Developmental psychology studies changes that occur across the human lifespan from conception to death. Development is lifelong, multidimensional, multidisciplinary, multicultural, and contextual. It involves the interplay of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes. Development occurs through distinct periods - prenatal, infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. Key issues in development include the interplay of nature and nurture, stability and change over time, and the degree of continuity versus discontinuity between periods. Major theories to explain development include psychoanalytic theory which emphasizes unconscious processes and early experiences.

2. Developmental psychology is the scientific study of
changes that occur in human beings over the course of
their life span.
OR
The pattern of change that begins at conception and
continues through the life cycle.

3. Characteristics of the Life-
Span Perspective
Development is:
Development is Lifelong
Development is Multidimensional
Development is Multidirectional
Development is Multidisciplinary
Development is plastic
Development is contextual

4. Development Is Lifelong In the life-span
perspective,
early adulthood is not the endpoint of development;
rather, no age period dominates development.
Researchers increasingly study the experiences and
psychological orientations of adults at different points
in their lives.

5. Development Is Multidimensional
Whatever your age, your body, your mind, your
emotions, and your relationships are changing and
affecting each other.
Development consists of biological, cognitive, and
socioemotional dimensions.
Even within a dimension, there are many
components—for example, attention, memory,
abstract thinking, speed of processing information,
and social intelligence are just a few of the
components of the cognitive dimension.

6. Development Is Multidirectional Throughout life,
some dimensions or components of a dimension expand and
others shrink.
For example, when one language (such as English) is acquired
early in development, the capacity for acquiring second and
third languages (such as Spanish and Chinese) decreases later in
development, especially after early childhood (Levelt, 1989).
During adolescence, as individuals establish romantic
relationships, their time spent with friends may decrease.
During late adulthood, older adults might become wiser by
being able to call on experience to guide their intellectual
decision making, but they perform more poorly on tasks that
require speed in processing information (Baltes, 2009; Baltes &
Kuntzman, 2007; Salthouse, 2009).

7. Development Is Plastic
Developmentalists debate how much plasticity people have in various
dimensions at different points in their development. Plasticity means
the capacity for change.
For example, can you still improve your intellectual skills when you are
in your seventies or eighties?
Or might these intellectual skills be fixed by the time you are in your
thirties so that further improvement is impossible? Researchers have
found that the cognitive skills of older adults can be improved through
training and developing better strategies (Boron, Willis, & Schaie,
2007; Kramer, 2009). However, possibly we possess less capacity for
change when we become old (Baltes, Reuter-Lorenz, & Rosler, 2006).
The search for plasticity and its constraints is a key element on the
contemporary agenda for developmental research (Kramer & Morrow,
2009).

8. Developmental Science Is Multidisciplinary
Psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists,
neuroscientists, and medical researchers all share an
interest in unlocking the mysteries of development
through the life span. How do your heredity and
health limit your intelligence? Do intelligence and
social relationships change with age in the same way
around the world? How do families and schools
influence intellectual development? These are
examples of research questions that cut across
disciplines.

9. Development Is Contextual All development occurs within a
context, or setting.
Contexts include families, schools, peer groups, churches, cities,
neighborhoods, university laboratories, countries, and so on. Each of
these settings is influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural
factors (Matsumoto & Juang, 2008; Mehrotra & Wagner, 2009).
Contexts, like individuals, change. Thus, individuals are changing
beings in a changing world. As a result of these changes, contexts exert
three types of influences (Baltes, 2003):
(1) normative age-graded influences,
(2) normative history-graded influences, and
(3) nonnormative or highly individualized life events. Each of these
types can have a biological or environmental impact on development.

10. Normative age-graded influences are similar for
individuals in a particular age group.
These influences include biological processes such as
puberty and menopause. They also include
sociocultural, environmental processes such as
beginning formal education (usually at about age 6 in
most cultures) and retirement (which takes place in
the fifties and sixties in most cultures).

11. Normative history-graded influences are common to
people of a particular generation because of historical
circumstances.
Examples of normative history-graded influences include
economic, political, and social upheavals such as the Great
Depression in the 1930s, World War II in the 1940s, the civil
rights and women’s rights movements of the 1960s and
1970s, the terrorist attacks of 9/11/2001, as well as the
integration of computers and cell phones into everyday life
during the 1990s (Elder & Shanahan, 2006; Schaie, 2007).
Long-term changes in the genetic and cultural makeup of a
population (due to immigration or changes in fertility
rates) are also part of normative historical change.

