally-flooded prairies as part of Everglades
restoration projects. The objectives of this study were to determine the distribution of P in
soil chemical fractions in relation to long-term land management to predict P cycling and
transformations for future land uses. Soil under pasture (100 yr) and planted to sugarcane
(Saccharum sp.) for 50 yr were amended with P (0, 10, 50, 150 kg P ha− 1), and its
distribution in labile, Fe–Al bound P, Ca-bound P, humic–fulvic acid P, and residual P
pools determined for surface soil (0–15 cm). Most P fertilizer entered Fe–Al and Ca-
bound fractions. Cultivation contributed to higher pH and increased the Ca content in soil
compared to pasture due to incorporation of bedrock limestone into soil by tillage. The
land uses were differentiated by P storage in different pools. Subsequently, long-term
fertilization increased soil total P for cultivated soil relative to pasture, but plant-available
P constituted less than 1% of the total P. Labile P increased with increasing P application
rate, ranging from 1.3 to 7.2 mg kg− 1 for cultivated soil and 1.4 to 10.7 mg kg− 1 for
pasture. Most of the applied P was recovered in the Fe–Al fraction for pasture and the Ca-
bound P fraction for cultivated soil. The Ca-bound P fraction represented the greatest
proportion of total P for sugarcane (41%), but only 12% for pasture. The majority of P in
the pasture was present in the humic–fulvic acid fraction (45%), compared to only 23%
for sugarcane. The higher pH of the cultivated soil (6.8) favored retention in Ca fractions
while the lower pH of pasture (5.3) favored P retention in the humic–fulvic acid fraction.
The proportion of total P as organic P was greater for pasture (78%) than cultivated soil
(52%). Higher P levels in more recalcitrant fractions for cultivated soils indicated that
more of the applied fertilizer P was sequestered in stable fractions, which decreased P
availability to crops and may subsequently increase P fertilizer requirements necessary to
maintain optimal plant-available nutrient levels. Subsequently, continuation of current
farming practices and tillage regimes promotes the redistribution of Ca from subsurface
to surface soil, which leads to greater P sequestration in the Ca-bound fraction. However,

26. P in inorganic fractions may be released upon onset of changes in land use. Thus,
conversion to seasonally-flooded prairies may have a more dramatic effect on P release
from cultivated than pasture soils since cultivated soils have more P in inorganic pools.
Cheung, Y. H., Wong, M. H. 1983. Utilisation of animal manures and sewage sludges for
growing vegetables. Agricultural Wastes, 5:63-81.
Activated sludge, digested sludge, chicken manure and pig manure were used as
soil additives for the growth of a local vegetable, flowering Chinese Cabbage, Brassica
parachinensis. Edaphic properties of the waste-amended soils were measured. It was
found that animal manures supported better growth than sewage sludges. Vegetables
treated with animal manures had higher productivity, earlier maturity, absence of
anatomical abnormalities and lower heavy metal contents. Application of chicken manure
to agricultural land is a common practice of the local farmers. However, pig manure
produced higher yields of the vegetable than chicken manure. This indicated that pig
manure also has a high potential as a fertiliser. Recycling of pig manure is highly
essential as some of the streams in the New Territories of Hong Kong are grossly polluted
by pig manure.
The inferior growth of the vegetables harvested from sewage sludge amended
soils was correlated with the edaphic properties of the sewage sludge amended soils.
Such soils were lower in pH, conductivity and extractable phosphate, but higher in heavy
metal content. Because of the high uptake of heavy metals in the sludge-grown
vegetables, it is suggested that sewage sludge should be used as a soil additive only for
non-edible crops. Furthermore, caution should be taken if crops like carrots were planted,
due to the higher uptake of heavy metals in the root portion.
Courtney R. G., G. J. Mullen. 2008. Soil quality and barley growth as influenced by the
land application of two compost types. Bioresource Technology, 99:2913-2918.
Different concentrations of two specific types of compost – spent mushroom and
forced aeration – were tested to illuminate influence on soil properties and quality and
yield of barley. This should be relevant to my study’s focus on different fertilizing types
and their influence on plant growth and quality and soil quality.
de Bertoldi, M., G. Vallini, and A. Pera. 1983. Biology of composting; a review. Waste
management & research: Journal of International Solid Wastes and Public Cleansing
Association, 8:157-76.
Gabrielle B., J. Da-Silveira, S. Houot, and J. Michelin. 2005. Field-scale modeling of
carbon and nitrogen dynamics in soils amended with urban waste composts. Agriculture,
Ecosystems & Environment, 110:289-299.
