Aristotle's Poetics Revisited: A Fresh Analysis

Aristotle's Poetics Revisited
Author(s): Harold Skulsky
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Apr., 1958), pp. 147-160
Published by: University of Pennsylvania Press
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ARISTOTLE'S POETICS REVISITED
BY HAROLD
SKULSKY *

Certainphilosophical problems have displayed exasperating
an
persistence.To be sure,centuries steadily of improved dialectical
gadgetry have wrought changes thewaywe ask thesemulish
in ques-
tions; but thiswas to be expected, despite newwrinkles
and the in
terminology, nuisances
the remain. The statusof universals, the
meaning mathematical
of propositions, thelocusofvaluecan still
and
be countedon to quickennew orthodoxies exhumedecayingand
schools.
Aesthetics, which willbe ourchief concern thepresent
in investi-
gation, a goodexample thekindofimpasse havein mind. Art
is of I
represents excellence special kind of value, and the theory
par a
which pretends elucidate mustoffer ofall a cogent
to it first explana-
tionofpreference,criterion artistic success." But artis also a
a of "
socialactivity whoseutility notoriously
is obscure, thatnumerous
so
practitioners appreciators
and downtheageshave feltobliged en- to
gagein vehement apologetics, showthatit is after a useful
to all ad-
junct to good living. Thus manyclaimshave been made forit,
claimsforthe mostpartquite irrelevant the specialand crucial
to
problem preference: is a meansofinculcating
of art moralprinciples,
according some; others
to maintain that it is a modeof perceiving
and
important otherwise inaccessible facts; to others realizesits
it
function imparting unique experiences uniquelysentient
by the of
less
mento their gifted fellows.These claimsare admittedly beside
themark;theyfailto explain of
whya work art,though impeccable
in itsmoral tone,irrefutable thepropositions expresses, non-
in it and
it
pareilin the experience conveys, may yetbe dull and ugly. But
they showthatartmaybe rich itsinfluence life-though
do in on qua
artit doesnothave to be; foreachof theseclaims, leastin regard
at
art
to somesuccessful works, appearsto contain grain truth.
a of
History thuscomplicated work modern
has the of aesthetics; the
discipline nownotonlyto account thepreferential ofart
has for scale
values (or else to argueplausibly its non-existence), also to
for but
adjustthevarious incidental claims a
which cultivated awareness ap-
pearsto support: all goodartis moralor philosophical intent;
not in
but thesenseofhumanity thatof profound
and truth seemin some
comparatively but noteworthy
rare instances enhance value of
to the
an artwork. Andthistoo mustbe explained.
Ostwaldof ColumbiaUniversity his helpful
*I wish to thankProfessor for
adviceand criticism.
147

148 HAROLD SKULSKY

The reader no doubtbe wondering thistimewhy, an es-
will by in
say whosetitlepromises new illumination an ancientand well
of
thumbed fragment tragedy epic,sucha gratuitous of airy
on and set
platitudes the foregoing
as shouldbe foisted his goodwill. The
on
answer simply
is thatAristotle's truncatedwork, halfreportorialand
halfprescriptive, in myopinion,
is, basedon a comprehensive theory
of artwhich fulfills twobasic requirements have stipulated-
the we
thoseof precisedefinition the adjustment incidental
and of claims.
The twoor three perennial cruxes,moreover, thetraditional
in inter-
pretation thiswork
of can be resolved, think, placingit in the
I by
context Aristotelian
of and an
thought by attempting entirely fresh
analysis theprinciples
of in
implicit thework itself.
Teleia Praxisand Other Key Terms
The tragicperformance forAristotle
is essential defining
in the
wayin which tragedy and
directly graphically represents life. It is a
ap,.La, enactment,
an which mustbe unified arranged as to rep-
and so
resent " complete
a action," rckcla,juda,Jkq, perfect,single,and entire,
requiring nothing to complete essence. At a laterstagewe
else its
shallhaveto examine internal
the structure characteristic a " com-
of
pleteaction," at present mustconfine
but we ourselves thegeneral
to
information about the termwhichwe can garner from Aristotle's
other works.
In hisMagna Moralia (1211bl8ff.), Aristotle the
discusses pecul-
of
iar intensity paternal love and decides thatit is essentially ac,
an
tivity similar certain
to skills: " I mean,forinstance, class of
the
skills whose purpose performance identical; in theflautist's
and are as
viewhis activity thesameas his r'Xos purpose(forto himflute
is or
playing bothpurpose
is and activity), in the case of housecon-
but
struction doesnotobtain(forherethere beyond activity,
this is, the
a separate end): thuslove is actually sortof activity, there
a and is
no otherend beyondthe activity loving;on the contrary:
of this
itself the end" 1; and in theMetaphysics
is (1048bl8ff.), discussing
processes which conduce someexternal
to goal,likethatof attenua-
tion,Aristotle maintains that,"since theyare not themselves the
purposeof their movement, theydo not constitute action, at
an or
one
any ratenota complete (TreXea rpa-63). theyare notan end;
For
and that movement whichthe end inheres also an action."
in is
'Cf. Metaphysics 1050a23: TO yap ep'yovTeXOs,v 6 evepyela Tr gp'yOV. 5uOKal
T0rPooa ev yp7elaXe (TLat Ka(T'a TO6 p7OV, Kac auTelvel Cf.Ethica
7rpos T2v eiTveXeXeav.
Nic.: 1151a16:evTals zrpa4ut TO OVCUVKa apx7.
r AlsoMagna Moralia1197a9-11:
are strictly
otlov7rapaTO KtGaplflev OVK C&Tlv, etc. At leastsomeIL4TLKal, it seems,
endsin themselves. translations by
All are thepresent writer.

