Effects of Sexuality and Career Choice on Perceived Femininity of Fathers

Running head: EFFECTS ON PERCEIVED FEMININITY 1
Effects of Sexuality and Career Choice on Perceived Femininity of Fathers
Matthew J. Baumann
Carroll University

EFFECTS ON PERCEIVED FEMININITY 2
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine if a man’s career choice or sexuality affected
people’s perceptions of his femininity. For this study, 98 participants were randomly assigned to
one of four vignettes. In the vignettes a man’s career choice and his sexuality were manipulated.
After reading the vignette a survey was administered to measure his perceived femininity. No
significant effects or interactions of sexuality or career choice were found on his perceived
femininity. This is important information; however, because it shows that there is a lack of
stigma and bias towards these men and this could prompt future research in the field of gender
equality.
Keywords: stay-at-home, homosexual, father, perceptions, femininity

Effects of Sexuality and Career Choice on Perceived Femininity
Perceptions are an important part of society and play a huge role in interpersonal
relationships. People’s perceptions can be influenced by any number of things. For instance, the
composition of a family is an influential factor. Families are difficult to define because any given
group of people may have a different idea of what a family is to them. Many think of the
traditional 1950’s family with high birth rates, low divorce rates, and marriage at a young age;
however, this is not the case anymore (Cherlin, 1988). With the Supreme Court’s ruling in favor
of same-sex marriage nationwide in 2015, there is a whole new dynamic when examining
families (Supreme Court of the United States, 2015). Families will no longer consist solely of a
man and woman, but can now legally involve two men or two women. This will affect the
dynamic of the family and the care the child receives. According to the United States Census in
1994 approximately 20% of married couples with a child under the age of 15 had a stay-at-home
parent (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2015). That number was up to approximately 25% in
2015. Additionally, the number of stay-at-home fathers has increased from roughly 0.5% in 1994
to 1.5% in 2015. It is likely that the choice to work or stay home and sexuality may influence
people’s perceptions.
The role of a father in a family can be quite diverse depending on how the individual
family functions. A study by Lareau (2000) found that fathers do not typically know the family’s
routine and schedule. The fathers that were interviewed and observed typically received that
information from their wives. A similar study found that mothers still do the majority of
parenting; however father involvement is on the rise (Yeung, Sandberg, Davis-Kean, & Hofferth,
2001). Research conducted by Bridges, Staugh, and Barnes-Farrell (2002) demonstrated that

people perceived mothers as displaying more parenting behaviors than fathers, regardless of their
role as caregiver or breadwinner. However, they also showed that the participants felt caregiving
mothers and father had similar traits, and lastly they found that people thought employed
mothers were not as effective parents. They demonstrated that father involvement on the
weekends is higher and that the father’s wage and hours have a negative correlation to time spent
with their children on weekdays, but not on weekends. Finally, they found that the mother’s
work hours do not relate to the father’s time spent with their kids. Lareau (2000) showed that
claims of high father involvement did not necessarily correspond with their interviews and
observations; however, fathers were important for conversations, entertainment, and teaching
some life skills to their children. Another study conducted by Doucet (2009) found that having a
male caregiver is important in establishing a strong bond between a father and his child.
Fathers obviously play an important role in the family and there are several factors that
may influence their career choice. Rochlen, McKelley, and Whittaker (2010) found that the most
common reasons a father would decide to stay home were if their partner made more money,
they were against a nanny or daycare program, they felt men and women could could provide the
same quality of parenting, they believed male and female presence was equally important to the
development of their child, or if the father received encouragement from extended-family
members. Their report on over 200 stay at home fathers showed that about half of the fathers saw
some form of stigma. This stigma typically came from people’s unfamiliarity, religious views,
ignorance, or belief in traditional gender roles. Doucet (2009) showed that the caregiving role of
the father has become more widely accepted from 1990 to 2000, yet a study by Lanter (2008)
found that breadwinning fathers were liked better by both men and women than caregiving
fathers. Rochlen, McKelley, and Whittaker (2010) additionally found that stay at home fathers