12. Nonnormative life events are unusual occurrences
that have a major impact on the individual’s life.
These events do not happen to all people, and when
they do occur they can influence people in different
ways.
Examples include the death of a parent when a child is
young, pregnancy in early adolescence, a fire that
destroys a home, winning the lottery, or getting an
unexpected career opportunity.

13. Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and
Regulation
As individuals age into middle and late adulthood, the
maintenance and regulation of loss in their capacities
takes center stage away from growth. Thus, a 75-year-
old man might aim not to improve his memory or his
golf swing but to maintain his independence and his
ability to play golf at all.

14. The Nature of Development
Development Is a Co-Construction of Biology,
Culture, and the Individual
Development is a co-construction of biological, cultural,
and individual factors working together (Baltes, 2009;
Baltes, Reuter-Lorenz, & Rosler, 2006).
For example, the brain shapes culture, but it is also shaped
by culture and the experiences that individuals have or
pursue. In terms of individual factors, we can go beyond
what our genetic inheritance and environment give us. We
can author a unique developmental path by actively
choosing from the environment the things that optimize
our lives (Rathunde & Csikstentmihalyi, 2006).

15. Biological, cognitive &
Socioemotional Processes
We defined development as the pattern of change that begins at conception and
continues through the life span. The pattern is complex because it is the
product of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes.
Biological processes produce changes in an individual’s physical nature.
Genes inherited from parents, the development of the brain, height and weight
gains, changes in motor skills, the hormonal changes of puberty, and
cardiovascular decline are all examples of biological processes that affect
development.
Cognitive processes
These refer to changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and language.
Watching a colorful mobile swinging above the crib, putting together a two-
word sentence, memorizing a poem, imagining what it would be like to be a
movie star, and solving a crossword puzzle all involve cognitive processes.

16. Biological process
Socioemotional
process
Cognitive
process

17. Socioemotional processes
involve changes in the individual’s relationships with
other people, changes in emotions, and changes in
personality.
A child’s response to a parent’s touch, a toddler’s
aggressive attack on a playmate, a school-age child’s
development of assertiveness, an adolescent’s joy at a
party, and the affection of an elderly woman all reflect
the role of socioemotional processes in development.

18. Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are
inextricably intertwined (Diamond, 2007).
Consider a baby smiling in response to a parent’s touch.
This response depends on biological processes (the
physical nature of touch and responsiveness to it),
cognitive processes (the ability to understand intentional
acts), and socioemotional processes (the act of smiling
often reflects a positive emotional feeling, and smiling
helps to connect us in positive ways with other human
beings).
In many instances, biological, cognitive, and
socioemotional processes are bidirectional. For example,
biological processes can influence cognitive processes and
vice versa.

19. Periods of Development
Periods of Development
The interplay of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional
processes produces the periods of the human life span.
A developmental period refers to a time frame in a person’s
life that is characterized by certain features.
For the purposes of organization and understanding, we
commonly describe development in terms of these periods.
The most widely used classification of developmental
periods involves the eight-period sequence shown in Figure
Approximate age ranges are listed for the periods to provide
a general idea of when a period begins and ends.

20. Periods of development
Prenatal
period
(conception
to
birth)
Infancy
(birth to 18–
24
months)
Early
childhood
(2–5 years)
Middle and
late
childhood
(6–11 years)
Adolescence
(10–12 to
18–21 years)
Early
adulthood
(20s to 30s)
Middle
adulthood
(40s to 50s)
Late
adulthood
(60s–70s
to death)

21. The prenatal period is the time from conception to birth. It involves
tremendous growth—from a single cell to an organism complete with
brain and behavioral capabilities—and takes place in approximately a
nine-month period.
Infancy is the developmental period from birth to 18 or 24 months.
Infancy is a time of extreme dependence upon adults. During this
period, many psychological activities—language, symbolic thought,
sensorimotor coordination, and social learning, for example—are just
beginning.
Early childhood is the developmental period from the end of infancy to
age 5 or 6. This period is sometimes called the “preschool years.”
During this time, young children learn to become more self-sufficient
and to care for themselves, develop school readiness skills (following
instructions, identifying letters), and spend many hours in play with
peers. First grade typically marks the end of early childhood.

22. Middle and late childhood is the developmental period from about 6
to 11 years of age, approximately corresponding to the elementary
school years. During this period, the fundamental skills of reading,
writing, and arithmetic are mastered. The child is formally exposed to
the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more central
theme of the child’s world, and self-control increases.
Adolescence is the developmental period of transition from childhood
to early adulthood, entered at approximately 10 to 12 years of age and
ending at 18 to 21 years of age. Adolescence begins with rapid physical
changes—dramatic gains in height and weight, changes in body
contour, and the development of sexual characteristics . At this point in
development, the pursuit of independence and an identity are
prominent. Thought is more logical, abstract, and idealistic. More time
is spent outside the family.