ARISTOTLE'S POETICS REVISITED 149

Thereappears, think, be little
I to doubtthatthisconception com- of
pleteactionas self-sufficient and an end-in-itself appliesto the1-ex-ta
vrpa$ts which
of tragic performance (8pa-,ua)is theartistic reproduction.2
We may conclude thispointthat the dramatic
at representation of
complete action, itself as
intended correspondingly " complete," not
is
to be considered tool,a meansto someendoutside itself,
a of suchas
mental health-whatever incidental results mayissuefrom it.
However, play is primarily publicperformance,
a a meantto be
approved, thecognoscenti least. All rules,
by at eventhatofthefirst
unity, mustbe justified reference this effect.Thus Aristotle
by to
tellsus in thePoetics(1459al7-21) thatthepoetis plainly obliged to
represent a complete actionspecifically witha view to eliciting a
pleasurable experience corresponding form his dramatic
in to plot.
Our author's insistence pleasure a concomitant plotunity
on as of is
so frequent that we woulddo well to consider general his view of
pleasure before tracethe relationship
we the
between spectators and
the" complete action in tragedy, wellas thespecialrequirements
" as
assumed Aristotle each.
by for
Firstof all, pleasure wouldseemto represent purest the kindof
complete action, kindwhich described Met. 1050a34as " ac-
the is at
tualization a transition whichthe exercise a poweris both
": in of
achieved and aimedat, suchas seeing perse (as opposedto search-
3
ing); perception, a matter fact, so truly rEXEda7rp thatat
as of is a ets
anypoint itsduration is always samein form
in it the (Met. 1048b20-
25). Pleasurewouldseemto be suchan " actualization (evepyata), "
foras we are told in the Nicomachean Ethics (Book X, Chap. IV):
" Visionseemsperfect any instant, requiring subsequent
at not any
addition complete form. And pleasure
to its resembles kindof
this
activity. . . ." Pleasureis moreover consummation every
the of hu-
man activity (whichis by definition conscious) and does not occur
it
without (dVw re yap EPEpeclas oV ylVeratrSov'7, 7racaav rE &Epyetav TEXEtOL
v
the
j5ov'). Thus themorerefined sensory faculty themorepre-
and
the
ciseits object, purer thepleasure.
In Book X, Chapter of the Ethicsthe higher
VI that
pleasure,
whichis bothradiantly clearand morallysuitablefora freeman'
(fXtKptwS withcontemplation, exercise
is identified
ca't ixevOcptoq), the
2 Cf. Poetics 1450a16:e y'yp ta
rpa-ywy MlMt1aots oUicavPOpwrco7r
aTtJp a&XAa rp&aecOs

Kal jLov.... Also Met. 1048b,in whichPLosor ivpis mentionedamong the 7rp&tELs
which self-sufficient
are (1.28).
thatfor
3Cf. Met. I, 1 980a23-24. A perusalof Met. 1048bl8ff. establish
will
Aristotlecompletepraxis and energeiaare synonymous.
4Aristotle's of and other
observations ethical value-preference clearly a
are not
matterof statisticalaverage. The principleis rather: KacaD7rEpov' 7roxxaKLS elp7Trat
Kal TqLuLa Ka% Wa EOTr TLa Tq) a7rovkclw TOLavra 67Ta.

150 HAROLD SKULSKY

uponconcepts
of the intelligence (thoseideas which pureof the
are
accidental). Thus we need not be surprised requires
thatAristotle
tragicpoetry be in somesenseconceptuallypure" (xa0o'Aov), con-
to "
in
sistent structure
(' andphilosophical, in this
a&X=Xa), since waya
remarkably chastened steadfast
and pleasure, one exempt from the
limitations bodily
of pleasure,mustof necessity result from con-
its
templation Oavyaarals2OPaS EXEWKaOapeWT6rT [N.B.]
(8oKEZ -YOVP X)ckXoaoot'a
Kac #Beqatc).