received more stigma if they lacked social support. An interview of 14 stay at home fathers
showed that the fathers were happy with their roles, but they received mixed reactions from
people (Rochlen, Suizzo, McKelley, & Scaringi, 2008). They went on to indicate that the fathers
typically received support from friends and family, yet there was always some stigma and
stereotypes present.
Similarly to society’s diverse views on parenting, there are a variety of ways people view
homosexual relationships. Prentice and Carranza (2002) showed that both men and women
reacted negatively to nontraditional gender roles. They found that males who break gender norms
were made fun of and were more likely to be called gay (Slatten & Gabrys, 2014). Additionally
they found that males who break gender norms are called gay more frequently than females who
break gender norms. Contrary to the stigmas presented, Abrams, Carter, and Hogg (1989) found
that straight men were liked more when they had stereotypical gay traits than stereotypical
straight traits. Furthermore, they determined that homosexual men with the gay traits were liked
less when they were labeled as homosexual. In addition, Lanter (2008) showed that masculine
men were liked more than feminine men by males and in general masculine man had a higher
approval by both males and females.
I hypothesize that there will be a main effect of a man’s sexuality on people’s perception
of his femininity. People will likely perceive the man as more feminine when he is homosexual
than when he is presented as straight. One study found that males who break gender norms or are
more feminine are more commonly referred to as homosexual (Slatten & Gabrys, 2014).
Additionally, McCreary (1994) stated that a male acting in a feminine manner is associated more
strongly with homosexuality than a woman behaving in a masculine way is. I also hypothesize
that there will be a main effect of a man’s work choice on perception of his femininity. People

may perceive the man as more feminine when he chooses to stay home and care for his child
than when he continues his full-time career. A study conducted by Lanter (2008) shows that both
men and women believe people perceive caregiving fathers as more feminine than breadwinning
fathers. Moreover, people believe there are acceptable and unacceptable behaviors that men and
women can partake in and when they engage in an action typically performed by the opposite sex
it can cause conflicts in other’s perceptions of the person (West & Zimmerman, 2009). Finally, I
hypothesize that there will be an interaction between sexuality and the choice of caregiver to
alter people’s perceptions of the man’s masculinity due to the belief that a homosexual man and
a care-giving man will both be perceived more effeminately. The two will likely interact
synergistically to influence people’s perceptions of that man and his femininity.
Method
Participants
Participants were mostly from Carroll University and were asked to participate. Some of
the participants were compensated with a research credit if they were in an Introductory
Psychology class or extra credit if they were in a class that offered it. A total of 98 participants
were recruited for this study. The age range reported was 17 to 52 years with a mean of 21.36
(SD = 5.29). Of the 98 participants 66 were female (67.30%) and 32 were male (32.70%).
Additionally the majority of the participants were heterosexual (94.90%) and single (92.90%).
Of the participants, 79 identified as white (80.60%), nine identified as hispanic (9.20%), five
identified as multiracial or other (5.10%), four identified as asian/pacific islander (4.10%), and
one identified as black (1.00%). Participants also reported their standing in an undergraduate
degree program with 37 freshmen (37.80%), nine sophomores (9.20%), 21 juniors (21.40%), 23
seniors(23.50%), and eight not currently enrolled (8.20%). Finally participants’ religious