23. Early adulthood is the developmental period that begins in the early
twenties and lasts through the thirties. It is a time of establishing
personal and economic independence, career development, and, for
many, selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate
way, starting a family, and rearing children.
Middle adulthood is the developmental period from approximately 40
years of age to about 60. It is a time of expanding personal and social
involvement and responsibility; of assisting the next generation in
becoming competent, mature individuals; and of reaching and
maintaining satisfaction in a career.
Late adulthood is the developmental period that begins in the sixties
or seventies and lasts until death. It is a time of life review, retirement,
and adjustment to new social roles involving decreasing strength and
health.

24. Late adulthood has the longest span of any period of development; the number
of people in this age group has been increasing dramatically. As a result, life-
span developmentalists have been paying more attention to differences within
late adulthood (Scheibe, Freund, & Baltes, 2007).
A major change takes place in older adults’ lives as they become the “oldest-
old,” on average at about 85 years of age. For example, the “young-old”
(classified as 65 through 84 in this analysis) have substantial potential for
physical and cognitive fitness, retain much of their cognitive capacity, and can
develop strategies to cope with the gains and losses of aging.
In contrast, the oldest-old (85 and older) show considerable loss in cognitive
skills, experience an increase in chronic stress, and are more weak (Baltes &
Smith, 2003).
Considerable variation exists in how much the oldest-old retain their
capabilities. Thus, Baltes and Smith concluded that considerable plasticity and
adaptability characterize adults from their sixties until their mid-eighties but
that the oldest-old have reached the limits of their functional capacity, which
makes interventions to improve their lives difficult.

25. Conceptions of Age
Chronological age—number of years elapsed since
person’s birth. Many developmentalisits argue that
chronological age is not very relevant to understand a
person’s psychological development.
A person’s age dose not cause development. Time is a crude
index of many events and experiences and it dose not cause
anything.
Biological age—age in terms of biological health.
Determining biological age involves knowing the
functional capacities of a person’s vital organ system.
The younger the person’s biological age, the longer the
person is expected to live, regardless of chronological age.

26. Psychological age—individual’s adaptive capacities compared
to those of other individuals of the same chronological age.
Thus older adults who continue to learn, are flexible, are
motivated, control their emotions, and think clearly are
engaging in more adaptive behaviors than their chronological
age mates who do not continue to learn, are rigid, are
unmotivated, do not control their emotions, and do not think
clearly.
Social age—social roles and expectations related to person’s age.
Consider the role of a mother and the behaviors that accompany
the role. In predicting an adult woman’s behavior, it may be more
important to know that she is the mother of a 3 year old child
than to know weather she is 20 or 30 years old.

27. Developmental Issues
Nature and Nurture Extent to which development is
influenced by nature and by nurture
Stability and Change Degree to which early traits and
characteristics persist through life or
change
Continuity-Discontinuity Extent development involves gradual,
cumulative change (continuity) or
distinct stages (discontinuity)

28. Nature & Nurture
The nature-nurture-issue revolves around the idea that
both nature and nurturing may play a role in the
growth and development of an individual. Some argue
the tabula rasa theory, that every person's mind is a
blank slate at birth, while others believe that some
traits are inborn. Some researchers place a great deal
of emphasis on the nurturing a child receives during
his or her formative years, believing this nurturing
results in the formation of traits and characteristics in
an individual.

29. Stability & Change
whether the early traits and characteristics in life
continue throughout the individual's life, or change.
Some researchers believe that stability in traits is the
result of heredity, or early-life experiences.
Contrarily, researchers who lean more towards change,
believe that experiences later in life can lead to change.

30. The early- later experience issue:
Western cultures who believe in Freudian concept
believe more in early-experience doctrine.
Asian countries believe that experiences occurring
after age 6 to 7 years of age are more important aspects
of development than early experiences. As reasoning
skills develop in important ways in middle childhood
years.

31. Continuity & Discontinuity
The continuity-discontinuity-issue involves the gradual
versus distinct changes that occur over time in an
individual.
The idea of continuity revolves around continual
development that takes place in an extended period of
time, such as a child learning to speak for the first time.
The idea of discontinuity revolves around the sudden and
abrupt changes, in distinct stages, that occur during an
individual's life, such as a child gaining the ability to think
abstractly

33. Theories of Development
Theory—coherent set of ideas that helps to explain
events and make predictions
Hypotheses—assumptions or predictions, often
derived from theories, that can be tested.