It seemshighly probablethat Aristotle Plato's PhaedoI in
had
mindwhen chosehisterms; thatdialogue clearand distinct
he in the
contemplation oftruth dXWKpWV4S, 6'iaOT 'acos Tr &X-O6s) is, as in
(Tcr TOVTO
regarded the " exercise a faculty
Aristotle, as of operating its best
at
upon the best of its objects." More important perhaps, the term
used by Plato forthissupremely pleasurableintuitive
perception is
catharsis.Of course, in thePoeticsrefers a specialkind
Aristotle to
ofpleasure purification perception, which
or of one proceeds from dis-
positionssimilar pityand fear.6 If myaccount,
to then, correct,
is it
willbe necessary to showwhatsuchstatesof consciousness have in
common withphilosophy.In any case,if the dramaand its corre-
sponding "
pleasure " complete and concurrent
are actions, is diffi-
it
cultto see howa medical utilitarian
or interpretationcatharsis
of (as
rexos) canbe made fit
cpyov
To vrapa scheme.
to into author's
our
So farwe haveexplored implications " completenessas it
two of "
in
functions Aristotelian terminology: theoretically performance,
the
at every pointin itsduration,ought be an endin itself, a perfect
to "
activity," of
whiletheexperience dramatic poetry correspondingly
is
finaland self-sufficient. thedramatic
But actionis nota homogene-
ous process, pure&npycta, likeliving consciousness se; it is a
a or per
sequence a of
with relation parts. Andthus, Aristotle, characterize
to
its pleasurablenessmoreprecisely, observes (Chap. VII) that good
plays have plot structures "
whichare in themselves beautiful," in
the sense is
in whichan organism beautiful, whenit attainsa size
an
proper its kindand displays organization
to suggestive design
of
or appropriateness.7 Mathematics the supremedistillation
is of
beauty,for" the beautiful residesin arrangement due magni-
and
5That Aristotle
knewthisdialogue certified Met. 1080a2.
is by
6Compare:b&& ovKaG c/f6ov
iX Trh TrW TOl,rwp iraOt77TW KOapcLV
7repawovora
and
(1449b27-28) T 6P&i7r6 Kal c/f6ov5t&a
CXov /lAtlJTcwS5El it6OVi rapaTKCV&CiLP TrV
irolT7vV, 4acEp6V (US TOVTO ep TOlS (1453bl2-14).
lrpctLrpaLpamp COl7rovrTfOP
7 TacvrosTr KaX6' Kal irpbrov Topica 135a13. T0o KaXovI el&7I.Li7yTTa Ta&LS Ka1

avo)4erTplaKai roTcopwPayvovMet. 1078a36. With irpCbroV compare Kant's Zweck-
massigkeit a witha functionless
ohneZweck,whichdenotes satisfaction pattern,
perfect
analogous our enjoyment an instrument's
to of adaptation its appointed
to
function.

ARISTOTLE S POETICS REVISITED 151
tude." That neither " proper"magnitude the " proper ar-
the nor "
rangement suchin a utilitarian
are senseis substantiated ourown
by
experience beauty exclusively its own sake (vide Politics
of for
1362bl-10); " proprietyis herea metaphor
" describing peculiar
our
senseof approbation vis-a-viscertain forms.
A beautiful thing, Aristotle us,willnever so largeor small
tells be
thatitsorganization cannot intuited a whole. In temporal
be as arts,
likemusicand drama, corresponding ofsizeis, of course,
the test the
memorableness plot.of That thisunified patterning plot ((rcraTaaLs
of
lrpay/L,dT(v) corresponds the " contemplative
to " pleasure have just
we
discussed clearenough;theyare theformal perceptual
is and aspects
of whatwe have called " complete activity." But the principles of
plotting thenature thepleasure
and of peculiar tragedy
to are yetto
be fully explained.
Thereremains further term the Poetics,which
one key in serves
in part to support the foregoing observations: mimesis, literally
" copying." All mimetic arts,in Aristotle, represent our experi-
" "
enceY though they" representin various
" sensesand through various
mediaand concern themselves various
with sorts " realthings."
of
Furthermore " imitation," itsrudimentary
in sense, from psy-
is a
chological viewpoint originof art,and of poetry particular.
the in
(1)
Thisis true tworeasons: roTe'y6p/al.u/EoatvrUovTO"i
for aOc bOZS Gpw'rots
EKc (2)
7ra0wov Kacd xa'peLvTots
Tr At4mat raiTras.8 (1) It is perhaps only
the
possible human" instinct," the sensethatall infants
in mustmimic
their parents order learntheir
in to lessons, yettheir
first and mimi-
cryis itself untaught. (2) Andit is a universal source instinctive
of
pleasure, derived, Aristotle tells us, fromthe inferential processes
(avXXoyttea0aL) involved recognition, from
in and successin learning
(Juavd'vfLV) whatis being represented(" forif one is not already
9 fa-
miliar with object,
the thework notpleasequa representation
will ").
Thus thefundamental character the pleasure mimesis of the
of in is
kindwe havedescribed, rational
the contemplation order com-
of and
plexity("beauty ") as embodied(in tragedy)in a "completeac-
tion."
These, then,are the basic conceptsof Aristotelian aesthetics.
Thoughvarious things mayexemplify or moreof them-though
one
visionexhibits leasttheform " perfect
at of though
activity," mathe-
maticsexhibits that excellence orderwhichmodern
of mathemati-
sThe coordinates and xac make speculation
Te about 1448b20appear rather
chimerical.
9 It maybe observedherethat" inferenceis madenecessary the veryna-
" by
which
tureof imitation, mustperforce on conventions translation
rely of from one
sphere another, therules perspective, conversion 3 to 2 dimensions.
to e.g. of of from