affiliation was recorded and 65 participants were Christian (66.30%), 19 participants were
another religion (19.40%), eight participants were Atheist (8.20%), three participants were
Muslim (3.10%), two participants were Buddhist (2.00%), and one participant was Hindu
(1.00%). Of the four conditions provided, 25 participants were randomly assigned to the survey
in which the man was homosexual and continued his career, 25 to the survey in which the man
was heterosexual and continued his career, 25 to the survey in which the man was homosexual
and left his career to be be the primary caregiver, and 23 to the survey in which the man was
heterosexual and left his career to be the primary caregiver.
Materials
This study consisted of four different versions of a vignette and a survey. The vignettes
contained several similar conditions. They all followed the story of the main character, Jimmy,
who grew up, went to college, married his significant other, and they moved in together. He
graduated college and received a job, while his spouse attended medical school. After his
significant other graduated, they decided to adopt a son named Jackson. There were a few
variable differences in these vignettes, however. The variables consisted of Jimmy’s sexuality
and his career choice after the adoption of Jackson. These two variables were combined to make
the four different versions; one where Jimmy was homosexual and continued his career (see
Appendix A), one where Jimmy was heterosexual and continued his career (see Appendix B),
one where Jimmy was homosexual and left his career to be Jackson’s primary caregiver (see
Appendix C), and one where Jimmy was heterosexual and left his career to be Jackson’s primary
caregiver (see Appendix D).
The survey included in this study consisted of 16 questions with eight target questions
(see Appendix E). The target questions were designed to measure the main character’s perceived

femininity. The Bem Sex Role Inventory (Bem, 1977) was modified to derive the target
questions for this study. Two examples of these questions are “I think Jimmy is gentle” and
“Jimmy is an affectionate man”. Questions were answered on a Likert scale (Likert, 1932) from
one (definitely disagree) to seven (definitely agree). The possible range of scores was 8 to 56.
Higher scores indicate Jimmy as a more feminine man. A demographics page was also included
(see Appendix F).
Procedure
A 2x2 between-subject factorial design was established. After obtaining consent, the
participants were randomly assigned one of the manipulations. The participants were then
allowed up to 15 minutes to read the vignette and fill out the survey measuring perceived
femininity of the man, as well as the demographics page. The majority of the surveys were filled
out in a quiet environment, usually a typical classroom setting. After obtaining the completed
surveys the participants were thanked and they left.
Results
A 2x2 between-subjects ANOVA was used to analyze the data in this study. There was
not a significant main effect of sexuality, F(1, 94) = .006, p = .94. People perceived the man
similarly feminine whether he was homosexual (M = 38.88, SD = 5.02) or heterosexual (M =
38.92, SD = 4.89). There was not a significant main effect of the man’s career choice, F(1, 94) =
2.55, p = .11. Participants perceived the man’ femininity similarly regardless of if he was a
caregiver (M = 39.87, SD = 5.60) or the breadwinner (M = 38.12, SD = 4.10). There was not a
significant interaction between sexuality and career choice, F(1, 94) = .06, p = .82 (see Figure 1).
When the man was homosexual participants perceived him equally as feminine when he was the
caregiver (M = 39.56, SD = 5.99) and when he was the breadwinner (M = 38.20, SD = 3.82; see

Table 1). Similarly, when the man was heterosexual they perceived him as similarly masculine
when he was the caregiver (M = 38.04, SD = 4.44) and when he was the breadwinner (M =
39.87, SD = 5.26).
Discussion
After conducting the research, none of the proposed hypotheses were supported. There
was no evidence suggesting that caregiving fathers caused any more feminine perceptions than
the breadwinning fathers did. It was also determined that a homosexual man did not cause a
more feminine perception than a heterosexual man did. Finally, contrary to the hypothesized
interaction, there was no interaction between career choice and sexuality on perceived femininity
of the father.
While the hypotheses from this study could not be supported, there are other studies that
show similar findings. One study found that, to some extent, homosexual males display no
higher feminine gender identities than heterosexual males (Freund et al., 1974). This is important
because this begins to explain that there may be no difference in the characteristics of
heterosexual and homosexual men. Additionally, Abrams et al. (1989) determined that a man
labeled as heterosexual with homosexual traits was found to be more attractive. Their
information goes along with the findings of this study because it suggests that there may be no
difference between homosexual and heterosexual men’s characteristics, rather society merely
disapproves of the label homosexual, not the traits those individuals might possess. McCreary
(1994) showed that the behaviors and attributes of opposite gender roles are linked more strongly
with perceptions of men, than of women, as homosexual. This also examines the possibility that
a deviance in gender roles influences society’s perceptions of men much more greatly than it
does of women.

