Forage guide 2017 pdf

€5
GUIDE2017GUIDE2017
FORAGE AND
NUTRITION

FORAGEANDNUTRITIONGuide2017
FORAGE AND NUTRITION Guide 2017
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3
CONTENTS
Editor: Liam de Paor
Design: Oisín de Bhál
Advertising Manager: John Sheehan
Editorial Manager: Kennas Fitzsimons
Chief Executive: Rebecca Markey
Publisher: David Markey
Accounts: Tricia Murtagh
Administration & Subscriptions: Sue Nolan
Publishers: IFP Media
Forage & Nutrition Guide 2016,
Unit 2-4, Castlecourt, Monkstown Farm, Glenageary, Co. Dublin A96 T924
Tel: +353 1 709 6900 • Email: ciaran@ifpmedia.com • Web: www.irishfarmersmonthly.com
Copyright IFP Media 2017. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form
without the express written permission of the publishers.
4 Editorial.
5 Machinery news.
11 Where there’s grass, there’s money.
12 Wearable technology improving farming in the
Golden Vale.
14 Back to basics with lime.
16 Film & Film wrapping system doubles output.
18 Slurry management – getting more from your slurry.
20 Investigating the potential of a high-output, spring-
calving, milk-production system.
24 Spreading urea – a bigger challenge.
26 Beneﬁts of farm ﬁnancial management and building a
resilient business.
28 Developing your farm’s true potential.
30 Insulate your farm against price volatility with good
silage.
31 Minimising silage waste.
34 Feed-efficient beef cattle.
36 Investing the potential of multi-species swards in sheep
production.
5
18
34
7 12:14

4
According to June 2016’s Central Statistics Office (CSO)
livestock data, the numbers of dairy cows, beef cattle and sheep
have all increased, so we need to make more, and better quality,
silage. One simple way to do this is to minimise waste in clamps
by using a top-class silage additive and better-quality silage
covers.
In relation to baled silage, the new Film & Film wrapping
system virtually eliminates mould losses so this is a significant
development.
The new milk quota is on land and labour, so dairy farmers need
to significantly improve herd performance to make a decent
profit from their investment and from increased milk production.
Livestock farmers need to optimise production from grass to
increase milk yields/ha or to improve live-weight gain. Our
most efficient farmers are expanding and utilising more than 12
tonnes of dry matter (DM) per hectare, yet the national average
is only 7.5 tonnes.
Unfortunately, without adequate soil nutrients, grassland
production will be well behind its potential. Overall soil test
results for 2015, when Teagasc analysed 31,743 samples,
indicate that only 11 per cent of soils have the optimum mix of
soil pH, phosphorous (P) and potassium (K).
Poor animal health will impact on busy farmers, livestock
performance and on family incomes. So, improving the fertility
and health of your herd or flock will save time, money and
improve livestock performance.
Infertility is a major cause of economic loss on our dairy
farms. A long, productive life is necessary to generate a
return on the investment during heifer rearing. The cost of
rearing a replacement heifir is estimated to be €1,545. The
optimum in a stable herd is 4.5 lactations, which equates to
an annual replacement rate of 18 per cent, so lots of room for
improvement in the average herd.
A number of factors can impact the fertility of a dairy cow eg.
nutrition, body condition score (BCS), uterine environment,
overall health status and genetic merit for fertility traits.
Another important factor is DM intake. This is also critically
important for influencing milk production and fertility in dairy cows.
Data collected by Teagasc at Moorepark over a five-year
period, from cows offered a grass-only diet, clearly indicate the
low grass intake of cows in early lactation.
The cow is consuming insufficient grass to fulfil her energy
requirements so an adequate supplement of a quality feed
should be offered during the first six weeks of lactation.
It is also well established that the trace mineral status of swards
in Ireland is suboptimal; deficiencies of copper, selenium
and iodine are widespread. To optimise milk production and
health of their valuable cows, dairy farmers need to improve
herd nutrition, so a conversation with a Teagasc adviser or
agricultural consultant would be well worthwhile.
Optimising farm incomes for 2017
Liam de Paor

5
Roscommon-based Acres machinery has developed the
Supercrop1, a patent-pending system focused on the wilting
process. The Supercrop system was designed to reduce time and
costs substantially while helping to increase the nutritional value
from crops. Supercrop1 eliminates the need for three separate
machines, replacing the rake, conditioner and tedder, according to
the company.
Not only does it save machinery costs, more importantly, it helps
reduce the drying time and increases the quality and consistency
of the crop by being able to rake and condition in one pass,
according to Acres. This can knock at least one day off the harvest
time, which is very important to maintain a good nutritional value
in your fodder. The conditioned swath is far better for making
better formed bales. Having just one machine means you now only
require one tractor and one operator, reducing both labour and
fuel by up to 30 per cent. It is also very ﬂexible, with a rear tedder
on board in case the crop needs to be spread out again due to
rain. The Supercrop1 is more compact than a standard rake on its
own, making it very manoeuverable while transporting on the road.
Acres machinery is an innovative, award-winning, family engineering
company based in the west of Ireland. It designs, builds and tests
its machines in some of the toughest crop conditions in the world.
With bad weather, heavy crops and rough terrain, this machinery
is tested to the limits. Acres says it uses its family’s generations of
farming knowledge and its engineering expertise to bring the most
innovative systems to the agricultural market.
Awards to date:
• 2015 Best New Agri Engineering Business Innovation Award
– National Ploughing Association (NPA) Innovation Arena
• 2016 Irish Machine of The Year Award – National Ploughing
Championships
• 2017 Best New Agri Machine & Technology Award – Lamma
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6
Customer demand for a film-binding system on a standalone
baler led to the development of a new, fully-automated, fixed
chamber baler, the F5600 Plus from McHale. This machine is
fitted with a servo-operated, load-sensing control valve, which
makes the baling process fully automatic. The machine is also
equipped with a 25-knife chopping unit and a film-binding
system which applies film to the barrel of the bale in the bale
chamber.
Once the bale is netted in the chamber, the tailgate on the
baler automatically opens, allowing the high density bale to
be ejected. Once the bale has passed over the bale kicker
the tailgate automatically closes, allowing the operator to
continue baling.
Selectable knives provide the operator with three options.
They can choose to engage and chop with a bank of 12
knives or a bank of 13 knives. If fine chopping is required,
the operator can choose to engage both knife banks, which
will give a 25-knife chopper system – capable of delivering a
theoretical chop length of 46mm.
Expert Plus Control Box
The F5600 Plus is controlled with an Expert Plus Control
Box, which features a large graphic display; this allows the
operator to monitor the baling process graphically from the
control console. It also features:
• automatic tailgate opening and closing;
• in-cab net adjustment;
• in-cab density adjustment;
• knife display;
• door position display;
• drop floor control;
• bale kicker sensor;
• lube alarm; and
• volume control.
The McHale F5600 Plus is a machine that can apply film
to the barrel of the bale instead of twine or net wrap. The
advantages of this system are:
The film, which is added to the barrel of the bale to keep the
bale together prior to the bale being wrapped, also forms
part of the wrapping process and adds value by placing more
plastic on the largest surface of the bale.
When film is applied to the barrel of the bale it can be
stretched to approximately 20 per cent. The stretch ratio is
higher than what can be achieved with net wrap or twine, and
as a result, the material is kept tighter, which ultimately results
in better bale shape.
As the film is being stretched, as it is being applied to the
barrel of the bale it expels more air than net wrap would and
results in better silage quality.
Chamber film makes recycling easier
As film is used to bind the bale in the bale chamber and to
wrap the bale, on feed out the farmer will be left with one
form of waste. This reduces the time needed to feed the
bale and avoids the unpleasant and time consuming job
of separating the twine or net wrap from the plastic before
the plastic is recycled. Overall, one form of waste results in
feeding time being reduced.
New, fully-automated baler from McHale