34. Psychoanalytic Theory
Development is primarily unconscious
Behavior is only a surface characteristic
It is important to analyze the symbolic meanings of
behavior
Early experiences are important in development

35. 35
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is :
A method of psychotherapy that focus on unconscious
factors that motivate behavior and encourages the use
of transference as a way for therapists to gain
information and create connections between clients
and themselves.
A theory of personality which is developed through
different stages in life.

36. 36
Topographic model
Topographic theory was first described by Freud in
"the Interpretation of Dreams" (1900)
The theory points that the mental apparatus can
be divided in to three systems
Conscious,
Pre-conscious
Unconscious

37. 37
Conscious: that portion of the mind or mental functioning of which
we are aware.
Pre-conscious: experiences that have been suppressed or
forgotten….are within easy reach of consciousness.
Unconscious: that portion of the mental functioning of which we are
not generally aware because its contents never were conscious or been
repressed, owing to their threatening character.

38. 38
Structural theory
The structure of personality for Freud consists of
three major systems
1. Id
2. Ego
3. Super ego

39. Id: the original personality system out of which ego and super ego
developed.
It is entirely unconscious and has no direct knowledge of external world
Works on pleasure principle: to avoid pain and to get pleasure
Ego: the moderator between id and super ego which seeks compromises to
pacify both.
Is the “executive” of the personality
Works on reality principle: realistic thinking, delays action until it finds a need-
satisfying object
Super ego: internalized societal or parental standards of good and bad and
right and wrong behavior.
Two sub systems: ego ideal & conscience.

40. 40

41. 41
Freud’s psychosexual stages of development
Presented 5 stages of psychosexual development
1. Oral
2. Anal
3. Phallic
4. Latency
5. Genital
For Freud first few years of the life are decisive in
the formation of personality

42. psychosexual
stages
Oral
(birth to 1.5)
Anal
(1.5 to 3 years)
Phallic
(3 to 6 Yrs)
Latency
(6 yrs to puberty)
Genital
(puberty onward)
42

43. Erikson’s
Psychosocial Theory
Eight stages of development
Unique developmental task confronts individuals with
crisis that must be resolved
Positive resolution builds foundation for healthy
development

44. Erikson’s
Life-Span Stages
Trust VS Mistrust (0-1)
Autonomy Vs Shame, doubt (1-3)
Initiative Vs Guilt (3-6)
Industry Vs Inferiority (6-12)
Identity Vs Identity confusion (12-20)
Intimacy Vs Isolation (20-30)
Generativity Vs Stagnation (30-60)
Integrity Vs Despair (65+)

45. Trust Versus Mistrust. In the first year, children begin to learn the ability to
trust others based upon the consistency of their caregiver(s). If trust develops
successfully, the child gains confidence and security in the world around him
and is able to feel secure even when threatened. Unsuccessful completion of
this stage can result in an inability to trust, and therefore a sense of fear about
the inconsistent world. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and a
feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. Between the ages of one and three,
children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their
mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they
like to wear, to eat, etc. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported
in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in
their own ability to survive in the world. If children are criticized, overly
controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel
inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent
upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own
abilities.

46. Initiative vs. Guilt. Around age three and continuing to age six, children
assert themselves more frequently. They begin to plan activities, make up
games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children
develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and
make decisions. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through
criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like a
trouble to others and will therefore remain followers, lacking in self-initiative.
Industry vs. Inferiority. From age six years to puberty, children begin to
develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. They initiate projects, see
them through to completion, and feel good about what they have achieved.
During this time, teachers play an increased role in the child’s development. If
children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel
industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative
is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins
to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his
potential.

47. Identity vs. Role Confusion. During adolescence, the transition from
childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming
more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career,
relationships, families, housing, etc. During this period, they explore
possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the
outcome of their explorations. If their exploration is hindered, it results
in a sense of confusion about themselves and their role in the world,
e.g., “I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up.”
Intimacy vs. Isolation. In Young adulthood, people begin to share
themselves more intimately with others. They explore relationships
leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a
family member. Successful completion can lead to comfortable
relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a
relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships
can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.