Along with the lack of support for an effect of sexuality and perceived femininity a lack
of support was also found for fathers who stay home. The study conducted by Rochlen et al.
(2010) found that over 70% of their participants saw no negativity toward their role as a stay at
home father. This can supply evidence to help explain why participants may not have perceived a
caregiving father as more feminine than a working father. Additionally Lanter (2002) found that
there was higher approval rating for men with more feminine traits by women than by other men.
This could be significant as the majority of participants in this study were female. Interestingly in
the study conducted by Bridges et al. (2002) it was concluded that there was no perceived
difference in traits possessed by a stay at home mother versus a stay at home father, but there
were perceived stereotypes for both genders. The researchers go on to discuss that if they had
used a rating scale they would likely have come to an incorrect conclusion showing that gender
stereotypes did not guide people’s perceptions. In their study they used an objective estimate
rating model allowing for more accurate results, while this study used a Likert rating scale.
Although the hypotheses were not found to be significant, these results have several
theoretical implications. The fact that the hypotheses were not supported is actually be a good
thing. Society is becoming increasingly more accepting of others’ differences. Also, there is less
of a stigma behind sexuality as well as choice in career. This data suggests that there are a lack of
gendered stereotypes in caregiving and homosexual fathers. A potential, revised theory could be
constructed stating that society does not perceive caregiving men and working men differently in
terms of their masculinity. People do not seem to perceive homosexual and heterosexual men
with different levels of femininity which could be due to several things. A leading hypothesis
could be the presence of these factors in the media. Since these variables are incorporated into
the media much more frequently people may not perceive them as foreign. For example many

famous celebrities have come out as homosexual or in support of the LGBT community. This
may influence people’s overall perceptions of homosexual men. Additionally, as Altemeyer
(2004) found, the presence of religion in western cultures seems to be declining. Religion is a
leading reason as to why people disapprove of homosexuality and with a decline in religion it is
possible that there will be an incline in acceptance of people’s differences.
In addition to theoretical implications, this study also has many practical implications.
This study benefits many people, particularly both homosexual and heterosexual fathers. These
men would no longer have to worry about other’s perceptions of them which can make their
daily lives easier. This would also positively affect the spouses and families of men. All these
people in their families would benefit because of the lack of stigma received by the men they
love. A stay at home father should no longer decide against that choice for fear of ridicule or
judgement. The father would be able to make an informed decision about his career choice and
do what is best for his family. It can additionally be useful to counselors who can use this
information during therapy sessions to help show that people really do not judge them as harshly
as they may assume. Additionally, this data can be useful for the counselor when developing
treatment plans for these men. It shows that gender stereotypes are not as concrete as people may
think. Finally, this study gives men confidence in their choice of career and gives them
confidence in themselves, regardless of sexual orientation.
While this study has several implications, it also has some limitations. The research was
conducted with a small sample size of only 98 participants. If the study were to have a larger
sample size this study could possibly have come to a more significant conclusion. Additionally,
this was a vignette study, which is very artificial by nature, so it could have been it’s artificiality
and unrealistic experimental design that skewed the results. Participant effect is a potential threat