7
SIMA debut for
Keenan’s first
self-propelled
machine
SIMA 2017 provided the launch pad for Keenan’s first self-
propelled machine. The introduction of the MechFiber345SP
marks a new, and long-awaited path for Keenan, which
showcased a string of innovations since its acquisition by
Alltech in 2016.
Keenan has focused on researching the loading and
chopping mechanisms available on the market to ensure
the best fit and has partnered with Italian company Storti to
deliver this new technology.
“When we announced our collaboration with Storti, some
thought it was all about introducing a Keenan vertical auger
to our range but that couldn’t be further from the reality,” said
Keenan CEO Robbie Walker.
According to Mr Walker, Keenan and Storti have been in talks
for some time about developing a self-propelled machine with
a loading mechanism that does not destruct fibre and delivers
the quality MechFiber mix that is so important to Keenan.
With class-leading cutter-head technology, the Keenan
MechFiberSP range has been engineered to deliver rapid
loading of a vast array of products, leaving a clean, uniform
face for optimum pit-face management. The tungsten-coated
blades feature a unique, crossed arrangement, performing
clean cuts without damaging the structure of the fibre, even
with very compact silages. Engineered with a focus on speed,
precision and versatility, the special placement of the blades
and configuration of the loading channel allows the cutter to
load in both directions and easily run in reverse if needed,
while a high-speed loading belt drastically reduces mix
preparation time.
Producing the noted Keenan MechFiber mix in 16 and 20
cubic meter outputs for the 2017 and 2018 seasons, the
Keenan MechFiberSP range offers left or right front discharge
via an adjustable conveyor for homogeneous distribution of
total mixed rations.
Available in both 25km per hour or high-speed ‘Plus’ 40km
per hour models, the operating system of the Keenan
MechFiberSP range has been cleverly designed for ease of
maintenance and features a mechanical drive to the six-
paddle reel. This exclusive engineering system, by means of
a specially-designed gearbox and PTO shaft, transfers all the
power from the engine to the mixing system, thus reducing
fuel consumption by up to 25 per cent, as well as reducing
maintenance costs.
Fitted with the Keenan InTouch controller as standard, the
MechFiberSP range is connected to the Keenan InTouch
service, which provides real-time feed advice and ration
formulation through a dedicated team of skilled nutritionists.
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8
After the successful launch of the Samco BagPress in 2013,
the Samco BagPress 2 comes complete with a high-output,
50-tonne-per-hour crimper.
The high-output crimper is integrated into the front of the
bagger and can be left in position when bagging bulk material.
Two panels inside the main hopper are brought together
hydraulically to form a new hopper for grain crimping. The
bagger is supplied with a 1.5m, 2m and 2.4m bag.
This machine can bag 150 tonnes of forage maize, whole
crop, beet and straw mix, chopped grass, potatoes, brewer’s
grain, chicken litter, beans, peas, saw dust and more.
The main hopper is fitted with three augers. The main, bottom
auger is driven from the PTO with increased flight distance
compared the Samco BagPress 1 and a new design packer
impeller is fitted to the end of the auger for better bag
compaction in dry, bulky crops.
The second auger is hydraulically driven with a variable
speed control and off-centre spiral auger to increase agitation
in the hopper to prevent bridging in the main hopper. The
third open, centre auger is also hydraulically driven with
adjustable speed to feed the grain to the flapper impeller
before the crimper. This auger is also reversible during bulky
crop bagging to increase agitation in the main hopper. The
bagger is fitted with an independent twin pump hydraulic
system with on board controls.
The crimper
The high-output crimper is integrated to the front of the
bagger and can be left in position when bagging bulky crops.
The high-speed, toothed rollers spin at different speeds
to crush the grain with adjustable gap depending on the
customer’s requirement. These rollers are similar to crushing
rollers used in a forage harvester but with extra fine teeth to
ensure that every grain is crushed. These rollers are driven
through a right-angle PTO, heavy-duty gear box to the belt
drive on the side of the bagger, which can be disconnected
hydraulically. A stone trap and magnets are fitted before the
flapper feeder for protection of the rollers. This can be easily
cleaned out by an inspection panel before the feeder.
The bagger incorporates the patented paddle break system,
which is pressed hydraulically against the back wheels of the
tractor to prevent the tractor from moving forward as the bag
is being packed. The BagPress is equipped with low level
applicators and fed into the front of the bagger to ensure the
additive is mixed thoroughly through the grain as it passes
through the main 3m auger.
All speed sensors and output per hour are fitted as an
optional extra. Auto slide elevator and self-feed auger for
grain are also available as additional options.
Samco BagPress 2 – incorporating bagging
and high-output crimper
BOI Fi

9
BOI Finance 200x283.indd 1 01/03/2017 12:17

10
Versatile grazer from
Grass Technology
Designed and manufactured in Ireland by Carlow-
based Grass Technology Ltd, the Grass Tech Grazer
(pictured above) is a robust, easy-to-use machine
that can be operated with lower powered tractors,
typically found on livestock farms.
The Grass Tech Grazer is now available in four model
sizes, ranging from the smallest Grazer GT80 to the
tri-axle Grazer GT160 which is ideal for larger herds
of 400+ cows. A rear-mounted cross-conveyor is also
now optionally available for these models, making the
Grazer easily adaptable to differing feeding systems.
New features on the zero grazers include: stronger
hitch with easy height adjustment; auto oiler for all
chains on the grass conveyor/grassbox; greasable
truss bearings and 6mm pans on the mower; uniball
mower mounting points; central grease points; strobe
light kit; reversing camera; and auto-fill sensor,
“Our development in recent years is built on a
focus on research and development with essential
feedback from our current progressive dairy and beef
farming customers,” said a company spokesperson.
“We have five new products on offer for the 2017
season: the GT140XTRA zero grazer; eight-foot,
heavy duty drum mower; retro-fit fertiliser spreader;
feed conveyor; and Beetmaster 1000.”

Matt O’Keeffe
Editor, Irish Farmers Monthly
Where there’s grass, there’s money
Teagasc’s decision to set a four-year target to increase grass production and utilisation within our livestock sector to 10
tonnes per hectare (ha) is not complex
The figures speak for themselves: grow more grass and turn
it into money. An extra tonne of grass utilised is worth €180
per hectare (ha) to a dairy farmer and upwards of €100 per ha
for dry-stock farmers. For a beef farmer running a 40ha farm,
that’s worth €4,000 per annum. The average figure for grass
grown and utilised on dry stock farms is 7.5 tonnes/ha.
By increasing that figure to 10 tonnes, as Teagasc is targeting,
the total worth to that farm should be €10,000. That is a quite
incredible figure. There is so much effort and lobbying put into
securing various subsidies and yet, within the farm gate, there
is an annual payment, or repayment, available of €10,000 for
growing and using more grass.
Increases
Now, let’s spread that money across the entire grassland
sector. The country has up to four million ha, or 10 million
acres, of grassland. The vast amount of it can grow more
grass than it does now with improved management and
infrastructure. A one tonne increase, on average, in grass
availability every year would be worth an extra €400m!
Now, bring the figure up to the Teagasc target of 10 tonnes
average grass utilisation per ha. The figure comes to an extra
€1bn per year!
This is not pie in the sky. The figures are an accurate
assessment of the financial potential of Irish grassland. Not
only that, but the figures used are only extrapolated from
the increased return from dry stock. In reality, that €1bn per
annum would be significantly higher if it were to take the
extra potential return from dairy farming into account. Given
that a large part of our grassland acreage is devoted to
dairying, the figure increases to well above €1bn per annum,
given that the returns to dairy farms from an average one
tonne increase in grass utilised is almost double that of dry
stock farming at €180 per hectare.
Matching supply and demand
Goldmines are usually found beneath the ground. In this case,
the green gold is growing on top, waiting to be harvested. The
Teagasc target is to be achieved by 2020. It coincides with
an anticipated period of growth in output, both from dairy and
cattle production, so it could, if successful, allow those increases
to be achieved without recourse to the purchase of extra
bought-in feed. There will be extra demand for all of this extra
grass, supposing that it is produced. This is the great unknown.
What exactly can Teagasc do that they have not been doing
before to encourage farmers to grow more grass? Some of
the extra grass will come about almost automatically because
of higher stocking rates on some farms, most notably dairy
farms that are scaling up after quotas.
However, there has been an undeniable lack of success in
persuading a large swathe of grassland farmers to up their
game in terms of increasing output through increased grass
production. Teagasc has a range of initiatives planned to
deliver its ambitious target. It remains to be seen whether it
can succeed. It is good to see that it has the courage to set
out such unambiguous and definite targets in terms of both
tonnage and timeline.
11

12
Increasing herd size from 100 to 200 animals over the last five
years, John started looking at ways to reduce his workload
while maintaining his first-rate standards. Twelve months later,
John installed the MooMonitor+ system to help achieve his
aims and now, he says, he simply could not do without it. This
was not always the case, however.
Being a ‘doubting Thomas’ at heart, John felt he had to test
the technology first. “We were tail-painting and looking at cows
five times a day and I wanted to use the MooMonitor+ to check
if I was missing any cows.” John and his student worker did
their own trial of the system where the student continued to tail
paint the cows, even when the collars were on.
“He only tail painted for four days, because every morning
– using the MooMonitor+ system – I was three cows ahead
of him. He was telling me there were nine cows bulling, while
I was able to tell him there were 12 correctly identified heats.
Eventually, he gave up! The MooMonitor’s accuracy is second
to none.”
Animal identification, correct recording of events and other
information can be difficult to achieve at times when it is very
busy on the farm. They can be forgotten about or viewed
as less important jobs. However, having this information is
vital when you need to make important decisions that will
affect the profitability of your farm. According to Dairymaster,
the company behind the development of MooMonitor+, all
information about your animals is stored in one place and is
available wherever you go. With one look at the screen, you
know of any calving difficulties, breeding history, possible
health events and can access any comments you have entered
about the animal. Quick access to information, the company
notes, allows you to make the right decisions at the right time.
John quickly learned there was much more to the system than
just reducing workload. In the pre-breeding season, having
animal history on each cow on the app made it easy to identify
cows that were in need of a check-up. This saved a lot of time.
In previous years, a greater number of cows were unnecessarily
submitted for a vet-check resulting in higher costs.
John believes he has saved 2.5 hours looking at cows bulling
each day. Now he spends 15 to 20 minutes a day checking his
app on the phone. In addition, big improvements were seen
in reduced artificial insemination (AI) usage and a lower empty
rate of 8 per cent compared to previous years (13-14 per cent
annually). As a plus, many cows that calved ‘late’ in March
or April were brought back to calve in February this year,
compacting his calving season.
“It wasn’t as if I thought we had a lot of things wrong with the
breeding here. I felt it was taking me a lot of time to view the
cows but also I felt I could improve the system a bit more. I
Excellent cow fertility and health management have always been top priorities for John MacNamara, who farms a 200-dairy-
cow herd in Gormanstown, Co. Limerick
Wearable technology improving farming in the
Golden Vale
John MacNamara from Gormanstown,
Co. Limerick, farms a 200-dairy-cow herd.

13
was using too many straws, our calving
interval was a fraction too long and I
found we had quite a lot of cows not
going in-calf,” he says. John went from
using 2 to 1.7 straws per cow, saving in
excess of €2,000 this season.
The MooMonitor+ system proved
to be a valid addition to John’s farm
in other areas as well as fertility. By
continuously monitoring behaviours
such as rumination, feeding and resting
time – sick cows are easy
to identify. A behaviour
alert is sent to the farmer
when cows are behaving
differently than normal.
“The health monitoring
was a big bonus for me,”
John says. He believes
that, even when you are
good at the health side of
things, the MooMonitor+
could still easily save
€500 to a €1,000 each
year per sick animal.
Sick cows are identiﬁed
sooner allowing for
earlier intervention and,
therefore, saving you
higher vet bills, antibiotic
usage and ultimately cows
lost due to fatalities.
John recalls saving himself
a vet re-visit fee simply by
checking rumination levels
on the app for a particular
cow who had a bad case
of scour.
“I was quite worried about
her, she was completely
off her feed and I was
afraid she might throw the
calf,” he says.
“The MooMonitor+ picked
her up from day one, we
had to get the vet to her
and treat her. The second
day the vet rang about her
and I was able to look on
the phone to see if she
was ruminating and she
was. As I went through her
graphs it was great to see
when rumination levels
started to increase – this
was invaluable to me.”
“The MooMonitor+ is a no-brainer in
terms for value for money,” he adds.
“In its ﬁrst year, the system not only
saved me time and labour, it has also
returned money to me before the year
was out.” In fact, if the total investment
of the system was spread out over the
lifetime of the system, and cow numbers,
you’ll end up with only a small amount
of money to spend per cow per season,
according to Dairymaster. This is a cost
that is easily won back by reduced
time viewing cows, reduced AI usage,
fewer veterinary calls and better fertility
and health of animals in general, the
company says.
For John, using the MooMonitor+ system
has become part of the business of
everyday life on his farm. He can fully
rely on the system to do the job and
anticipates even more savings for
breeding season 2017.