In this study a deterministic soil-crop model is used to simulate C-N dynamics in
a field undergoing application of different types of disposable urban waste composts, in
hopes to aid with good management techniques of the proper management and increased
utilization and renewing of these otherwise urban wastes. This model should be useful in
looking at the use of simulation models in the testing of human compost materials on soil
qualities.
Abstract

27. Municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) can enhance soil organic matter and crop
nutrient supply. High C:N ratio composts can temporarily deplete plant-available soil N
reserves, requiring supplemental N fertilization to ensure optimum crop growth. The
objective of our research was to measure seasonal soil NO3–N dynamics to serve as an
indication of N mineralization, immobilization, and leaching as affected by MSWC and
N fertilizer rates. The MSWC (C:N 40:1) was applied in one year only to a Galestown
sand (sandy, siliceous, mesic Psammentic Hapludults) at rates of 0, 63, 126, and 189 Mg
ha-1. Maize (Zea mays L.) was planted and N fertilizer rates of 0, 168, 336, 504, and 672
kg ha-1 were applied as split-plot treatments. First-year maize total dry matter production
plateaued at the 250 kg ha-1 N rate, averaged across MSWC rates. Soil NO3–N
decreased inversely proportional to MSWC rates, due to MSWC immobilization of soil
and fertilizer N. Cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) winter cover crop total dry matter yield
and total crop N increased linearly with increasing MSWC rates. Second-year maize total
dry matter, total plant N, maize grain yield, and grain N increased linearly with increased
MSWC rates applied the first year. During the second growing season, there was an
increasing supply of plant-available N, due to mineralization of organic N in the MSWC
with increasing MSWC rate; however, the supply of mineralized N was inadequate to
meet crop growth requirements for maximum maize yield.
Gallardo-Lara F., R. Nogales. 1987. Effect of the application of town refuse compost on
the soil-plant system: A review. Biological Wastes, 19:35-62.
The focus of this study is the possible use of town refuse compost as a fertilizer
for crops, as opposed to organic and mineral fertilizers. Compost application was, in
general, found to have a positive effect on soils, though an inhibitory effect on seed
germination was found in large application quantities. This is part of the aim of my study
– in the possible implementation and use of compost from Taylor University’s Dining
Commons – so this article was certainly relevant.
Abstract
This paper reviews the currently available information concerning the use of town refuse
compost as a potential fertilizer. Many studies have generally shown that the application
of this material has promoted a positive influence on a wide variety of craps.
Nevertheless, contradictory results of crop yields have been obtained when the fertilizing
capacity of compost has been contrasted with those of organic and mineral fertilizers. It
has been demonstrated that the application of compost to soil improves some physical
properties such as porosity, water-holding capacity and bulk density. It also promotes
buffering capacity of soil and increases the percentage of organic matter and cation
exchange capacity. Occasionally, negative aspects can emerge from compost
incorporation, such as an increase in organic pollutants and electrical conductivity of
soils. In general, compost application to soil has a positive effect on the microbial
population and rhizosphere microorganisms and also contributes to the reduction of
nemotode populations in plants. However, when big doses of compost are used, an
inhibitory effect on seed germination may appear. The nitrogen availability of the
municipal compost is closely related to the maturity of this material. A wide range of
results has been obtained from different studies performed to evaluate the efficiency of
compost as a source of phosphorus, sulphur, calcium and magnesium for plants. The
incorporation of municipal compost constitutes a valuable resource for supplying

28. potassium and some micronutrients (i.e. boron and zinc), but also presents potential
pollution hazards associated with some heavy metals.
Garcia-Gomez A., M. P. Bernal, and A. Roig. 2002. Growth of ornamental plants in two
composts prepared from agroindustrial wastes. Bioresource Technology, 83:81-87.
Two different composts – one created from brewing waste (yeast and malt) plus
lemon tree prunings, and the other from the solid fraction of olive mill wastewater plus
olive leaves – were each combined with varying concentrations of Sphagnum peat or
commercial substrate and influence on soils and growth and health of calendula and
calceolaria plants were measured. These agroindustrial composts were found to be viable
alternatives to peat and commercial substrates.
Golueke, C. G. 1977. Biological Reclamation of Solid Wastes.
This article was found online and in formative on the issue of timing of compost
on agriculture. The article proves that if sufficient time is not allowed for this process to
take place away from the crop soil, micro-organisms in the agricultural soil will degrade
the amended organic matter and thus will actually compete with crops for soil nitrogen,
and which will produce intermediate metabolites and high concentrations of ammonia in
the soil that is not compatible with plant growth.
