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1. By – SURESH KUMAR ( Nursing Tutor )
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2. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• The endocrine system consists of glands widely
separated from each other with no physical
connections. Endocrine glands are groups of
secretory cells surrounded by an extensive network of
capillaries that facilitates diffusion of hormones
(chemical messengers) from the secretory cells into
the bloodstream.

3. Endocrine Glands
• The endocrine glands are also known as ductless glands
because they have no duct to carry their secretions,
hormones diffuse directly into the bloodstream.
Hormones are then carried in the bloodstream to
target tissues and organs that may be quite distant, where
they influence cellular growth and metabolism.

4. Hormones
• Hormones are chemical
messengers that are secreted
into the blood or the
extracellular fluid by one
organ (endocrine gland) and
have an effect on the
functioning of other organ
(target organ).

5. Hormones
• When a hormone arrives at its target cell, it binds to a
specific receptor, where it acts as a switch influencing
chemical or metabolic reactions inside the cell. The
receptors for peptide hormones are situated on the
cell membrane and those for lipid-based hormones are
inside the cell.

6. Hypothalamus
• The hypothalamus is a portion of the brain
with a variety of functions. It is a small (about
4 g), cone‐like structure that is directly
connected to the pituitary gland by the
pituitary stalk . It is an extremely complex part
of the brain containing many regions with
highly specialised functions.

7. Hypothalamus
• One of the most important functions of the hypothalamus is
to link the nervous system to the endocrine system via the
pituitary gland. Almost all hormone secretion by the pituitary
gland is controlled by either hormonal or electrical signals from
the hypothalamus. Hypothalamic hormones reach the anterior
pituitary through a portal system known as Hypophyseal
Portal System

8. Hormones of
Hypothalamus
• There are two sets of hormones released by the
hypothalamus. One set of hormones reaches to posterior lobe
of the pituitary gland. These hormones are anti-diuretic
hormone and oxytocin. Anti-diuretic hormone causes
water reabsorption at the kidneys and oxytocin stimulates
contraction of the uterus in childbirth and is important in
breastfeeding.

9. Hormones of
Hypothalamus
• The other set of hormones are stimulating and inhibiting
hormones that reach the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
These hormones are following-
• Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)- It
stimulates cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary to
secrete growth hormone (GH).

10. Hormones of
Hypothalamus
• Growth hormone-release Inhibiting hormone (GHRIH)- It is
also known as somatostatin. Somatostatin acts on the anterior lobe
of the pituitary to inhibit the release of growth hormone (GH)
and inhibit the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)- When it reaches the
anterior lobe of the pituitary it stimulates the release of thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH) and prolactin (PRL)

11. Hormones of
Hypothalamus
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)- It’s actions on
cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary stimulate the release
of adreno- corticotropic hormone (ACTH; also known
as corticotropin)
• Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH)- It stimulates the anterior
lobe of the pituitary it stimulates the release of prolactin
Hormone (PRL)

12. Hormones of
Hypothalamus
• Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)- It is also known as
dopamine. It inhibit the production of prolactin hormone from
anterior pituitary gland.
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)- GnRH stimulates
the anterior pituitary to release follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
and luteinizing hormone (LH), which work together to ensure
normal functioning of the ovaries and testes.

13. Pituitary gland
• The pituitary gland is also known as
master gland of our body as it’s
hormones controls almost all other
glands. The pituitary gland lies in the
hypophyseal fossa of the sphenoid
bone below the hypothalamus, to
which it is attached by a stalk

14. Pituitary gland
• The pituitary gland is functionally and anatomically divided
into two parts: (posterior and anterior lobes)
• The posterior lobe (Neurohypophysis) is made up mostly of
nerve fibres that originate in the hypothalamus and terminate
on the posterior lobe. The posterior lobe releases two
hormones – Oxytocin and ADH (produced by hypothalamus
and released by posterior pituitary.)

15. Pituitary gland
• Oxytocin- Oxytocin has an effect on uterine contraction in
childbirth and is responsible for the ‘let down’ response in
breastfeeding mothers (the release of milk in response to
suckling).
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)- The effects of ADH are
that it increases water retention by the kidneys by increasing
the permeability of the collecting ducts in the kidneys.