14
Back to basics with lime
Over the last 45 years, the application of lime, a major soil nutrient, has declined more than two-fold resulting in Irish soils now
majorly deficient in lime
In the 1970s and early eighties, an average of 1.7 million tonnes
of lime were applied annually. Over the last 30 years we have
applied an average of 800,000 tonnes of lime annually (less
than half). In Ireland, our soils naturally have a requirement for
lime to control soil acidity generated by our high annual rainfall.
For example, from the east to the west coast, we get in the
region of 1 (40 inches) to 1.5 (60 inches) metres of rain each
year. Rainfall is the biggest driver of soil acidity and reduction in
the production power of our soils. The accumulated reduction
in lime applications over the last 30 years has resulted in a
large percentage of soils with low pH levels. Irish soils are
some of the most productive soils in the world in terms of
either grass and grain production due to our wet climate but, if
we continue to ignore lime, a key component of soil fertility, we
are slowly eroding our competitive advantage.
Soil acidity is a major limitation to the productivity of our soils
as it reduces the availability of major soil nutrients (N, P and K)
and the uptake and efficiency of applied nutrients in manures
or fertilisers. In grassland swards, it will reduce the persistence
of productive rye grasses and clovers. Some counties, for
example Kildare and Offaly, have a higher percentage of soils
above pH 6.5. This is due to the underlining parent material
which is limestone. Naturally, high soil pH levels (>pH 7.0)
or fields that are over-limed will result in reduced availability
of both major (especially P) and minor nutrients (especially
manganese [Mn]). Only apply lime based on a recent soil test
report.
Effect of lime on soil fertility and grass production
Research from Johnstown Castle demonstrates the importance
of lime in relation to soil P availability and the improved
efficiency from applied P fertiliser. Figure 1 shows the change in
soil test P levels when lime is applied by unlocking stored soil
P (purple bar) and increasing the efficiency of freshly applied
fertiliser P (green bar) compared to applying high quantities
of P fertiliser alone (red bar). This clearly shows that soil pH
optimisation is the first step to consider when setting out to
build up soil P levels.
Figure 2 shows the grass yield response to lime and P fertiliser
in grassland. The application of 5t/ha ground limestone (purple
bar) produced approximately 1t/DM/ha additional grass and
had similar grass yields compared to the application of 40kg/
ha P fertiliser alone (red bar). However, the addition of lime + P
fertiliser in combination (green bar) produced the largest grass
yield response (1.5 t/ha more grass than the control). These
results show how effective lime is for increasing the availability
of both stored soil P (from previous fertiliser and manure
applications) and freshly applied fertiliser P.
Return on investment (€) in lime
As with any business, achieving a positive return on investment
is critical when using inputs. When the pH of grassland soils
are maintained close to the optimum range, increased grass
production by at least 1t/DM/ha/year can be achieved. In
Mark Plunkett & David Wall
Teagasc, Crops Environment and Land Use Programme, Johnstown Castle, Wexford
Average response across two grassland sites
Treatments added to grassland
RelativegrassDMyield(%)
115
110
105
100
95
90
DP Wall, 2015
Average soil pH: 5.2 6.4 5.2 6.4
No Fert.
9.6 t/ha
10.5 t/ha
10.4 t/ha
11.01 t/ha
Lime only P only P + lime
Figure 2. Relative grass DM yield response in grassland treated with
Lime (5t/ha of lime), P fertiliser (40kg/ha of P), and P + lime over a full
growing season.
Sheil, Wall &
Lalor, 2015, FAI
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Control
PIndex1PIndex2PIndex3
Lime only
Treatments applied to soil
Average response across 16 soil types
ChangeinsoiltestP(mg/L)
Lime: 5t/ha
P Fertiliser: 100kg/ha
P only P and lime
Figure 1. Average change in soil test P (Morgan’s) across 16 soils (av.
pH 5.5) treated with Lime (5t/ha of lime), P fertiliser (100kg/ha of P),
and P + lime and incubated over 12 months in controlled conditions.

15
addition to P and K release from the soil, N supply worth
up to €75 may also be achieved, boosting spring growth in
particular. If this extra grass production is utilised by the grazing
livestock it has the potential to reduce farm feed bills by at
least €180/ha/year. One tonne of additional grass production
each year over a typical five-year liming period (5t/ha lime
applied) represents a 7:1 (grass €180/t: lime €25/t) return on
investment in lime, not including the potential for reducing
fertiliser costs into the future.
Management tips when applying lime to grassland
• Apply lime based on the soil test report. Where lime
recommendations exceed 7.5t/ha it is best to split the total
application rate and apply up to 7.5t/ha initially and the
remainder in year three.
• Do not over-lime soils as it will reduce the availability of
both major and minor nutrients.
• Ground limestone is the most cost-effective source of
lime. Ground limestone will start to work once it is applied
and is washed into the soil. The finer fractions of the
ground limestone will adjust soil pH upwards to
target soil pH over the shorter term (pH increases
should begin within three months) while the coarser
components will maintain this pH adjustment over
the longer term (12 to 36-month period).
• Use magnesium limestone where soil magnesium
(Mg) levels are low (Index 1 or 2) to replenish soil
Mg reserves.
• Maintaining soil pH will result in increased release
of soil N from organic matter up to a value of €75/
ha/year. This N release usually occurs in spring
and contributes to better early season growth
facilitating earlier stock turnout.
• On heavier and organic soils there is often
hesitance about applying lime for fear of ‘softening
the sod’ or increased poaching (due to rapid
breakdown of soil organic matter). On these soils, it
is best to apply lower application rates of lime (<5t/
ha) on a more regular basis to control soil acidity to
avoid ‘softening the soil’.
• Wait seven days after applying urea or slurry before
applying lime.
• Leave three months between applying lime first
and following with urea/slurry application.
• Leave at least three months between applying lime
and silage harvest.
• On grassland soils with high molybdenum (Mo)
levels increasing soil pH above 6.2 can lead to
increased Mo levels in the herbage. High intakes
of Mo in ruminant animals can lead to an increased
risk of copper deficiency. It is, therefore, recommended
to maintain soil pH at 6.2 on these soils or consider
supplementing animals with copper.
• Granulated limes are a finely ground limestone (<0.1mm)
aiding the reaction with soil acidity to increase soil pH
in the shorter term. Recent research shows that these
products (usually used at much lower application rates
than ground limestone) are more suitable for maintaining
soil pH (ie. where soil pH is close to the target).
Summary
• Apply lime as recommended on the soil test report.
• Release soil nitrogen (N) for early grass growth (up 80kgN/
ha/year).
• Increase the availability of soil phosphorus (P) and
potassium (K).
• Grow an extra 1.0 to 1.5t grass dry matter per hectare
annually.
• Every €100 investment in lime = €700 worth of extra grass
production.

16
The McHale Fusion 2.
Film & Film
wrapping system
doubles output
The number of bales wrapped last season by
McHale Fusion 3 Plus bale wrappers using the Film
& Film (F&F) wrapping system doubled over the
previous season and is set to rapidly expand in the
silage market over the coming years, according to
Forage and Nutrition Guide editor Liam de Paor
This dual-film technology involves the combined use
of Baletite mantle film alongside the next generation of
Silotite five-layer technology balewrap. The 100 per cent
recyclable mantle film replaces the traditional netwrap
used to bind crops into a bale format.
With five-layer technology, all the mechanical aspects of
the balewrap (strength, puncture- and tear-resistance,
elasticity, UV stability and cling) are maximised resulting
in a reliable, stable, high-performing quality balewrap.
McHale says the market is now aware of this new
technology and its key customers are requesting the five-
layer balewrap film.
A good example of modern baled silage contractors is
Eddie Hartnett and son, Gavin, from Ballynoe, Conna,
Co. Cork. Last year, using a McHale Fusion they
wrapped around 5,000 bales for local beef and dairy
farmers using the F&F system.
Their customers, who have a choice between netwrap
or the F&F system, were delighted with silage quality
according to Eddie.
You can view their silage-baling operations at
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=pFxefsQUJwg
As can be seen from the video clip, the Hartnett family
have the best of silage equipment. Their modern
machinery includes three John Deere tractors (a
6150R, 6830 and 7430 purchased from Sam Power in
Castlelyons). Along with a McHale Fusion 3 Plus bale
wrapper, supplied by Atkins Ltd and a Krone rake they
bought from Jim Power in Tallow.
The overall benefit is that this innovative system
reduces the cost of making baled silage and, when
applied properly, delivers mould-free silage for feeding
to valuable livestock. The F&F wrapping system is also
more environmentally friendly and less labour-intensive,
as unlike netwrap, both films can be recycled without
the need for segregation of the netwrap.
Excellent trial results have been achieved in Britain.
For example, a dairy farmer could gain an average of
5.7kg dry matter (DM) per F&F bale so the 67.26 MJ ME
averagely gained for each of the F&F bales could give

17
The McHale Fusion 3 applying film-on-film wrapping.
an additional 11.6L of milk production. Or for a cattle farmer,
each F&F bale could give an additional 1.5kg of beef
production.
A short movie of the F&F trial and its findings
can be viewed at: https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=HfT3AJtW8AY&sns=em.
Last year was an excellent year for baled silage due to
the excellent grass growing and weather conditions. It is
estimated that the number of bales ensiled was up by at
least 10 per cent. Demand for baled silage was also good
as livestock numbers have increased significantly.
Indeed, according to the Central Statistics Office (CSO),
in June 2016, the total number of cattle in Ireland was
7,221,200, an increase of 257,700 (3.7 per cent) on June
2015. The number of dairy cows increased by 102,100 (7.9
per cent) and cattle aged 1-2 years increased by 148,200
(8.7 per cent). Total sheep numbers were up by 37,100 (0.7
per cent) to 5,175,800 while breeding sheep were up 0.8
per cent and non-breeding sheep were up 0.7 per cent.
This means that there were more livestock around to
consume this extra silage.
For more information on this new silage technology, please
go to: www.filmandfilmwrapping.com.