Heiri, O., A. F. Lotter, and G. Lemcke. 2001. Loss on ignition as a method for estimating
organic and carbonate content in sediments: Reproducibility and comparability of results.
Journal of Paleolimnology 25 :101-110.
Good article on the methods to be followed the meanings of carbon loss on
ignition testing in a muffle furnace.
Hortenstine, C. C., D. F. Rothwell. 1973. Pelletized municipal refuse compost as a soil
amendment and nutrients source for sorghum. J. Environ. Qual., 2(3), 343-5.
This study revealed that continual high-dosage use of composts over a longer-
term period could prove to be more efficient than normal mineral fertilizers.
Lee J., R. Park, Y. Kim, J. Shim, D. Chae, Y. Rim, B. Sohn, T. Kim, and K. Kim. 2004.
Effect of food waste compost on microbial population, soil enzyme activity and lettuce
growth. Bioresource Technology, 93:21-28.
Variations of fertilizers and food waste composts were tested on lettuce growth,
soil enzyme activities and fungal and bacterial populations in a greenhouse setting. The
different composts and fertilizers were food waste combined with “Miraculous Soil
Microorganisms,” commercial compost, and a mineral fertilizer. PH, total nitrogen
content, organic matter, sodium concentrate, soil biomass, and soil enzyme activities in
the rhizosphere were the tested responses.
Lima J. S., J. E. G. de Queiroz, and H. B. Freitas. 2004. Effect of selected and non-
selected urban waste compost on the initial growth of corn. Resources, Conservation and
Recycling, 42:309-315.
Composting in Brazil was looked at as an improvement for the destination of the
76% of domestically-produced residues that were being dumped out of doors. Two types

29. of compost made from urban waste were tested on corn, and the responses were used to
consider the use of this organic waste compost for purposes such as soil recovery,
commercial production, pastures, lawns, reforestry, and agriculture. Chemical analyses
of the corn were taken, as were height and stem diameter measurements, and biomasses,
and corn cultivated with organic waste compost was found to have superior gain to corn
grown with non-selected compost taken from a 15-year-old landfill.
Mbarki S., N. Labidi, H. Mahmoudi, N. Jedidi, and C. Abdelly. 2008. Contrasting effects
of municipal compost on alfalfa growth in clay and in sandy soils: N, P, K, content and
heavy metal toxicity. Bioresource Technology, 99:6745-6750.
Mature municipal solid waste compost (MSWC) was applied to clay and sandy
soils from cultivated fields, and opposite trends in the two soil types were observed,
showing the MSWC as useful in soil conditioning for clay soils but not for sandy soils.
Mehta S. A., and S. Y. Daftardar. 1984. Effects of anaerobically prepared wheat straw
composts and city garbage composts on yield and N and P uptake by wheat. Agricultural
Wastes, 10:37-46.
Wheat straw composts and granulated city garbage composts were found to be
poor suppliers of N and P and did not increase wheat yield in this study, while sieved
garbage compost increased wheat yield to a slight extent. These composts were then
combined with an NPK fertilizer, showing an increase in yield for the wheat straw
compost-NPK association, but not for the city garbage compost-NPK association.
Abstract
Bonemeal (0, 25, 50 and 75 kg/500 kg wheat straw), wheat straw, cattle dung and urea
were used in the preparation of anaerobic ‘compost’ by the ‘Bangalore’ method. The N
content of the ‘composts’ increased and C/N ratio decreased with increase in the
bonemeal used for composting. Besides these ‘composts’. a sieved sample of city garbage
compost and a granulated sample of city garbage compost were tried in two field
experiments using wheat (cv. Kalyan Sona) as a test crop. In experiment l, quantities of
the composts to supply 100 kg N/ha were added to soil to compare them for their effect
on a wheat crop on an equal nitrogen basis. Wheat straw ‘composts’ and granulated city
garbage compost were poor supplilers of N and P and did not increase the wheat yield,
while sieved garbage compost increased the wheat yield to some extent. In experiment 2,
the effects of association of each of the composts (at 5 t/ha) with fertilizer (N, P, K: 100,
21·81, 41·51 kg/ha respectively) on a wheat crop was studied. Application of NPK along
with wheat straw ‘composts’ increased the wheat yield, but application of NPK with city
garbage composts did not increase the wheat yield over the NPK control.
Murillo J. M., F. Cabrera, R. López, and P. Martín-Olmedo. 1995. Testing low-quality
urban composts for agriculture: germination and seedling performance of plants.
Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 54:127-135.