152 HAROLD SKULSKY

though number experiences please
cianscall " elegance," any of may
us fora time(i.e.,makeus desiretheircontinuance),though photo
a
maybe a rudimentary specimen representation-only
of mimetic art
combines thesetraits endsin themselves.
all as How it doesthisre-
mainsto be seen.
of
We have seenthatin tragedy polarsituation dramatic
the per-
formance, involvingplayers constitutes " complete
and spectators, a
action,"whosestrictly formal intellectual
and aspectis " beauty,"or
orderand measure. It is the plot,then,the system component
of
events (aa7Taao which constitutesthe
7rpay,//aTWV), tragedy'spurpose
and a principle tragedy's
of intelligibility,'0 whichalso displays
and
mosteffectively arresting
that logicalpatterningwhich Aristotle calls
"the beautiful."
In thePoetics ChapterVIII AristotlepraisesHomerforscrupu-
louslyavoidingsequencesof events"of which, one occurred,
if it
wouldbe neither probable necessary the other-to
nor for follow it."
event a single
An integral in " &Arioqov) theone
action" explains (7rotEZ
whichfollows. In otherwordsthe succeeding eventsmust" be ex-
"
plained by thepositing their
of antecedents; theymustbe suchas
wouldhappen (o'a yIvo To) if the priormise en scene is assumedtrue.
aY

I have belabored strict
this conditionality becauseit is partand par-
cel ofthestructure, beauty(in Aristotelian
the terms)oftragic plot-
ting:it is not thatthe tragic situation possible thata superior
is or
plot couldeverbe so (quite the contrary, we shall see); whatis
as
" possible in drama whataccords
" is with thisprinciple probability
of
or " conditional " 11necessity (ra &vvaraT, Kar'a rO EKO's 7rT a'av'yKacov'). To
rb
be sure,a historical eventwhosecausal sequence clearmay legiti-
is
mately madetherawmaterial a tragedy." For there nothing
be of is
actuallypreventingsome real happening fromtakingprobableor
necessary form."The implication apparently thisis rare,
is that and
certainly a universal
not characteristic episodes humanaffairs.
of in
Thus the term " universal" (Ka9o'Xov), we shall soon see more
as
clearly,properly indicateswhenappliedto plotthatevents and char-
actersmaking the " complete
up "
action are " consistent withthe
whole "
" of the action. The " universalityof the actionrefers ato
class of events(7rota) whichwouldresult we assumewiththe poet
if
the existence a certain
of class (7rok) of men and a priorsituation
(see 1451b8-10);it neverrefers a particular
to situation which
(TI)
lo Ta 7rpaiy,.ara Kal o 1ADOosrTXosTrIs rpaO14tas (1450a21-22). apxrt 0' Kai
Aev
oZop &vxi 6 AiOosris TpawcoaLas (1450a37-38). For &px' see Met. / I, especially
KTX it as of
1013al5: "TE 605EV where is defined a principle intelligibility.
11propterpraeterita,simple Cf. 1452al9-not to be confused
" ": with" hypo-
thetical causa), though is not to be rejected
" (sequentium
necessity this (1452a7).


actuallydoesor can happen(see 1451b8-10). Thus Aristotle us
tells
(1455bff.) poet shouldfirst forth 'abstract' (Kao'Xo-v) or
"A set an
blueprint his plots,both traditional
of then extend
and original,
them." Certain eventswill,of course, " external the system"
be to
1455b7-8), to the particularpatternof assumptions
(co TOVKa0G'Xov in
question. This noveluse oftheterm wouldseemto confirm con-
our
tentionthat the plot is not universal the traditionally
in accepted
sensethatmutato nomine te fabulanarratur.In fact, reasons
de for
we haveyetto investigate,Aristotlebelieves thata storywhich not
is
possible reallifebut has thecoherent
in structure have discussed
we
is muchto be preferred one which real but causallyincoherent
to is
and thus,eventhough initialsituation accepted,
the is unconvincing.
This principle beautiful rational
of or order lovedin and for itself
extends,naturally, thecharacters
to themselves. Thus in Chap. XV
ofthePoetics, learnthatthepoetought add personal
we to integrity
to hischaracterizationidleorwrathful
of persons as painters
just add
a higherself-consistence coherence theirlikenesses. This
and to
staunch defense his identity right assert specialquality
of and to his
can makeevenan Ajax a truetragic figure.
of of
In his discussion the reversals fortune properto tragedy,
Aristotleeliminates downfall a depraved
the of man. His reasonis
"
mostenlightening:Such a situation wouldgratify one'shumanity
but it would be neitherpitifulnor fearful .. since we pity the unde-
.
serving fearforone like ourselves."Thus the term" like our-
and
"
selves is to be understood from purely
a moralpointof view; the
reprobate thiscase) maybe unlike in a variety respects,
(in us of but
the decisiveone is moral. The hero oughtmorally be no less
to
flawed thanwe,orelsethere couldbe no complication no tragedy.
and
But tragedy mustdeal withpreternaturally figures it is to
12 noble if
achieveits effect.That a Medea or an Oedipustranscend ordinary
humancapacities, either doingor forsuffering,no defect,
for is for,
a " is
as we shallexplain, " probable impossibility alwayspreferable
to "
in tragedy an "improbable possibility.'3No principle, then,
couldbe so aliento a view oftragedy basedon Aristotelianaesthetics
as thatof de te fabula.
of
So muchfortheform tragic action. Now it remains us to
for
consider the "subjective" dimension the Aristotelian
of polarity;
beauty(dyEOKao t TJs) as Aristotle defines is not alwayspleasur-
it
12See, forexample,1448a18.
In Chap. XXV thestructure a tragic
13 of falsehood explained a species
is as of
fallacy;oncetheaudience " suspended
genetic has disbelief," causalstructure
a will
supportunaidedthe credibility the eventswhichgrowout of the prologue.
of
1460a18-26.