18
Slurry is a valuable source of organic nitrogen, potassium, and potash and, when used correctly, can reduce fertiliser bills on
farms and raise profitability
It is paramount to apply when ground conditions allow, and
to use on fields that need it most; typically, silage fields which
have a higher potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) requirement
than grazing ground; crops with a high demand for P and K; or
on fields that are low in P and K.
What is the value of cattle slurry?
The nutrient content of cattle slurry varies with animals’ diet and
with dilution of water. Typically, 1,000 gallons of cattle slurry is
equivalent to a 50kg bag of 6-7-30, depending on the time of
year it is applied, weather conditions and method of application.
Teagasc estimates slurry to be worth €25/1,000 gallons. Its true
value depends on current fertiliser prices and the volume of
fertiliser it can replace.
Nitrogen (N) is, typically, present in both the solid and liquid
fraction of the slurry. Half of the N in cattle slurry is in organic
form and the other half is present as ammonium (similar
to purchased bagged N). Thus, its availability to the crop
is very weather dependent. Slurry applied in the spring is
worth, approximately, an extra three units of N per 1,000 gallons
compared with summer application due to volatilisation.
Diluting slurry with water will improve the N uptake as the slurry
will penetrate faster into the soil compared to thick slurry. Plus,
diluted slurry will be washed-off the grass faster resulting in
reduced grass contamination. But, water will reduce the P and
K content of the slurry. It is advised to apply cattle slurry under
cool, moist weather conditions (eg. spring rather than summer)
as this will increase the amount of ammonium that is captured
by the crop and, therefore, increases the organic fertiliser value.
Also, the method of slurry application has an effect. Using low-
emission slurry spreading technology such as Trailing Shoe,
Tri-App or Shallow Injection as against Splash Plate will also
increase N utilisation and value. These methods will typically
improve N availability by 30-50 per cent.
P is in the solid fraction and K is in the liquid fraction of the
slurry. Typically, 85 per cent of the value of slurry is in the
P and K value. The rate of release of P and K from organic
manures depends on the soil’s P and K status. According to
Teagasc, when soils are at a P index of 1-2, it is best to apply 50
per cent in the form of organic manure and the remainder as
artificial fertiliser. At P index of 3-4, slurry can be used to supply
100 per cent of the P requirements. In relation to K, Teagasc
recommends 75 per cent of crop requirements as slurry when
the K status is 1-2. While at a K index of 3-4, then slurry can
supply 100 per cent of the crop’s requirements.
Thus, a soil test to determine the soil’s P and K status helps
to target slurry to Index 1 and 2 soils for more efficient crop
fertilisation and P and K utilisation.
Michael A O’Grady
Abbey Machinery
Slurry management
– getting more from your slurry Abbey 3500 tank at JCB Farmtrac demo.

19
Slurry management technology
There has been a significant increase in interest among
farmers in overall slurry management and making maximum
use of the nutrients available. This has been fuelled by:
• income pressures on farm, farmers wanting to get
the most from slurry on farm and reducing the use of
purchased fertiliser;
• slurry equipment grants for tankers and applicators; and
• farmers being educated about the value of applying
slurry correctly at the best times and using the best
technologies.
There are three key steps involved in slurry management:
• Slurry preparation
When slurry is in the storage tank, over time the solids
and liquids separate, leaving the liquids at the bottom
and dryer material at the top. It is paramount to mix these
properly prior to application to maximise the nutrient
value of the slurry and increase accuracy of spreading
over the application width. Abbey Machinery’s Tornado
3000, 4000 and 5000 high-pressure agitation pumps
and Contractor Rapid Pump carry out this mixing rapidly
and efficiently. When agitating slurry, it is important to add
water back in to improve mixing. This also aids ammonia
uptake when spread, although, the added water does
dilute the P and K content. When agitating slurry, it is
paramount to take every precaution to avoid the potential
dangerous gases involved when mixing slurry.
• Slurry application technologies
Splash plate is still the most prevalent application medium.
It is becoming increasingly more popular to spread slurry
through applicators (Abbey Machinery Tri-App, Trailing
Shoe or Shallow Injector). Some of the key benefits of
using applicators are that they: deliver the nutrients
directly to the root zone; reduce ammonia emissions by
up to 90 per cent; preserve the soil structure; reduce
odour emissions; and reduce soiling of grass which
reduces rotation length when grazing. The main criteria
for determining the optimum applicator required include:
soil type – clay, loam or stony; crops – grass or cereal;
landscape – level or hilly; slurry tanker – standard, recess
or tandem; tractor – horsepower (HP) available; legislation
in relation to application methods, timings of applications,
road safety transportation etc.
• Minimising soil compaction
Compaction to the top soil and upper subsoil typically
takes one to five years to repair depending on the severity
of compaction. Lower subsoil compaction can take from
five to 10 years to recover. For these reasons, farmers are
getting more conscious of soil compaction and are looking
for ways to minimise it. Wheel choice has a major bearing
on potential compaction of both top- and sub-soil. In
general, low ground pressure tyres can be used to reduce
the potential for compaction. Wheels with larger radii
(longer rolling circumferences) and greater width all have
the potential to reduce the impact of the machines on the
soil. Bigger slurry tankers and higher horse power tractors
require the correct wheel specification to minimise their
impact on the ground.
Abbey Machinery technology caters for the ‘total cow’
from one end to the other. It works closely with customers
listening to their needs to develop machines with the required
specifications to suit their particular soils, tractor HP, field-
aspect and working conditions. With more than 35 high-
specification slurry tanker models in the Abbey Machinery
range from 900 gallons to 6,000 gallons both farmers and
contractors have lots of choice.
Summary
• High fertiliser prices are increasing the value of slurry.
Typically 1,000 gallons are worth €25 (85 per cent of this
is from P & K values).
• It is best to carry out soil tests to identify fields low in P &
K.
• Costs savings can be made by using slurry to replace or
complement fertiliser on farm.
• Savings are maximised when slurry is applied in
accordance with the crop needs, and applied through an
Applicator that maximises the plant availability of N. It is
best applied under cool, moist, overcast conditions.
Michael O’Grady and Tony Galvin, farm manager,
Almarai Farm in Saudi Arabia.

20
It is widely recognised that grass-based systems will
predominate in post-quota Ireland and that land will be the
main limiting resource. In more intensive dairying areas,
competition for land is intense. In many cases, a limiting factor
to expansion on these dairy farms is the availability of land
around the milking platform (MP).
Given the significant costs associated with expansion and the
fact that many farmers are operating on a limited land-bank, a
higher input/higher output, spring-calving, grazing system may
prove attractive. Such a system might facilitate the successful
expansion of the farm business without the need to buy or rent
extra land, to buy stock, to acquire extra labour or to provide
extra cow facilities.
The main aim of the research at University College Dublin
(UCD) Lyons Farm is to evaluate the feasibility (including
profitability) of a higher input/output grazing system within
a limited land scenario. The focus in such a system is on
maximising milk/milk solids output from the existing land
holding, which involves high output from individual cows and
high stocking rates on the MP. This will occur most efficiently
through maximising the use of grazed grass/home-grown
forage in the system and the strategic use of supplementation
thereafter.
Targets of the system
The targets (Table 1) in this system involve high milk outputs of
7,500-8,000L and 625kg of fat and protein/cow/lactation using
higher-than-conventional levels of concentrate feed inputs (1.5
tonnes of concentrate per cow per lactation) but with the diet still
mainly grass and grass silage (75 per cent of the feed budget).
The stocking rate on the MP in this system is 3.4 cows per
hectare (ha). Like any other ‘grass-based system’, the principles
of grassland management, appropriate breeding strategies,
fertility and financial management are key to success.
Genetics of the herd
The herd of 60 cows is a high Economic Breeding Index (EBI)
Holstein-Friesian herd (Table 2). Within the herd, a genetic
comparison will be made with one cow group (30 cows) having
a high predicted transmitting ability (PTA) for milk (+250kg) and
one group (30 cows) with a lower PTA for milk (+44kg).
Feed budget
To achieve and sustain high milk and milk solids output along
with good fertility, high energy intakes are essential. Table
3 shows the target feed budget for 2017. High allocations of
concentrates are offered for the first 120 days of lactation
and drop significantly thereafter. For this research project,
concentrate inputs are fixed and this poses some challenges
in terms of grassland management, especially in springtime.
Concentrate allowances were arrived at by considering the
UFL (unite fouragere de lait) requirements of the cow at each
stage below as well as the expected grass-intake level.
Table 1: Targets for the system.
Parameter Target
Stocking rate on milking platform 3.4 LU/ha
Stocking rate on whole farm 2.25 LU/ha
Milk yield per cow 7,500-8,000kg
Milk solids per cow 625kg
Six week in calf rate 70 per cent
Concentrate (kg/co/year) 1,500kg
% diet as grazed grass 51
% diet as grazed grass and grass silage 75
Investigating the
potential of a high-
output, spring-calving,
milk-production system
The abolition of the EU milk quota system in 2015 has paved the way to increase cow numbers and milk
output. However, the profitability associated with this extra production for individual farms needs to be
examined and there must be a continuing focus on improving efficiencies
Finbarr Mulligan
University College Dublin
LU – Livestock unit