48. Generativity vs. Stagnation. During middle adulthood, people
establish their careers, settle down within a relationship, begin their
own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.
They give back to society through raising their children, being
productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities
and organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, they become
stagnant and feel unproductive.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair. As people grow older, they tend to slow
down their productivity, and explore life as a retired person. It is during
this time that they think of their accomplishments and are able to
develop integrity if they see themselves as leading a successful life. If
they see their lives as unproductive, feel guilt about their pasts, or feel
that they did not accomplish their life goals, they become dissatisfied
with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and
hopelessness.

49. Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental
Theory
Children actively construct understanding
Development proceeds based largely on biology
Four stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational

50. Piaget stated that children actively construct their
understanding of the world and go through four stages
of cognitive development.
2 processes underlie this cognitive construction of the
world.
1. organization
2. adaptation

51. Organization: to make sense of the world we organize
our experiences, e.g. we separate important ideas from
less important ideas.
Adaptation: we also adapt our thinking to include
new ideas as additional information furthers
understanding. we adapt in two ways
1. assimilation
2. accommodation

52. Assimilation: occurs when individuals incorporate new
information into their existing knowledge.
Accommodation: occurs when individual adjusts to
new information..

53. We go through 4 stages
Each stage is age related
Consist of distinct way of thinking
It is the different way of understanding the world that
makes one stage more advance than another.
Child’s cognition is qualitatively different in one stage
compared to another.

54. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)
Constructs understanding by coordinating sensory
experiences with motoric actions.
The child explores the world surrounding them using
it’s senses
Initially sucking and grasping reflex and moving onto
reaching for objects out of reach.

55. Object permanence………
Major development within this stage.
Initially the baby cannot understand that an object
exists out of sight.
As the baby reaches around 7/8 months a child will
begin to understand the object/person still exists
when out of sight.

57. Pre-Operational stage(2-7yrs old)
Toddler can understand the use of symbols and
language. pretend play is an example of symbolic
thinking.
Language is now understood.
Unable to perform operations.

58. Operations: The Piaget’s term for internalized mental
actions that allow children to do mentally what they
previously did physically.

59. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
Can perform operations about concrete things
Able to conserve, i.e., understand that although the
appearance has changed the thing itself has not.
Can reason logically about concrete events and classify
objects.

60. =
What is CONSERVATION?
“the awareness that a quantity remains
the same despite a change in its
appearance”

62. Critical Research...
Blank & Rose (1974) The way in which the question is
asked is important; when they replicated Piaget’s
experiment the percentage of 6-year olds that could
conserve increased.
McGarrigle & Donaldson (1974) found that more 4-6
year olds could conserve.

63. Formal Operational Stage (11- 16 years )
Most of previous characteristics discussed
have now developed.
The child shows logical thinking and is able to
work through abstract problems and use logic
without the presence of concrete
manipulation.
E.g. If Kelly is taller than John and John is
taller than Peter who is the tallest?
Thinking is more systematic.

64. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive
Theory
Emphasizes how culture and social interaction
guide cognitive development
Social interaction with more skilled adults and
peers advances cognitive development

65. 3 claims capture the heart of the Vygotsky’s theory
1. the child’s cognitive skills can be understood when
they are developmentally analyzed and interpreted.
2. cognitive skills are facilitated by words, language
and forms of communication which serve as
psychological tools for facilitating and transforming
mental activity
3. cognitive skills have their origins in social relations
and are rooted in sociocultural environment .

66. The information-processing
approach
The information-processing approach states that
individual manipulate information, monitor it and
strategize about it.
Central to this process is memory and thinking
Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for
processing information which allows them to acquire
increasingly complex knowledge and skills.
Unlike Piaget’s cognitive development theory, the
information processing theory dose not describe
development as stage like.

68. Behavioral Theories
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Social Cognitive Theory

69. Bandura’s
Social Cognitive Model

70. Ethological Theory
Behavior
Strongly influenced by biology
Tied to evolution
Characterized by critical or sensitive periods. Examples:
language, attachment

71. Ecological Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s view that development influenced
by five environmental systems/contexts
Microsystem
Mesosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosystem

72. Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Theory

73. Research methods
Case history
Day book method
Archival method
Survey
Observation

74. Experiments
Carefully regulated procedures in which one or more
factors are manipulated while all other factors are held
constant
Independent and Dependent Variables
Experimental and Control Groups
• Can state cause and effect

75. Time Span of Research
Cross-Sectional Approach—individuals of different
ages are compared at one time
Longitudinal Approach—same individuals studied
over period of time
Sequential Approach—combined cross-sectional,
longitudinal design

76. Cohort Effects
Due to subject’s time of birth or generation, but not
age
Can powerfully research ostensibly concerned with age

77. Research Ethics
Informed consent
Confidentiality
Debriefing
Deception