16. Pituitary gland
• The anterior lobe (Adenohypophysis) is made up mostly of secretary
cells. The Anterior lobe releases following hormones-
• Growth hormone (GH)- This is the most abundant hormone
synthesised by the anterior pituitary. It stimulates growth and division
of most body cells but especially those in the bones and skeletal
muscles. Body growth in response to the secretion of GH is evident
during childhood and adolescence, and thereafter secretion of GH
maintains the mass of bones and skeletal muscles. It also regulates
metabolism in many organs (liver, intestines and pancreas)

17. Pituitary gland
• Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)- This hormone
is synthesised by the anterior pituitary and its release is
stimulated by thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH)
from the hypothalamus. It stimulates growth and activity
of the thyroid gland, which secretes the hormones tri-
iodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).

18. Pituitary gland
• Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH,
corticotrophin)- Corticotrophin releasing hormone
(CRH) from the hypothalamus promotes the synthesis
and release of ACTH by the anterior pituitary. This
increases the concentration of cholesterol and steroids
within the adrenal cortex and the output of steroid
hormones, especially cortisol.

19. Pituitary gland
• Prolactin- This hormone is secreted during pregnancy to
prepare the breasts for lactation (milk production) after
childbirth. The blood level of prolactin is stimulated by
prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) released from the
hypothalamus and it is lowered by prolactin inhibiting
hormone (PIH, dopamine) and by an increased blood level of
prolactin. Immediately after birth, suckling stimulates
prolactin secretion and lactation.

20. Pituitary gland
• Gonadotrophins- Just before puberty two gonadotrophins
are secreted in gradually increasing amounts by the anterior
pituitary in response to luteinising hormone releasing hormone
(LHRH), or gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH). Theses
gonadotrophin hormones are-
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Luteinising hormone (LH).

21. Pituitary gland
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)- In females, the ovaries
are the targets for follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). Each
month FSH initiates the development of several ovarian
follicles, saclike arrangements of secretory cells that surround
a developing oocyte. FSH also stimulates follicular cells to
secrete estrogens (female sex hormones). In males, FSH
stimulates sperm production in the testes.

22. Pituitary gland
• Luteinising hormone (LH)- In females, luteinizing hormone
(LH) triggers ovulation, the release of a secondary oocyte
(future ovum) by an ovary. LH stimulates formation of the
corpus luteum (structure formed after ovulation) in the ovary
and the secretion of progesterone (another female sex
hormone) by the corpus luteum. In males, LH stimulates cells
in the testes to secrete testosterone

23. Pituitary gland
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)- It increases
skin pigmentation and produce a darkening of the
skin. It acts on cells in the skin to stimulate the
production of melanin. Melanin is the pigment which
is responsible for dark color of the skin.

24. Thyroid gland
• The thyroid gland is a butterfly‐shaped
gland located in the front of the neck
on the trachea just below the larynx. It
is made up of two lobes joined by an
isthmus. The upper extremities of the
lobes are known as the upper poles and
the lower extremities the lower poles.

25. Thyroid gland
• The thyroid gland produces hormones that regulate the
body's metabolic rate controlling heart, muscle and digestive
function, brain development and bone maintenance. Its correct
functioning depends on a good supply of iodine from the diet.
The thyroid hormones are synthesised as large precursor
molecules called thyroglobulin. The release of T3 and T4 into the
blood is stimulated by thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the
anterior pituitary.

26. Thyroid gland
• T3 (tri-iodothyronine) and T4 (thyroxin) affect most cells of
the body by increasing the basal metabolic rate and heat
production, regulating metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins
and fats. T3 and T4 are essential for normal growth and
development, especially of the skeleton and nervous system.
Most other organs and systems are also influenced by thyroid
hormones .

27. Thyroid gland
• Calcitonin- Calcitonin hormone is also secrteted by thyroid
gland. It acts on bone cells and the kidneys to reduce blood
calcium (Ca2+) levels when they are raised. It promotes
storage of calcium in bones and inhibits reabsorption of
calcium by the renal tubules. Its effect is opposite to that of
parathyroid hormone, the hormone secreted by the
parathyroid glands. Release of calcitonin is stimulated by an
increase in the blood calcium levels.

28. Parathyroid glands
• There are four small parathyroid
glands, two embedded in the
posterior surface of each lobe of the
thyroid gland. They are surrounded
by fine connective tissue capsules.
Usually, one superior and one
inferior parathyroid gland are
attached to each lateral thyroid lobe

29. Parathyroid glands
• Parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone (PTH),
also called parathormone. Secretion is regulated by blood
calcium levels. When they fall, secretion of PTH is increased
and vice versa. The main function of PTH is to increase the
blood calcium level when it is low. This is achieved by
indirectly increasing the amount of calcium absorbed from
the small intestine and reabsorbed from the renal tubules.

30. By – SURESH KUMAR ( Nursing Tutor )