21
Table 2: Genetic comparison of the high milk PTA and low milk PTA genetic groups at Lyons (2017).
EBI (€) Milk (€) Fert (€) Calv (€) Beef (€)
Maint
(€)
Health
(€)
Mgt (€)
High
milk
155 64 53 37 -7.4 4.8 1.1 2.4
Low
milk
154 51 67 36 -8.9 6.0 2.0 0.8
Average 155 58 60 37 -8.2 5.4 1.6 1.6
Milk
(kg)
Fat (kg)
Prot
(kg)
Fat (%) Prot (%)
Calve
Int
(days)
Surv (%)
High
milk
250.0 14.3 10.9 0.1 0.0 -2.4 1.9
Low
milk
43.9 10.9 6.6 0.2 0.1 -3.4 1.9
Average 146.8 12.6 8.8 0.1 0.1 -2.9 2.0
Table 3: Feed budget.
Days in
milk
0-20
20-
60
60-
120
120-
180
180-
240
240-
270
270-
305
306-
365
(dry)*
Total annual
DMI (t/DM)
Milk yield 31 34 32 27 22 19 15 - 7500
Silage
DM
12 0 0 0 0 6 10 11 1.5
Grass
DM
0 15 16 15 13 6 0 - 3.6
Concentrate 8 8 7 3.5 2.5 2.5 6 - 1.3
Table 4: Financial assumptions.
Parameter
SR cows/ha milking platform 3.40
SR overall LU/ha 2.25
Milk solids (kg/cow) 625
Milk solids (kg/ha) 2,130
Concentrates (t/DM/cow) 1.30
Grazed grass (t/DM/cow) 3.70
Grass Silage (t/DM/cow) 1.50
Milk output (€/cow) 2,597
Milk output (€/ha) 5847
Gross margin (€/cow) 1,675
Gross margin (€/ha) 3,771
Net margin (€/cow) 955
Net margin (€/ha) 2,150
Breakeven milk price (€/kg/MS) 2.62
*Milk price €4.14/kg/MS; Conc. price €300t/DM.
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Table 5: Milk recording results (2016).
Parameter
No. of animals 58
Average lactation days 301
Yield/cow (305 days predicted) 7,441
Milk solids/cow (305 days predicted) 592
Yield/cow (MR) 7,407
Milk solids/cow (MR) 588
Protein % (MR) 3.4
Fat % (MR) 4.5
SCC (MR) 101
Milk from forage (kg) 4,598
Note: MR results are compared with actual calibrated yields
recorder from the parlour and the difference is <3 per cent
Table 6: 2016 Grassland performance.
Grass Summary 2016
Turnout by day Mid Feb
Turnout full time March 1
Full time housing to date Six days in April & > Oct 28
Start date of closing Oct 7
Full time housing date October 28
Target closing cover 700-750kg/DM/ha (Dec 1)
Grass growth (t/ha) 13.06
Silage on MP (t/ha) 1.7
Mitrogen on MP (kg/ha) 235
Table 7: Bulls used in 2016.
Low Milk (low PTA group) High milk (high PTA group)
YKZ, OZG, DBW, CSW, RNO
YGM, ZOL, AGH, SEW, FAD,
HZB, YRY
Table 8: Reproductive performance.
Overall
Number of cows 58
Submission rate 91 per cent
First serve conception rate 43 per cent
Average conception rate 50 per cent
Six-week pregnancy rate 59 per cent
Empty rate 9 per cent
22
Financial targets
Our initial financial assumptions involved costs for the system of
21c/L (12c variable, 9c fixed) or a break-even milk price of €2.62/
kg milk solids (MS) [Table 4]). Financial success is predicated on
high output per cow and per ha and good herd fertility.
2016 performance
This was the first full year of this study and, therefore, it is very
early days for results. Systems research requires several years
for concrete conclusions as this overcomes a specific ‘year’
effect on the results.
Cows are milk-recorded twice monthly and these results are
compared with the daily yields from the milking parlour. Table
5 below shows the milk recording for 2016. Due to the small
numbers of cows in the high and low PTA groups, overall
results for the group are shown.
2016 fertility performance
Breeding started on April 25 and continued for 12 weeks. All
breeding was by artificial insemination (AI) and the list of bulls
used is shown in Table 7 below.
The 2016 reproductive performance is shown in Table 8.
Submission rate was high at 91 per cent, however, conception
rates were low and while the empty rate was respectable at 9
per cent, the six-week calving rate for 2017 will be lower than
expected.
Five cows were not pregnant when they were scanned in
early September resulting in an empty rate of 9 per cent.
Replacement rate will be maintained at 23 per cent to ensure
empty cows are replaced, allow for some voluntary culling and
maintain a high level of genetic progress.
Conclusions
This project is currently funded to run at UCD Lyons for a three-
year period. In the first year, milk production has come to within
5 per cent of expectations. In future years, it will be interesting
to see if grass growth can be increased and if acceptable
levels of fertility can be achieved to ensure the sustainability of
such as system.
Acknowledgements:
This project is very much a team effort with significant input from
Professor Finbar Mulligan, Dr Karina Pierce, Dr Bridget Lynch,
Luke O’Grady BVMS, Professor Alan Fahey, Dr Michael Wallace,
Dr Jenny Davis, and the farm staff at Lyons, especially dairy
manager, Michael Clarke, and the farm manager, Dr Eddie Jordan.

23

24
Dermot Forristal
Teagasc Oak Park
Urea is widely used on grassland farms as a source of nitrogen and its use is likely to increase as it is less expensive and has a
lower carbon footprint than calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN). However, the product is not as easy to spread and farmers need
to be conscious of spreading urea evenly, whether their own fertiliser spreader or a contractor’s machine is used
Fertiliser is a hugely expensive input that impacts on grass and
crop yield. The role of a fertiliser spreader is to ensure that
the fertiliser is spread evenly across the field at the correct
rate. The evenness part is critical. Today’s spreaders have a
huge challenge with farmers using bout widths from 6m to
36m wide. Broadcast spreaders rely on forming an overlapped
pattern to give an even spread where a 12m bout may require
the spreader to spread 24m, with fertiliser visible in the next
tramline/bout.
Factors which influence even spreading at a specific bout
width are:
• spreader design, particularly the disc, vanes and fertiliser
delivery point;
• appropriate setting of the spreader based on fertiliser
type and bout width;
• fertiliser physical characteristics (density, granule size/
shape, strength); and
• field conditions, specifically wind.
Urea physical characteristics
The fertiliser’s physical characteristics are very important.
Urea can be more difficult to spread evenly than either CAN
or nitrogen (N), phosphorpus (P) and potassium (K) blends
because it is less dense and additionally may have smaller
particle sizes.
A fertiliser particle must have a certain mass to allow it capture
enough energy to be thrown a distance. Dense, relatively
large particles are more easily thrown as they can capture the
energy and are less likely to be slowed by wind resistance.
As an example, if you were to try to throw a table-tennis ball
12m, you would fail, whereas a golf ball would easily go that
distance and much more.
Urea has a lower density (about 20 per cent less) of that of
other fertiliser types, making it more challenging to spread
wide distances and leaving it more susceptible to wind
impacting on its spread pattern also. In addition there are
lots of different types of urea with different particle sizes
which equally impact on spreadability. The variability in size
distribution is indicated in the four graphs (Figures 1 to 4) where
three different urea types are compared with a conventional
NPK product.
A good particle size distribution can help achieve even
spreading over wider bout widths, although density will
always impact on spreading ability. In the past, with urea, small
low-density prills were unsuitable for bout widths much more
than 8m or 10m, but products with much larger particle size
distributions have made wider spreading possible.
Selecting a suitable urea product
To get even spreading with urea at bout widths of 12m or
greater, always look for a product with a size distribution
that has medium or large sized particles (as in Figure 3 or
4). The fertiliser supplier should be asked for the particle
size distribution of the product that they are selling. Size
distribution can be checked with the simple plastic sieve
box that many of the spreader manufacturers now supply.
Fertiliser granule strength should also be high to avoid
it being broken on the fertiliser spreader and therefore
restricting the distance it can be thrown. Again the supplier
should be asked for granule strength characteristics and
simple strength testers are available.
Spreading urea: a bigger challenge

25
Spreading urea
Fertiliser spreader types will differ in their capacity to spread
urea evenly at wider bout widths. When buying a spreader,
select one that has proven capacity to spread urea at the
desired bout width. Value independent spread tests more than
manufacturers’ sales literature.
Modern spreaders need to be carefully set-up to spread urea.
The settings needed largely depend on the characteristics of
the urea (density, size distribution and particle strength) and
the bout width being used. Manufacturers increasingly provide
this setting information on their websites or on a phone app as
well as in printed spread charts. The settings on the spreader
that may need to be set to spread a particular type of urea at a
speciﬁc bout width may include:
• disc or vane type used;
• vane position;
• fertiliser drop point on disc;
• spreader angle and height over the crop; and
• disc speed.
Some machines will not be capable of spreading urea at
wider bouts. In this situation, narrower bout widths should be
used with the rate adjusted accordingly. In windy conditions,
spreading urea is much riskier than conventional fertiliser. On
grassland, if spreading in some level of wind is necessary,
the bout width should be reduced. If for example an 18m bout
width is targeted, in windy conditions this could be halved to
9m with a corresponding adjustment to the application rate.
This will generally produce a better spread pattern.
Blends of urea
Some blends of urea with conventional density fertiliser
are becoming available on the market and will cause some
challenges for spreading as the components of the blend may
have totally different spreading characteristics. These products
can include urea with CAN or P and K products. Correct size
matching could help produce a good spread, but it is up to
the fertiliser manufacturer to prove that these can be evenly
spread.
Finally
If urea is to be spread at wider bout widths, be careful.
Urea products differ. Select the one with the best physical
characteristics unless very narrow bout widths are being used.
Make sure the spreader is capable of spreading urea at the
required bout width and ensure it is set properly to achieve
the correct spread. Avoid spreading in windy conditions, but
if some level of wind must be tolerated, consider reducing the
bout width.
100
80
60
40
20
0
<2mm 2-3.3mm
Figure 1: Particle size distribution of an NPK fertiliser.
NPK
3.3-4.75mm >4.75mm
100
80
60
40
20
0
<2mm 2-3.3mm
Figure 2: Particle size distribution of urea with very small prill
sizes.
3.3-4.75mm >4.75mm
100
80
60
40
20
0
<2mm 2-3.3mm
Figure 3: Particle size distribution of urea with mainly medium
particle sizes.
3.3-4.75mm >4.75mm
100
80
60
40
20
0
<2mm 2-3.3mm
Figure 4: Particle size distribution of urea with a mix of medium
and large sizes.
3.3-4.75mm >4.75mm