Two different types of urban composts were tested on the effects of seeding
performance and seedling composition for soil cress, ryegrass and sunflower seeds – one
was a very coarse, low in organic matter but mature urban compost. The other was a
particulated, high in organic matter but not well stabilized urban compost. Mature

30. composts were found to be “excellent” in quality, while the less mature compost showed
strong instant toxicity.
Pascual J. A., C. García, and T. Hernandez. 1999. Comparison of fresh and composted
organic waste in their efficacy for the improvement of arid soil quality. Bioresource
Technology, 68:255-264.
Fresh and composted urban wastes were used on the organic matter of an arid soil
and the effects were tested. The fresh, organic compost improved the arid soil more than
did the composted urban waste. High mineralization rates occurred in soils under
influence of the fresh compost treatment.
Ros M., J. A. Pascual, C. Garcia, M. T. Hernandez, and H. Insam. 2006. Hydrolase
activities, microbial biomass and bacterial community in a soil after long-term
amendment with different composts. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 38:3443-3452.
This paper was useful in the comparison of effects of different kinds of composts
to investigate to what extent and to which soil depth four major types of composts would
effect the soil and it microbiota. Different compost types had differing effects on total
organic C, total N, basal respiration, specific enzyme activities related to C, N and P
cycles, and less influence on the composition of microbial communities, which were
more effected by soil depth.
Rousseau G. X., S. Rioux, and D. Dostaler. 2006. Multivariate effects of plant canopy,
soil physico-chemistry and microbiology on Sclerotinia stem rot of soybean in relation to
crop rotation and urban compost amendment. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 38:3325-
3342.
Two soils (clay loam and sandy loam) were used for the assessment of the effects
of canopy and soil physico-chemical and microbiological variables on Sclerotinia stem
rot (SSR) on soybeans. Multiple regression and canonical redundancy analysis (RDA)
were used, which revealed the minimal sets of variables that best explained the variance
of SSR’s survival. The use of urban compost had a conducive effect that was explained
by better soil surface drainage.
Ryan J., S. N. Harik, and R. Shwayri. 1985. A short-term greenhouse evaluation of non-
conventional organic wastes. Agricultural Wastes, 12:241-249.
Several organic fertilizing-soil addiditves were evaluated on tomatoes in a
greenhouse trial on clayey calcareous soil. Imported and local commercially processed
wastes were included, as well as plant extract sprays, farm manures and a compound
inorganic fertilizer. Dry matter yield and nitrogen uptake were measured responses.
Most materials increased growth rate relative to the control, most effectively with chicken
manure.
Abstract
In this greenhouse trial several organic fertilizing-soil additive materials were evaluated
on a clayey calcareous soil, using tomatoes as a test crop. These included imported and
local commercially processed wastes, i.e. Dubaline, Humobacter, Bovisol, Biotersan,
Fertilaid, Cofuna, and plant extract sprays, Raimul and Tecrop. Municipal waste, farm
manures and a compound inorganic fertilizer were used for comparison in terms of dry

31. matter yield and nitrogen uptake. Most materials increased growth relative to the control;
the most effective were chicken manure, Biotersan, the inorganic fertilizer and, to a lesser
extent, Dubaline. Responses to most other materials were not significantly higher than the
control. Yields from Bovisol were less than the control, while Fertilaid inhibited
germination and plant establishment. Most of these novel materials are less competitive
economically than the traditional organic or inorganic fertilizer sources. Opportunity
costs associated with disposal of material, which is otherwise waste, should be considered
in establishing market prices.
Sæbø A., F. Ferrini. 2006. The use of compost in urban green areas – A review for
practical application. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 4:159-169.
The benefits of the use of compost for soil amendment and mulching are studied
for use in urban green areas, particularly noted was an increase in quality during the
establishment and management phases. Several site-specific designed composts were
looked at, and it was noted that specific quality demands of each compost must be related
to nutrient content and particle size.
Salvagiotti F., K. G. Cassman, J. E. Specht, D. T. Walters, A. Weiss, and A. Dobermann.
2008. Nitrogen uptake, fixation and response to fertilizer N in soybeans: A review. Field
Crops Research, 108:1-13.
Six hundred and thirty-seven data sets were analyzed from field studies published
in peer-reviewed journals from 1966 to 2006 that studied the relationships among
soybean seed yield, N uptake, biological nitrogen fixation, and the response to N
fertilization. The information from these studies is useful in developing guidelines for
managing BNF and fertilizer N in high-yield environments, and in improving soybean
simulation models.