154 HAROLD SKULSKY

able (1362b5-10);and wehaveyetto discover whatimpels to pro-
us
longourexperience poeticform, of artistic
of and form general.
in
In achieving characteristic
its effect theauditor,
on tragedy must
aim at dominating concern successfully
his and altering stateof
his
consciousness jEra3aAXXaEvT 'v OV' oVTa 1459b29). The engaging
(ro of
interest (1459b30-31)withvariedpattern the first is step toward
that
producing sublime senseofhumanity of" pity" and " fear
and "
(4tXcavGp&nrov, eAXEv4v, 0f3,Epov) whichwe are to designate tragicex-
as
perience. In thisalmosthypnotic domination consciousness,
of plot
structure, itscomplication resolution
with and (Wns Ka'tXvaL) is calcu-
lated to maximize impactof the combined
the reversal recogni-
and
tionon which better the plot hinges. This composite climaxof ac-
tionwillnaturally more be affectingit takestheauditor surprise
if by
(7rapa r4v 8o'av). But there willbe an addedsatisfaction it is per-
if
ceived thenatural
as culmination thepreceding
of action(St-XjAXAa); 14
wonder awe ( T 00avfaaTov), in contemplating
or moralconflict against
the background an unchanging
of naturalorder(the orderof the
poet's "nature,"that is) is morethan the intellectually oriented
pleasureevokedeven by rudimentary imitation.The purely intel-
lectualpleasure tracing
in causal sequence to be sure,an element
is,
in the effect, surprise
but and awe, lent structure theirlogical
by
matrix, arrest the attention and concern the spectator more
of far
powerfully inexorably
and thansimpler imitation could. Thus the
passions havebeenmadea structural principle, essential tragic
to plot
(the " end" oftragedy), which Aristotle states follows a passage
as in
on the legitimate of impossibilities:The poet is nevertheless
use "
correct introducing
[in miracles] he achieves artistic
if his purpose...,
if in so doinghe renders eventitself someothereventmore
the or
striking (1460b25-27) Thus theevolving the" reversal-recogni-
." of
tion" is botha beautiful patterning an emotional
and crescendo, in
whicheach eventis carefully subordinated the ultimate
to effect.
This, then,is the emotionally intensified structure the dramatic
of
pleasure. This is why"the epic poet constructs plotsdramati- his
cally, in tragedy, concerns
as and himself witha wholeand complete
actionwithintroduction, development, conclusion: produce
and to
theproper pleasure a living
like thing, single whole(1459al8ff.)."
and
The pleasure, purification perception, arrested
the of the interest, de-
in
rives, fact, from interdependence intense
the of and
feelings sym-
metrical structure. Whatthesefeelings in thecase oftragedy
are is,
of course, to be determined.'5
still
"
1452al-11.
15The readerwoulddo wellto reread the of
Chap. XXVI, in which superiority
tragedy explained.The appealis obviously theexperience thepoetry
is to of itself,
as to itseconomy subtlety, clarity, its concentration.
or its and


So muchforthegenus(audience involvement). The differentiae,
" pity" and " fear,"present difficulties,however. Aristotle defines
tragic pleasureas "proceeding from pityand fearthrough me- the
diumofimitation."Each of theseterms, takeit,is equallyessen-
I
tial; butwe know, Aristotle hisRhetoric
in (1385bl3-16;1382a21ff.)
assures thatthesepassions precisely
us, are pains,and nothing more:
{EOs Xb7r s; TEorw 8, qbf3os
VEo-To5n) bMr?7rts. If we arecorrect suppos-
in
ing (and the abundanceof evidenceappearsconclusive)that the
tragic pleasure coincident
is withthecomplete actionand not a sub-
sequentataraxy generated homeopathically the purposely
from un-
pleasant experience theplay,there be little
of can sensein identifying
dramatic pityand fear, aroused an explicitly
as by mimetic perform-
ance,withgenuine pityand fearas described the Rhetoric; is
in it
no merecontretemps Aristotle
that as
refers the former TOLOVT(wV
to
7ra0)/.Ld,crwv.
The by nowfamiliar romantic attempt explain
to thispleasurable
pityand fear beenreenacted
has withimpressive dialecticalskillin a
recent paperby Schluck;16 the dramatic are
emotions purified, we
are to understand, the sense
in that theyhave becomereactions to
dangers in
implicit thegeneral human situation: Wovor uns
" wir im
Betrachten Tragodie
der fiirchten, eine aus demWesendes Men-
ist
schenselbstaufkommende Gefahr." Also: "Furcht und Mitleid
17