26
Tadhg Buckley
Agri Advisor, AIB
Benefits of farm financial
management and building a
resilient business
The last two years have been somewhat mixed for Irish farmers. While it is important to look
ahead and explore new opportunities, we must also watch out for the challenges that exist.
This article highlights the integral role of effective financial management in developing an
efficient and resilient farm business
Why complete financial planning and measurement?
Farming isn’t getting any easier. With income volatility
increasingly to the fore – making cashflow management and
investment decisions more difficult – it is becoming obvious
that improving on-farm efficiency and competitiveness is
essential to managing risk and surviving the income cycles.
The performance range among farmers, no different from any
other business sector, varies considerably. While certainly an
influence, the variance in performance or profitability cannot
necessarily be explained by size, land type or location in
isolation, as the technical and managerial capacities of the
individual farmer is of fundamental importance.
From experience, the more efficient or high-performing farmers
tend to have a strong support network and are more adept at
taking advice from the right sources, leaving aside information
that will not impact positively on their farm performance. Their
farms tend to be built around a simple system, driven by
defined core objectives such as maximising grazed grass on
livestock farms. The farm does not deviate from the system
due to short-term changes in market conditions.
A more simplified farm system allows more attention to detail
as it reduces other distractions making it easier to manage as
scale increases. In addition, strong financial management is
also consistently evident among the more efficient operators,
with buffers (eg. deposit funds) in place to help overcome any
short-term financial difficulties, should they be encountered.
Indeed, there is often an acceptance that livestock farmers
need to be efficient at grassland management, breeding and
other on-farm practices, however, despite being of equal
importance, financial management and planning certainly
receive less focus/attention on many farms. In many respects
this persistent and systemic issue is fuelled, in part at least,
from wider succession issues, where emphasis within the farm
family, in many instances, is typically placed on the young
farmer being good at managing livestock and grass rather
than being involved in investment decisions and having good
financial skills.
At its simplest, financial planning involves identifying the
existing and future financial position of the farm business.
Affording greater attention to financial planning can potentially
yield a number of benefits to you and your farm business,
allowing you to:
1) Benchmark your business against previous years, your
farm goals, and peers
Financial planning and measurement enables you to establish
the financial strengths of your farm business, the competitive
position of your business relative to your peers, and allows
you to identify what specific areas require increased attention
on your farm. Financial assessment should focus more on
specific cost categories than overall farm performance.
Financial measurement also allows you the capacity to
constantly monitor the progress of the business relative to the
goals initially set out, and to take proactive actions to mitigate
challenges/maximise opportunities;
2) Have more confidence in your business
Being fully aware of the financial capacity of your business will
instil more confidence when considering a new investment.
This is particularly important in cases where a significant
transformational investment is being undertaken. Having the
knowledge that the investment is based on a sound financial
footing will give confidence to a farmer who is unsure whether
the investment is a wise one or not;
3) Evaluate investment opportunities
Without proper financial information, it is very difficult to
evaluate investment opportunities. It is also vital that a
differentiation is made between, whether the proposed
investment is value for money and, whether the business can
afford to do the investment or not; and
4) Be better placed when accessing finance
It is unlikely that a farmer will have the capacity to access
substantial bank borrowings without having a proper financial
plan in place. However, financial planning should not be
completed only for the sake of accessing finance – it should
be seen as an imperative, regardless of how a farm business
is funded. It is essential that your farm business plan is a living
document. It must always be current, accurate and up to
date – a reflection of the current status of the farm; its goals/
plans for the future; and how the farm is going to get there. An

27
interesting statistic is that businesses that have written goals
and plans are, on average, 10 times more profitable than those
that don’t (McCormack, 1986).
Building a resilient farm business
Price volatility is no longer an exceptional event; it is, and
will continue to be, part and parcel of Irish farming. Efficient
and resilient businesses will prosper in this type of trading
environment. The following is an outline of some measures that
can help build a more resilient farming business.
1) Simple system with clarity on delegation of decisions
As outlined earlier, farm systems that are stable and minimise
complexity are a common trait among high-performing
farm businesses. It is imperative that there is clarity among
management on what decisions can be made routinely
and what decisions need consultation with others. Blenko
et al (2010) identifies two types of decisions that affect
organisations. The first involves significant one-off decisions
that, individually, have a significant impact on the business.
These decisions will involve a substantial level of analysis
before a final decision is arrived at. Secondly, small, routine
decisions that cumulatively have a significant impact. On their
own, these decisions have minimal impact, however, the quality
of the decisions made and the capacity of your management
team to get more of these right, can have a significant long-
term impact on your business.
2) Standard operating procedures
The use of standard operating procedure (SOP) guidelines can
significantly help improve and speed up the decision-making
process on farms. For example, an SOP guideline on grassland
management involving a decision tree on factors such as
weather and soil-type of paddocks can help farm staff make
better decisions on grazing during difficult weather conditions.
3) Labour productivity
Farms, by their nature, have a very uneven daily labour
requirement throughout the year. A recent study completed
at the Carbery/Teagasc Shinagh dairy research farm found
that 50 per cent of the annual labour requirement on the farm
occurred during the February-April period. Building a resilient
business means reducing stress on all parts of the operation.
This needs to include the farm workforce during the spring
period which, if not addressed, will lead to a decrease in
farm performance during a critical period and increased staff
turnover.
4) Focus on process more than outcome
With output price as volatile as it has been in recent years,
it is questionable whether any form of profit targets should
be used in measuring financial performance. Would it be of
more benefit to utilise cost categories such as variable costs
or the overall break-even price of the business when setting
business goals? The implementation of good farm practices will
inevitably lead to a more efficient and profitable business.
5) Efficiency insulates best against volatility
There are several mechanisms that can help a farmer deal with
volatility, which mainly revolve around the use of fixed output
prices (e.g. forward selling or fixed price schemes) or fixed
input prices (eg. fixed interest rates). However, by far the best
business insulator to volatility is high efficiency.
Conclusion
Financial planning and measurement is an imperative for
any business seeking to achieve its full potential. Its benefits
include benchmarking your business, proper investment
appraisal and keeping track of the overall progress of your
business. For financial planning to be effective, it must be an
easy process to complete and should incorporate both on-farm
and off-farm expenditure.
Aligned with financial management is the development of a
resilient farming operation. A resilient business is a low-cost,
high-efficiency operation that has a framework that fosters good
decision making at all levels. It also focuses on reducing stress
on all parts of the business, particularly the workforce. In the
volatile times we live in, efficiency is, by far, our best insulator.
Summary
• The variance in farm performance or profitability cannot necessarily be explained by size, land type or location in isolation.
• A simplified farm system allows more attention to detail as it reduces other distractions.
• Strong financial management is consistently evident among the more efficient operators.
• Financial assessment should focus more on specific cost categories than overall farm performance.
• For sustainable farm businesses, it is vital that priority is given at all times to investing in appreciating assets.
References
Blenko, M.W., Mankins, M.C., and Rogers, P. (2010). “The decision-driven organization.” Harvard Business Review 88 (6): 54-62.
McCormack, M. (1986). ‘What they don’t teach you at Harvard Business School’. Bantam Books.

Dr PJ O’Connor
Grassland Agro
Delivering your farm’s true potential
Ireland has an enormous competitive advantage for dairy, beef and sheep products due to our potential to grow high
quantities of nutritious grass. This is reflected at farm level by the consistent and convincing message that the more feed (ie.
grass) that can be grown and utilised within the farm gate, the more profitable and sustainable the farming system
Good soil fertility is critical. Soil management is a key factor
that will determine the farm’s overall potential to grow grass. In
any year, weather is obviously critical. There will be good years
and bad years when grass production on all farms will vary.
However, well managed fields with fertile soils will outperform
soils with lower fertility.
Assess your farm’s fertiliser programme
Approximately 20 per cent of variable costs on most farms are
spent on fertilisers. Making sure this money is spent wisely on
the right products to suit your soils and your farm, and applying
them at the right rates and times, are vital to ensuring that
this money delivers a return on overall productivity and profit.
Properly fertilised soils will deliver the best results.
Allow the soil to work for you
Fertiliser on its own won’t grow all the grass you’ll need. In
many cases more than half of the total nutrients used by
grass comes from the soil rather than from direct uptake of
applied fertiliser. Soils contain large total amounts of nutrients.
However, soils with low pH, poor biological activity and/or
structure and drainage problems will release less of these
nutrients to plants for uptake. In these soils, more nutrients
either get locked up or lost completely to water or air.
Therefore, you are losing grass growth potential when this
happens. The response to fertiliser being applied will also be
dramatically reduced.
Soil fertility targets that every farm should aim for:
• Soil sample results for the whole farm;
• Soil pH > 6.0 in every field;
• Soil P and K levels at optimum levels; and
• Apply slurry to maximise its fertiliser value.
Use the right fertilisers to balance the overall nutrient supply.
Major nutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K)
need to be balanced with all the essential nutrients, including
sulphur (S), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca) and trace elements
where required.
Fertiliser and soil fertility management options
Grassland Agro offers a range of fertilisers that have enhanced
capability over standard NPK fertilisers. The range includes
a number of products that either combine individual or a
combination of technologies that improve soil fertility and
28