Schulte, E.E., and B.G. Hopkins. 1996. Estimation of organic matter by weight loss-on-
ignition. In F.R. Magdoff et al. (ed.) Soil organic matter: Analysis and interpretation.
SSSA Spec. Publ. 46: 21-31.
Another good article on the methods to be followed when conducting a carbon
loss on ignition test, as well as the interpretation of these results for soil organic matter.
Shisler, L. C., M. Grable. 1976. Utilization of composted municipal refuse for mushroom
production. 352.
This article compared the effectiveness of utilizing municipal waste compost on
its own vs. utilizing it as a fertilizer to be mixed with other composting organics, such as
manure. Treatments were found to be more effective utilizing a mixture.
Tsai S., C. Liu, and S. Yang. 2007. Microbial conversion of food wastes for biofertilizer
production with thermophilic lipolytic microbes. Renewable Energy, 32:904-915.
Since food waste is approximately one quarter of the total garbage in Taiwan,
conversion of microbial food waste to multiple functional biofertilizer was investigated.
The conversion of the food waste to biofertilizer was found to be a feasible and potential
technology for Taiwan in the future to aid in maintaining natural resources and reducing
the nation’s impacts on environmental quality.

32. Vallini G., A. Pera. 1989. Green compost production from vegetable waste separately
collected in metropolitan garden-produce markets. Biological Wastes, 29:33-41.
An urban garden produce market was used for the recovery and recycling of
vegetable wastes, and experiments were carried out to evaluate the viability of these
practices. The aerated static pile composting system was successful in obtaining
humified organic matter, which was then used as agricultural soil conditioner.
Abstract
Experiments were carried out to evaluate the possibility of recovering and recycling
vegetable waste originally collected in an urban garden-produce market. These organic
putrescible residues were biologically stabilized through composting in an aerated static
pile in order to obtain humified organic matter (green compost) to be used as agricultural
soil conditioner.
Performances of the composting system adopted together with physico-chemical
characteristics of the starting material and the final product are reported here. Some
microbiological and phytotoxicological details concerning this green compost production
are also given.
van Assche C., P. Uyttebroeck. 1982. Demand, supply and application possibilities of
domestic waste compost in agriculture and horticulture. Agricultural Wastes, 4:203-212.
This study showed that increasing the quantities of domestic waste compost
resulted in a decrease in the production of Lactuca sativa (lettuce) , whereas it resulted in
a yield increase in Apium graveolens (celery). Increasing quantities of domestic waste
compost in enriched sand-loam soil showed a rapid increase in Cu, Pb and Zn
concentrations, as well as a positive influence on the health of ornamental plants, in
comparison with the control substrate.
Abstract
Increasing quantities of fermented domestic waste compost resulted, in the present
experiments, in a decrease in the production of Lactuca sativa (lettuce) in contrast to a
yield increase for Apium graveolens (celery).
The application of a calculated quantity of ion exchangers can modify the phytotoxic
effect of the presence of heavy metals as well as the salt concentration of the domestic
waste compost. The use of anion exchangers in the lettuce culture resulted in a
considerable yield increase in comparison with the control.
With regard to Chrysanthenum morifolium cv. ‘Angora’, Pelargonium zonale cv. ‘Flirt’
and Dieffenbachia perfecta, it was demonstrated that the use of a mixture of domestic
waste compost and coniferous soil in a ratio of 1:3 is very useful for these ornamental
plants, on the basis of comparison of results of vegetative development with the control
substrate.
Analysis of the vegetables cultivated with increasing quantities of domestic waste
compost enriched sand-loam soil showed that the concentrations of Cu, Pb and Zn fairly
quickly exceeded the normal average values.
As far as pathogenesis is concerned, increasing quantities of domestic waste compost
positively influenced the health index of Phaseolus vulgaris and Pisum sativum with
regard to Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium ultimum.

33. Zobac, J., J. Vana. 1974. The agronomical effectiveness of industrially produced
compost in dependence of the technology of production, 20(9): 931-9.
This article gives useful insight on different types of industrial produced composts and
how these can be used in an agronomical sense most effectively. One finding that was
particularly useful was their experimental design that revealed an increase in corn
production under organic fertilizer treatments.
Zucconi, F., Forte, M., Monaco, A., and de Bertoldi, M. 1981. Biological evaluation of
compost maturity. Biocycle, 22(4): 27-29.
This article is very informative about the importance of timing for organic waste
composts. Timing of organic wastes to the soil is a crucial factor in agricultural
utilization. As this study shows, compost should be allowed to stabilize, or humify, for 5-
6 months miniumum before it is added to the agricultural soil. This is a key aspect of this
study.