to the experiment’s validity because it is possible that participants lied when answering the
survey questions because their expectations and motivations to give a positive response influence
their answers. If the study could have been conducted with real people or actors instead of a
vignette, this may have produced significant results. This study can only be generalized to
predominantly caucasian college-aged students in the midwest. It is plausible to expect that the
outcome would vary based on where the study was performed. For example, Baunach, Burgess,
and Muse (2010) describe that the south has a more traditional and religious culture and has a
negative bias toward homosexuality. The results may have been affected if the study was
conducted on a larger, more diverse group of participants. It is also possible that the vignette
stories did not emphasize the independent variables enough to affect the participant’s answers
and ultimately the outcome of the study. One adjustment to the study could be to spend more of
the vignette emphasizing the man’s sexuality and his career choice and less on the history of the
man.
Despite the limitations, this study has the potential to greatly influence future research.
This data is important because it shows a lack of negative bias towards men and can be used as a
basis for new studies on gender equality. Additionally it is possible to change some variables to
alter the outcomes. For example, the number of children the parents had or maybe even the
gender of the child. A more in-depth description of the children or adopting more than one child
could have greatly altered perceptions of the father. Additionally it is possible the ethnicity or
age of the father could change people’s perception of him. Finally, the environment in which the
vignette story occurred, either house or apartment, could potentially influence the participants’
perceptions of the father. For whatever reason perceptions of the father might have changed if
they did not live in a typical house in the suburbs. People may perceive the man differently

depending on where they chose to make their family. While the experimental approach did not
yield significant findings, a correlational study may be useful to contribute to the understanding
of gender related issues and provide further insights into these issues.

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Appendix A
Homosexual Career Father
Please read the following short-story and answer the following questions.
Growing up, Jimmy was smart and very involved. In high school he did well in most of his
classes, got along with all of his teachers, and turned in all of his assignments. After school
Jimmy kept busy with lots of activities. He was in the Math Club, wrote for the school paper, and
volunteered at the local animal shelter on the weekends. He was on the varsity volleyball team
and in the off season he played basketball to try to stay in shape. Most people seemed to like
Jimmy and he got along well with just about everybody. Upon graduation from high school,
Jimmy attended his second choice school, University of Wisconsin – Milwaukee the following
fall. Jimmy began his undergraduate career as a business student. He was nervous to start
college, but excited for a new challenge in his life. Once classes began and Jimmy got into the
routine of college, he realized how much more free time he had. In high school Jimmy never
really had time for any serious relationships because of his involvement, but in his first general
education art class he met a man named Alec who he really liked. Jimmy took him out on their
first date to a local restaurant, which went really well, and ever since then the two have been
inseparable. They dated all the way through college, with very few bumps in their relationship,
and three and a half years later, they both graduated from college. Jimmy got a job as a tax
consultant in a neighborhood near the University of Wisconsin – Madison, where Alec went on
to medical school to become a doctor. The couple moved in together and Jimmy payed the rent
and started a savings account while Alec finished his schooling. Soon after Alec graduated from
medical school Jimmy proposed to him, and he, of course, said yes. After their honeymoon, Alec
started working at a clinic in Madison. A few months after Alec started working at the clinic,
they decided to move out to a quiet suburb of Madison, where they chose to settle down. After
much thought the two decided they were ready for kids. Jimmy and Alec had always been
proponents of adoption and after a lengthy approval process and filling out mountains of
paperwork, they adopted their first son, Jackson. They weighed the costs of one of them staying
home against the benefits of having two incomes, and knowing that a child would be a lot of
work they decided it would be best if they hired a nanny to care for Jackson while they were at
work. This was not an easy decision to come to, but they had their family’s best interests in
mind.

Appendix B
Heterosexual Career Father
education art class he met a girl named Alyssa who he really liked. Jimmy took her out on their
consultant in a neighborhood near the University of Wisconsin – Madison, where Alyssa went on
and started a savings account while Alyssa finished her schooling. Soon after Alyssa graduated
from medical school Jimmy proposed to her, and she, of course, said yes. After their honeymoon,
Alyssa started working at a clinic in Madison. A few months after Alyssa started working at the
clinic, they decided to move out to a quiet suburb of Madison, where they chose to settle down.
After much thought the two decided they were ready for kids. Jimmy and Alyssa had always
been proponents of adoption and after a lengthy approval process and filling out mountains of
work they decided it would be best if they hired a nanny to care for Jackson while they were at
work. This was not an easy decision to come to, but they had their family’s best interests in
mind.