29
global nutrient supply to grass and crops. The products are not
a substitute for focusing on the basic fundamental principles
of soil pH, soil index levels and slurry management. However,
in many cases, specific issues arise on farms where standard
fertiliser and lime programmes may not be sufficient to deliver
the best result possible. An enhanced fertiliser option may
work well in this case. Grassland Agro’s team of dedicated
agronomy advisors are available to see how the overall
fertilisation programme of the farm might be managed for
maximum productivity and return.
Enhanced fertilisers - what do they do?
The Grassland Agro range of speciality fertiliser products
are based on three principals technologies, namely soil
conditioners, phased released nitrogen, and protected
phosphorus. Advantages of each technology are summarised
in the figure shown below. The technologies are dedicated
to increasing the soil’s capability of releasing nutrients while
also protecting and increasing the efficiencies of the nutrients
applied in different fertiliser products.
Research and development (R&D) programme
In 2015, Grassland Agro committed to a comprehensive
programme of evaluation and assessment across the portfolio
of products under Irish soil, climatic and farming system
conditions. To date, the programme has been in operation for
a period of two years and is delivering results that are showing
the effectiveness of using enhanced fertilisers in intensive
farming systems.
The programme looked at the evaluation of the three pillars
of technologies offered by Grassland Agro in a wide range of
formulations. The technologies focused on improving N use
efficiency with the aim of delivering additional yield and quality
in both grazing and silage situations. The use of the N process
technologies incorporated into an intensive fertiliser regime
has delivered impressive results by increasing yields by up 0.7
tonnes dry matter (DM) per hectare (ha) of grazed grass over
the grazing season worth an additional €126/ha, while also
delivering an increase in grass quality through the protection of
N and the improvement in plant activity to build level of crude
protein (CP) in the grass by an additional 26 grams of CP/kg/
DM. The improvements in both yield and quality of grazed
grass delivered by the N process technology will allow farmers
to grow more quality grass while maintaining their commitment
to sustainable farming.
Also as part of Grassland Agro’s commitment to research and
evaluation of fertiliser technologies, a programme of evaluation
was designed to assess protected phosphorus and soil
conditioner technologies. The aims of these technologies are
to protect valuable inputs such as P applied to soil from soil
lock-up while the soil conditioner technology is designed to
improve soil and plant activity resulting in the mobilisation of
soil reserve of nutrients, increasing subsequent plant yield and
nutrient uptake by the plant. Over the course of the two year
R&D programme the addition of protected P to soils in place
of conventional P has resulted in increases of grazed grass
yield up to 1.9 tonnes/DM/ha. Finally, the evaluation of the soil
conditioner technology has resulted in substantial increases in
yields of grazed grass up to 1.6 tonnes/DM/ha, worth additional
€288, while increasing the nutritive value of the grazed grass
in terms of CP, Ca and P content of grass by 24, 17 and 18 per
cent, respectively.
Grassland Agro, through it joint partner company Group
Roullier, is also actively utilising the R&D facilities that are
available in France to investigate other technologies that
may prove to be useful to complement its existing range of
enhanced fertilisers. Grassland Agro has full access to the
continuous R&D work of Groupe Roullier’s dedicated 350
professional engineers and researchers. In addition to this, the
company also collaborates with many universities (including
Irish) and independent agricultural research institutions
including Teagasc.
For more information about the range of products offered by
Grassland Agro, or the results on the technologies offered
by Grassland Agro, please contact Dr PJ O’Connor, product
manager, on 00353 86 3237894 or email pjoconnor@
grassland.ie.
Figure 1: Complete range of N, P and K fertilisers with
calcium, sulphur, magnesium, and sodium to suit your specific
requirements.

30
3030
Noel McGrath
Volac
Insulate your farm against price volatility with
good silage
We all know the benefits of good silage, but are we really all doing everything we can to produce it? If you want to help
insulate your farm business against ups and downs in milk or meat prices, or feed costs, there’s a straightforward approach
Maximise the amount of milk or meat produced from home-
grown forage. Home-grown forage is, arguably, one of a
livestock farm’s biggest assets. So, it makes sense to get the
most from it – whether from grazing or silage. Making sure you
produce the best possible silage requires attention to detail at
every stage.
Clean
To begin with, clean clamps are essential. Remove old silage
and pressure-wash the clamp, including the area in front of it,
to minimise transfer of any undesirable bacteria and fungi to
this year’s fresh silage. Repair any cracks, and line the walls
with polythene, allowing plenty for overlapping sheets.
From experience, you should know your target harvest date.
So, make sure sheeting and additive are ordered in time, and
schedule your contractor if you use one.
If you do your own harvesting, ensure all machinery is working
and serviced – including that the additive applicator is clean
and working properly. At harvest, use of the correct chop
length for the forage’s dry matter is crucial to produce good
silage. So, ensure that harvester blades are sharp and can be
set up to achieve this. Prior to harvest, any slurry and nitrogen
(N) fertiliser issues should also be addressed.
If bagged N has been applied but hasn’t all been taken up by
the plant, it can lead to excess nitrates in the crop, particularly
if high rainfall just before cutting stimulates sudden uptake.
The problem with a high nitrate content in the plant is it results
in less sugar being available, and sugar is needed for a good
fermentation to preserve silage. If in doubt, have your grass
analysed.
Similarly, residual slurry on the crop at cutting acts as a
source of bad bacteria, such as clostridia and enterobacteria,
which also increase the risk of a poor fermentation. So, avoid
spreading slurry too close to the cutting date, and check
the crop before cutting to ensure no residual slurry remains,
especially if there hasn’t been much rain.
If you are concerned about fertiliser or slurry issues, then
ensuring that grass is wilted to above 30 per cent dry matter and
using an additive can both reduce the risk of a poor fermentation.
Harvest
Once grass is at the correct growth stage, the aim should be
to cut when the weather will allow you to wilt as quickly as
possible to a target dry matter (DM) of 25-30 per cent. Rapid
wilting helps to minimise loss of sugars, and cutting when
there will be warm, breezy conditions is ideal. Using a mower-
conditioner and spreading grass will also reduce wilting
time. Also at harvest, choosing a proven additive is hugely
important.
Clearly, an additive that’s shown to improve fermentation is
important. But you also want to know that it can ultimately
produce better silage and that treated silage will give a
livestock benefit when fed.
Ecosyl contains a specially-selected MTD/1 strain of beneficial
Lactobacillus plantarum bacteria. There are numerous trials
showing that treating with it hasn’t just improved fermentation,
it also improved conservation of dry matter, and gave better
preservation of feed quality.
Importantly, results from 15 dairy trials have also shown an
average milk yield increase of 1.2L per cow per day. These
trials were conducted around the world and on several crops.
Continuing this joined-up ensiling process, it is essential the
clamp is filled correctly – achieving a good consolidation to
squeeze out all the air. Fermentation occurs when some of
the crop’s sugars are converted to acid by beneficial bacteria
to effectively pickle the forage. Hence, the reason for adding
extra bacteria with a proven additive. Howeve,r efficient
fermentation requires the absence of air.
Achieving air-free conditions also stops undesirable yeasts
multiplying in the silage that cause it to heat up at feed out.
Once you’ve achieved a good consolation, it’s essential to
seal the clamp effectively, to prevent further ingress of air.
Attention to detail at every stage of silage-making can make
a big difference to the silage quality and quantity you have
available to feed for the coming winter and potentially have a
big benefit for your farm’s bottom line.

31
Tom Ryan
Teagasc farm buildings specialist
Silage waste occurs throughout the whole process of silage making from harvesting to ensiling, covering and right through to
feed out. Some farms produce quality, well preserved silage with virtually no visible waste year in year out, while others make
silage which is hit or miss, with a lot of visible waste on top and at the sides. What differentiates those that have consistently
very little waste from the others is attention to detail
The yield and quality of harvested grass can be quite different
from the potential yield and quality. This can be due to several
factors including: rough areas at gaps and around headlands;
soft spots in the field needing drainage; obstacles left lying
around; low yields due to poor fertility and lime shortage;
inaccurate fertiliser spreading; predominance of old grasses
and weeds in need of reseeding; and harvesting losses in the
pickup process.
These problems generally take time and expense to sort
out. The aim should be to wilt, if possible, by cutting with a
conditioner mower and spreading out the grass as much as
possible followed by tedding out the swaths before raking into
windrows before pick-up. Weather permitting, this approach
should ensure that the grass dry matter (DM) is between 27-
32 per cent within 12-24 hours of cutting, thereby eliminating
effluent while concentrating sugars in the grass and aiding
good preservation.
Nowadays, the work rate of modern silage harvesting
equipment is such that upwards of 40 hectares (ha) per day
is easily achieved. Fast filling of silage pits is good; the only
drawback is that the spreading, levelling and consolidating of
grass isn’t given enough time. This is more critical in silage pits
being filled with wilted material. It is important to spread out
wilted grass in thin layers and compact it thoroughly.
Cutting too low reduces silage quality. Grass digestibility is
lower in the stems than in the leaves, so anything that increases
the proportion of stem in the ensiled material lowers the
average digestibility. When the load of grass is tipped out in
the yard the colour and the feel of the material gives a good
indication of the ratio of stem to leaf. The extra yield from
cutting lower is small and it comes at the cost of diluting the
quality of the silage.
Older and stemmy crops have lower digestibility. Crops that are
growing for eight to nine weeks will have a dirty butt, a lot of
dead material and very few leaves lower down. As the sward
gets older, the leaves move up the plant. Snails and worms bring
soil into the butt. Cutting too low and ensiling this material will
lower quality and make good preservation difficult. Getting the
cutting height right in crops with six or seven weeks’ growth is
much more straightforward than in older or lodged crops. With
lodged crops, the lie of the grass will affect the cutting operation.
Try to strike a balance. There is probably no other solution than
to adjust down the machine a bit with lodged crops.
Good preservation
Good preservation occurs when lactic acid bacteria, present
on the grass crop, ferments the available sugars to lactic acid.
This lowers the pH which preserves the feed value of the
stored silage. High available sugars and air-free conditions
are necessary for good preservation. Ideal conditions for high
sugars are ryegrass swards, dry sunny weather, cool nights and
mowing in the afternoon.
If air is present, the preservation process will be slow and
inefficient resulting in high DM losses. Air can be present due
to insufficient consolidation, delayed covering or poor sealing.
This often results in poorer preservation in the top third of the
pit and surface waste at the top and sides. There can also be
heating and spoilage on the face at feed out.
Rapid filling, good consolidation and an effective air-tight
sealing will generally result in a very fast and efficient
Minimising silage waste
Silage pit: heavy tyres on the shoulders are prevented from slipping by tyres tied
with ropes to eliminate air pockets and for extra protection on top. Gravel bags
along the floor at the butt of the pit would have made it perfect. Check all tyres for
damage. Any tyres with bare, rusty wires should be discarded. If these wires break
off and mix with silage the consequences will be dire.