in ihrer Reinheit sindeineeigene vonTheoria." As thereader
Art 18
willnote,thistheory makesa greatdeal dependon our agreeing to
recognize say,Oedipus'unlucky
in, marriage clearand present
a dan-
germenacing onlyus but our fellow
not men. The typical retortis
that all tragedies a sense deal withthe same danger(not the
in
ostensible one), answering the "universality"Aristotle
to insists
upon. But,as we haveseen,Aristotle envisaged suchKantian
has no
steamrolling stereotyping tragic
or of subject matter, overt covert,
or
in hisuse oftheterm universal."Even ifwe are charitable
" enough
to assumewithSchluck thatall tragedies refer thesameuniversal
to
danger, willbe difficult see howmyfearor pity,
it to sinceit is mine
and is personal and particular matter
no howmanyothers shareit,
can be a beatific contemplation universality it remains
of if pityor
fearin thesenseofemotional disturbance (Xv'). Thus thequestion
oftheemotion itself remains despite rarefaction nullity its
the into of
object; besides, are forced urgethat Schluck's
we to interpretation
of KaGo'Xovis not Aristotle's again 1455bff.),
(see however muchKant
wouldhaveapplauded it.
16K. Volkmann-Schluck, Lehrevon der Katharsis der Poetikdes Aris-
Die in
Varia Variorum
toteles, (1952), 104-107.
115.
17Ibhid,. 18Ibid.,116.

156 HAROLD SKULSKY

that, hisstudy thesituation
It willbe noticed in of for
appropriate
tragicportrayal reallymakestwodemands,
(Chap. XIII), Aristotle
notone: thatthesituation evokepity fear thatit gratify
and and one's
sense of human dignity (To' pLMdvOp&nrov). also be remembered
19 It will
thatAristotle makesa two-fold demand a higher
of pleasure:thatit
be clearand free from bodily taintand thatit pertain theestateof
to
a freeborn man. Now the " liberal virtues," according Aristotle,
to
are invariably attended thissenseof humandignity,20 it is to
by and
this " philanthropy," according Aristotle,
to that tragedy addresses
itself. Thusit is notso muchthattheexalted moral issuespresented
in tragedy necessarily a bearing thelifeof theaverage
have on audi-
tor. It is rather thatin participating therarefied specialethi-
in and
cal dilemmas the hero,he discovers himself generally
of in a unac-
knowledged importance, genuine
a dignity, latentpower(inherent
a
in man's estate) of ethicalevaluation.
Onlyiftheaudience somehowis to
permitted participate actively
in thetrials a hero, a J3EXT&OV, can it experience insight
of of this into
themoraldignity man (oaaWpwov),thiskeenly
of pleasurable sense
of "liberality" (Av0epLw'T-r). Consequently, chorus(as repre-
the
senting audience)mustbe made an indispensable
the participant in
theproceeding (1456al9-20) and theactionitself madegenuinely
be
and
important significant (arov8ala). For the audience, goeswith-
it
out saying, cannotenjoya feeling importantof moralachievement
unlessthe actionis correspondingly and unlessit can partici-
grave
pate directly thechorus. Whatis more
via significant,cannot
it real-
ize a genuine philanthropiawithout sense
" " a of emotional involve-
ment.
Now, as we have observed, the tragicsituation one which,
is
besides being(preferably) impossible by ordinary standards (though
internally coherent), involvesa hypothetical class of events(7rota)
and individuals (7roe).21 Thus,ifpityis to be feltat all,in thesecir-
cumstances, must be a hypothetical
it pity (concerned withcata-
strophic av yEVOTo
oLa d . . .) just as thefearcan be feltonlythrough
identification a general
with typeof man. Whatis evenmorediffi-
cult than this,pity,in contemplating in
misfortune another, and
thisfear, in experiencing as
misfortune another, though mutually ex-
clusive, mustbe feltat the same time. Thus the emotions not are
19E.g. (1452b37) yap
&rpayy0,6rcaurov ToUT' rin Ira6TWv, obv&v Pyap 4EX ci'v SET,
oVme
Pyap qLXaivOpw7rovoDre Xeetvbv
ov're qof3epovkrv. Also the requisitesof tragic
actionand speech: Trav fi 1Eeev'a fiSew'a fi
AEya&Xa (N.B.) fi
E'KoTLa SEfl
7rapaWKEV4EU
(1456b3-4).
20 tXavcOpw7r1ta X
a&KOXOV0GEfl 'VGeplOTTl.
21 go--V S KaO6XOV maVT7-
yrt roa
T7a a7rra
0vl4alveL X&yetv f 7pairetv . . .
(1451b8-9).