Appendix C
Homosexual Primary Caregiver Father
education art class he met a man named Alec who he really liked. Jimmy took him out on their
consultant in a neighborhood near the University of Wisconsin – Madison, where Alec went on
and started a savings account while Alec finished his schooling. Soon after Alec graduated from
medical school Jimmy proposed to him, and he, of course, said yes. After their honeymoon, Alec
started working at a clinic in Madison. A few months after Alec started working at the clinic,
they decided to move out to a quiet suburb of Madison, where they chose to settle down. After
much thought the two decided they were ready for kids. Jimmy and Alec had always been
proponents of adoption and after a lengthy approval process and filling out mountains of
work they decided it would be best if Jimmy stayed home to care for Jackson as he grows up.
This was not an easy decision to come to, but they had their family’s best interests in mind.

Appendix D
Heterosexual Primary Caregiver Father
education art class he met a girl named Alyssa who he really liked. Jimmy took her out on their
consultant in a neighborhood near the University of Wisconsin – Madison, where Alyssa went on
and started a savings account while Alyssa finished her schooling. Soon after Alyssa graduated
from medical school Jimmy proposed to her, and she, of course, said yes. After their honeymoon,
Alyssa started working at a clinic in Madison. A few months after Alyssa started working at the
clinic, they decided to move out to a quiet suburb of Madison, where they chose to settle down.
After much thought the two decided they were ready for kids. Jimmy and Alyssa had always
been proponents of adoption and after a lengthy approval process and filling out mountains of
work they decided it would be best if Jimmy stayed home to care for Jackson as he grows up.
This was not an easy decision to come to, but they had their family’s best interests in mind.

Appendix E
Survey to measure perceived femininity
Please answer the following questions by writing in a number from the scale provided.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Definitely
Disagree
Definitely
Agree
1. _______ I think Jimmy has a warm personality.
2. _______ I think Jimmy will be a good parent.
3. _______ Jimmy is an affectionate man.
4. _______ I think the couple should have waited longer to adopt their kid.
5. _______ I think Jimmy is gentle.
6. _______ Jimmy’s relationship seems healthy.
7. _______ I think Jimmy appears sympathetic.
8. _______ I think it was smart to move out of the city before adopting Jackson.
9. _______ Jimmy seems like he would be a masculine guy.
10. _______ I do not think this couple should have adopted a child.
11. _______ I think Jimmy is passive or submissive.
12. _______ Jackson will struggle having a physician as a parent.
13. _______ I think Jimmy can be sensitive to other’s needs.
14. _______ I believe Jimmy should have dated more before choosing to getting married.
15. _______ Jimmy is a tender man who cares a lot.
16. _______ I think Jackson will be happy with his parents.

Appendix F
Demographics Page
Please fill out the following demographics information about yourself to the best of your ability.
SEX: Male Female Other
AGE: __________
ETHNICITY: Circle any that describe you and feel free to add more
Asian/Pacific Islander ________________________________________
Black _____________________________________________________
Hispanic ___________________________________________________
Native American ____________________________________________
White _____________________________________________________
Other _____________________________________________________
YEAR IN
SCHOOL:
Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Graduate
Student
Not
Currently
Enrolled
MARITAL
STATUS:
Single Married Divorced Separated Widowed
SEXUAL
ORIENTATION:
Heterosexual/
Straight
Homosexual/
Gay/Lesbian
Bisexual Other
RELIGIOUS
AFFILIATION:
Atheist Buddhist Christian Jewish Hindu Muslim Other

Table 1
The Effects of Sexuality and Career Choice on Perceived Femininity
Heterosexual Homosexual
Career Choice M (SD) M (SD)
Caregiver 39.87 (5.26) 39.56 (5.99)
Breadwinner 38.04 (4.44) 38.20 (3.82)
Note. N = 98.

Figure 1. Sexuality and career choice of the man did not influence participants’ perceived
femininity of him. There was not a significant main effect of the man’s sexuality or career
choice. Additionally, there was not a significant interaction between sexuality and career choice.

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