32
preservation with minimal DM losses. The result is well-
preserved silage with minimal waste, better feed value and
good intakes. Good preservation keeps the development of
spoilage organisms like clostridia, moulds and yeasts at bay.
The preservation process cannot begin while there is any air
left in the pit. So lack of attention to detail in sealing the pit will
delay the preservation process and increase losses. Silage pits
must be air-tight.
Keeping the air out
The amount of air in the pit before sealing depends a lot on
the grass DM. Below 24 per cent DM, there is very little space
for air as these spaces are filled with effluent. Less rolling of
this type of material is being recommended. For material over
30 per cent DM, air can find its way deep into the pit unless it
is very well rolled and consolidated. Leafy, wet, short chopped
grass will compact a lot better than dry, long chopped, stemmy
grass. Nowadays, pits are filled very fast so there isn’t much
time for rolling and consolidating. There isn’t enough room in
pits for two machines to safely operate. The loader is heavy
but usually has wide tyres. Compacting the grass poses a
challenge. The best that can be achieved is to spread out loads
as evenly and thinly as possible leaving no lumps and humps
or hollows. The sides of clamps pose a particular problem. We
make them relatively steep which means they can’t be rolled on
for consolidation. It is important that the sides are well built with
a uniform slope, without humps or hollows.
This will ensure that the silage covers will lie right up against the
ensiled material leaving no air pockets once weighted down.
Another problem becoming increasingly evident is that pits are
being overfilled. I get the impression that some farmers feel they
can expand numbers and still manage with their existing silage
pits. The height at filling and even at feed out is dangerously
high. Pits are getting narrower and narrower as they rise,
increasing the danger of the loader toppling. The effect of
consolidation is lessened also. At feed out stripping back the
cover and tyres becomes a lot more dangerous and difficult.
Covering the pit to maintain an air-tight seal is most important.
The surface of the grass before covering should be smooth,
without humps and hollows to eliminate air pockets and ensure
any rainwater falling on the covers will flow off fully. Water
lodged continuously in depressions causes surface damage
underneath and if it leaks through, will leave a column of bad
silage at that point. The covers must be weighted down well
using a combination of tyres, mats, gravel bags and nets. Nets
are great for keeping the covers in close contact with the
ensiled material. Nets should be non–slip to make them safe to
walk on.
Bags should be filled with pea gravel for drainage so they will
last. Tyres should be placed edge to edge and heavy lorry tyres
used along the sides. Gravel bags are very good because they
exert much more pressure for their size than tyres. Therefore
they should be used along in a line to seal clamps at ground
level. This seal should ideally be right in close to the ensiled
material, inside any channel in order to prevent any air getting
back up the pipe in the channel during storage. Overlaps of
the covers should be 1.2m to 1.8m long. Overlaps should be
weighed down with gravel bags as well as tyres to make them
air-tight. All too often, I see polythene on the sides of clamps
flapping in the wind or damaged from dogs, cattle, etc., or
because after the initial covering it was never retightened once
the clamp has settled. This causes massive surface waste and
poor preservation in layers below this surface waste.
Top and side waste seems to be worse on the windy side of
clamps. Wind blowing over silage creates all sorts of pressures
that will force or suck air if there are any deficiencies in the
covering. Regularly inspect and repair silage covers. Catching a
damaged cover early can help minimise spoilage from oxygen
exposure.
Walled pits are better and safer as silage storage structures
than clamps. They are generally easier to cover effectively also.
However, I have often seen waste along the top and in by the
walls. Waste at the walls is often triangular shaped, widening
towards the floor, indicating that air and/or water got in where
the covers meet the wall. Gravel bags are needed here also
and any water flowing off the cover towards the wall should
be channelled away in a depression before the wall. The wall
should be lined with polythene as well.
The polythene cover should extend from past the channel in the
floor to out over the wall or up and over a guide rail, if present.
When the pit is being covered this sheet should be folded
back first and overlapped with the top covers. It still needs to
be sealed with the gravel bags and rainwater deflected. Some
complain that it is too difficult to manage this extra sheet lining
the wall. It really boils down to the fact that they don’t want to
put in the extra effort to cover the pit properly. Grass can get
caught up in this sheet, especially if the guide rail is present.
This makes it difficult to fold back smoothly over the surface.
The other benefit of this sheet lining the wall is that it protects
the wall surface, wall floor joint and channel from wear from
effluent with unwilted crops.
Overfilling of walled pits is also common and is not a good
practice. This makes effective sealing of the edges more
difficult. To prevent surcharging the walls with extra weight over
their design weight, grass piled above the walls should slope in
at 45 degrees. This makes effective rolling at the walls difficult.
Rolling at the walls should be done before the grass raises
much above the top of the walls.
Silage covers
There is a wide range of silage covers available. These can be
used with tyres, mats, nets and gravel bags. There is evidence
that some of the newer covers may have some advantages
over the normal practice of using two black polythene sheets.
There are covers with cling film properties (clear or slightly
coloured) which cling better to the ensiled material preventing
air pockets forming, so reducing the amount of air taken in
throughout the storage period. Other products are described

33
as ‘oxygen barrier films’ and
have cling film properties
also. These are claimed to let
virtually no oxygen through.
These would typically be
used under a black polythene
sheet or close weave netting.
Suppliers of these products
should be able to give
assurances that the
oxygen transmission rate
through these should be
much lower than that of
normal black polythene
sheets and the like.
Good management of
the silage feed out face is
very important. Manage
the silage feed out face
to minimise waste and
maintain feed quality.
Visible rotten or mouldy
silage on the top and
sides, if not taken away,
will mix with good silage
and reduce intakes and
the average dry matter
digestibility (DMD) of the
silage.
To minimise deterioration
at the pit face remove
between 15cm and 30cm
(6 to 12 inches) daily
throughout the winter
months. The leading edge
of the covering sheets
should remain tightly
sealed to minimise heating
and spoilage. The leading
edge should be secured
along top and sides with
a solid row of gravel
bags to prevent air from
getting underneath the
covers and to maintain an
oxygen-free environment
back along the unused
part of the pit or clamp.
Air that is left to blow back
continuously must surely
cause surface waste back
along the pit. Keep the
face perpendicular to the
floor of the pit to minimise
the surface area exposed
to air. Using a shear grab
makes pit face management
easy. Don’t pull back the too
much, ideally not much wider
than the shear grab. Fold the
cover back so that rainwater
can’t drench the pit face.
Take action
If you experience some of the
problems outlined in this article,
maybe this is the year to take
action to resolve these issues.
Silage is an expensive feed.
The extra work and expense
dealing with waste silage is
considerable. Cost savings,
better quality, higher intakes
and no fear of running short
are all benefits of taking action.
Don’t spend another year
putting up with silage waste.

34
Claire Fitzsimons, David Kenny and Mark McGee
Teagasc, Grange Animal & Grassland Research and Innovation Centre, Dunsany, Co. Meath
In beef production systems, feed provision accounts for approximately 75 per cent of total variable costs. Relative to
concentrates or conserved forages, grazed grass is generally the cheapest feed source available on Irish beef farms.
Consequently, animal output from grazed grass should be maximised
Nevertheless, primary feed costs on beef farms relate to indoor
(winter) feeding periods and, particularly, feeding of finishing
cattle. An annual feed budget for the grass-based, suckler calf-
to-beef steer/heifer production system at Grange is presented
in Figure 1. The graph demonstrates that although grass silage
and concentrates account for only approximately one third
of the total feed consumed, the combined cost of both these
feeds accounts for over half the annual total feed cost.
This means that even small improvements in feed (cost)
efficiency during indoor/winter feeding periods has a relatively
large influence on farm profitability. Economic sustainability of
beef production systems, therefore, depends on optimising the
contribution of grazed grass to the lifetime intake of feed and
on providing silage and concentrate as efficiently and at as low
a cost as feasible.
Measures of feed efficiency
There are many different contexts, approaches and
measurements of feed conversion efficiency in beef cattle
production ranging from the individual animal to the production
system operated. Traditionally, feed conversion ratio (FCR [ie
feed: gain]) was the measurement of choice. However, the
use of FCR in cattle-breeding programmes generally leads to
selection of faster-growing animals that have a larger mature
size and, thus, a higher feed requirement. This has negative
ramifications, particularly for the cow component of suckler
beef production systems because of the proportionately higher
(overhead) costs associated with it. In essence, if an increase
in feed requirements of the breeding cow herd offsets gains
in growth efficiency of the progeny, there will be no change
in overall production system efficiency. As a result, there has
been much interest, worldwide, in examining alternative feed
efficiency traits such as residual feed intake (RFI).
Factors affecting feed efficiency
Live weight
In finishing-beef cattle, up to two-thirds of feed consumed
is used for body maintenance. As maintenance is largely a
function of weight, a heavier animal requires more feed to
maintain itself, and furthermore, for a fixed rate of live weight
gain, the feed energy required is higher for heavier animals.
Consequently, feed efficiency is better with lighter, fast-
growing animals. For example, the daily energy requirements
of a 650kg bull gaining 1.4kg live weight per day is about 15
per cent more than that of a 550kg bull gaining 1.4kg live
weight per day.
Figure 1. Annual feed budget for a grass-based suckler calf-to-
beef steer/heifer production system.
66
44
27
39
7
17
Feed intake (DM, % total)
Grazed grass
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Grass silage Concentrates
Feed cost (€, % total)
Feed-efficient beef cattle

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