(&t
only actuated histrionically aupcVoZ), but also experienced an
by
act of imagination whichcan onlybe termed histrionic.It would
thus be psychologically inaccurate style these states of mind
to
"emotions ( r6Gq); theyare rather
" mental attitudes which anal-
are
ogous to emotions (7otaov'Tw 7ra6Jq crov). In their roleas the necessary
condition thatmoral
of elevation all as
which tragedy, mimesis, mir-
rors,and in mirroring reveals, thisactiveand imaginative pityand
fearare symbolic the communal
of solidarity, almostritualistic
the
rapport between performer spectator,
and which typified several
the
events theDionysian
of festival.
Before derivingfrom analysis thedramatic
this of situationsome
leadingprinciples of Aristotelian aesthetics, will be necessary
it to
deal withthatsphinx's riddle, tragic catharsis.As we have seen,the
simplehomeopathic theory Weil and Bernaysdoes not fitthe
of
as
facts;tragedy, complete action,cannotservean external end,it
cannot a medication,
be laxativeor otherwise. The famous descrip-
tionofmusical therapy thePolitics(1341b36ff.)
in shows anycase
in
thattheputative function tragedy already
of was fulfilled simple
by
orgiasticmelody and thus could not be definitive the dramatic
of
situation,with its intrinsicend ( i3Oov) and coincident,culminating
pleasure. Orgiastic melodies, furthermore, specially
are serviceable
for theirr8le in " emotionalflushing because they are amoral
"
(1341a20ff.), tragedy neverbe.
as can
Ourdiscussion appears, think, substantiate interpretation
I to the
I
which suggested earlier thepaper: the" purification
in " alludedto
mustbe thatkeenpleasure, untainted
or perception,which Plato in
hisPhaedo callscatharsis.22
We havediscussed somedetailtheobjects
in and manner tragic
of
imitation Aristotle them. The technical
as saw medium quite as
is
important, without
for and
conventions traditions there couldbe no
mimesis, "intelligibility"
no (i.e., no possibility participation).
of
For Aristotlesuchmatters theuse ofstrange
as words, lengthened or
shortened ones, coinages,and above all of metaphors wereitemsof
common knowledge whichcouldbe passedoverquickly withimpu-
nity. Today,besetas we are by romantic intuitionists the one
on
side and academicformalists the other, is important us to
on it for
acknowledge moreemphatically essential
the roleof form art,as
in
in
Aristotle it, and to recognize craftsmanlike
saw execution pre-
a
requisite successful
of art.
22 The use of &la Wkov coo3ov repaLvovaa ...
Kac , TrX,forAl .Xecu'V . c., KTX,
is idiomaticGreek, in d' q6f3ovs
as XMyol. It is common Latin: magnus
in uterque
timor (HoraceSat. I, IV, 67) and colloquial slangEnglish:" a pity,"
latronibus or
"a holyterror," thelike.
and

158 HAROLD SKULSKY

These,then, the elements a truly
are of Aristotelian of art.
view
Artis an organized activity indulged forits ownsake involving
in a
" thing made" within framework conventional
the of rules, a thing
which actualized itsbeingexperienced.
is in Superiority thequal-
in
ity of art is ceteris paribusachievedto the degreethatthe person
initiated intotheformal tradition emotionally
is involved and intel-
lectually interested the interpretation
in of symbols otherele-
or
ments;elements theirin turn manipulated they
so that transcend the
limitations conventional
of syntax and provide initiatewithan
the
organized experience discovery achievement.
of and
On thispremise, artistic innovation consists actualizing po-
in the
tentiality theformal
of tradition (say ofdramaor thesonnet), tra- a
dition which constitutes set of rulesof intelligibility morecor-
a or,
rectly, participation.
of This tradition a complex and in itself
is one
is no morethana negative element set of limitations, a posi-
or not
tiveruleofthumb. The artist recognizes, an inarticulate
in way,the
principles Aristotle forth to a degree able to makecalcula-
sets and is
tions a sort. But more
of often, to the
since, repeat, tradition, though
a prime requisite, in itself no further theartist
is of aid, mustrelyon
the community humanity
of between himand his audience fram- in
inghis effects. musthave powers empathy
He of which willpermit
himto predict theseeffects their
and impact overand abovethemere
execution recognition an artform.As Aristotle it,poetic
and of puts
skillinvolves either exceptionally happyintuitions a tendency
or to-
wardmentalimbalance (1455a32-33).
Thus failures formal
in innovation, thoseofArnaut
like Daniel or
Schoenberg Kandinsky, explicable totalabrogations the
or are as of
rulesof participation (called "intelligibility ") whichdefine or art
genre, abrogations without introduction thearchai a newart.
the of of
The spirit aesthetic
of Aristotelianism, as interpreted the fore-
in
going is
study, eminently realistic practical.As a critical
and theory
it is not debarred from application particulars an involved
to by
or
metaphysical epistemological apparatus. It is not,likethe lucu-
brations would-be
of Aristotelians (e.g. Boileau), an arid body of
pontifications. is Aristotle vulnerable they hisversion
Nor so as in of
formalism. For artis,whatever it maybe, a species socialac-
else of
tivity. Andin suchactivity there be onlyanarchy
can without rules
In
of participation. literary criticism particular Aristotelian
in the
viewof art as an interesting of
organization experience provides the
antidote crude
to moralization and thecriticism which rests cogni-
on
tivecriteria.It does thisby comprehending them:the intensity of
interest the greater moreprofound universal moral
is the and the
force theideasexpressed a work literary
of in of art.


It is, to conclude,regrettable likehis logicand metaphysics,
that,
Aristotle's aesthetics beenmaligned
has becauseof its abuse by gen-
erations artpedants pundits. The humanists
of and havediscredited
thelatter justas theschoolmen theformer.
did This essaywillhave
achieved something havingestablished
if, nothingelse,it convinces
thequalified readerthatthelast word by no meansbeensaid on
has
the Poetics.
APPENDIX

A. A further wordon "universality."Schluck'sthesison this
scoreis typical thewayAristotelian
of metaphysics be romanti-
may
callymisappropriated: " Denn die Dichtung," says (op. cit.,108),
he
" erfasst das
nichtwie die Wesenserkenntnis bestimmende Eine als
solchesin der Abhebung gegendas jeweilige Einzelne,sondern sie
enthiulltdiesesauf seineWesensart so dass diesein demAugen-
hin,
blickdes Einzelnenerscheint."However, humanperception
all of
individual objects, Aristotle's
in view,operates thisway. When
in
we see a particular thing, cannotbe recognized known
it and unless
its form revealed
is to us, precisely in demAugenblick Einzel-
" des
nen"; thisis whatthe " exemplification a universal means,for
of "
us as well as for" the master thosewhoknow." Schluck's ex-
of "
planation," then,doesnotexplain;forI am surehe doesnotmeanus
to gather from abstruse
his formulation startling
the newsthatwhen
we see a dramawe see a drama. It wouldbe, I think, moreaccurate
to saythattheparticular dramatic action a
representsgeneral classof
actions merely sharing
not by andexhibiting form, all themem-
its as
bersof theclasswould, also by displaying minimum excep-
but a of
tionsand irrelevancies, by concealing
and thoseinessential elements
it cannot avoidretaining.This wouldnotgivethegistofAristotle's
KaOoXov, I have interpreted but it wouldeliminate
as it, the tautolo-
gousunclarity thecitedpassage.
of
B. I cannotjustlyneglect of
somemention Professor's Gomme's
finebook The GreekAttitude Poetryand History(1954) which
to
of
contains number worthwhile
a observations thetextin question.
on
Professor Gomme agrees withme thatcatharsis cannot theendof
be
tragedy.His reason thatAristotle
is insists a quitedifferent
on end:
"
tragedy's proper pleasure."
However, amicusPlato; magisamica veritas. The homeopathic
theory Aristotelean
of catharsis, withits long and augusthistory,
cannot be summarily rejected such flimnsy
on its
grounds; partisans
couldretort withperfect reasonableness thatthe " proper pleasure "
presupposed noneotherthan the beneficial
is ataraxyproduced by
thetragic thus
experience, converting Professor Gomme's ownargu-

160 HAROLD SKULSKY

ment into an unmitigated utilitarianism.Moreover,Politics 23
1341b36ff. wouldsupport theircontention againstProfessor Gomme
-if he did notavail himself suchadditional
of proofs I have sug-
as
gested.
C. Another bookcomes mindwhich
to cannot safely outof
be left
account. It is and perhaps remain bestgeneral
will the treatment of
thePoetics; I meanButcher's remarkable Aristotle's Theory Po-
of
etryand Fine Art (reprinted Dover Publications, Y., 1951).
by N.
On themeaning imitation,
of however, find greatscholar's
I the ac-
countrather misleading.He contends thatthe elements theme-
of
diumof imitation, manoeuvres grimaces actors, ex-
the and of for
ample,reflect theirobjectsdirectly, intuitively
are interpreted, and
do not presuppose set of conventions note 9 above).
a (see They
" conveytheirmeaning the forceof immediate
by suggestion and
a
without conscious process inference.If symbols
of theymay be
called,theyare not conventional symbols, but livingsigns
(Butcher, 134).
But as we haveseen,Aristotle imputes radicalpleasurableness
the
of imitation the processof inference
to (ivXXoyt(gaGat)required to
whattheimitation
learn(ju.av0dveLv) represents. Indeedsome conven-
are
tionsof imitation, therulesof perspective, relatively
like recent
contrivances, theirinculcation culturalconditioning a
and by was
historical eventof the first importance.In the case of facial and
bodilygestures, theirrelation emotion, importance a
in to the of
culturally determined conventional is
framework particularly obvi-
of
ous; hencethe amazingpropriety 'ivXXo-ytg-coat, especially cor-
as
roborated theanthropological
by data availableto us (of which Aris-
totlecouldhave had littleknowledge).
Harvard University.
23ProfessorGomme wouldperhapsagreethattheveryexistence therapeutic
of
that
music at leastan indication " emotional
is to
flushingis notessential tragedy.
"

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