This document discusses the history and evolution of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) from the 1960s to present day. It describes three phases of CALL: 1) Behavioristic CALL from the 1960s-1970s focused on drill-and-practice exercises. 2) Communicative CALL from the 1970s-1980s emphasized using language over analyzing it with the rise of personal computers. 3) Integrative CALL from the 1990s onward integrated language skills through multimedia and internet technologies like distance learning. The document also examines uses of computer-mediated communication, word processing software, and the internet in language teaching.

1. ICTs AND TEACHERS’ ATTITUDE IN
ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
By Gopala Krishnan Sekharan Nair
OVERVIEW
In the 1980s, the application of
technology in language classrooms
included the use of film, radio, television,
language labs with audio and videotapes,
computers, and interactive video
(Cunningham, 1998). Various types of
computer assisted language learning
(CALL) also became commonplace
(Landoli, 1990). Although there were
some innovative uses of software, for
example, MacLang (Frommer, 1989), the
majority of CALL uses were limited in
form to drill-and practice exercises. As
the technology advanced, we began to
see more interactive uses of CALL as
well as an increase in the integration of
various media into the computer system
(Pusack & Otto, 1990). Computer
technology became more accessible to
both individuals and schools. Moreover,
our growing understanding of its potential
encouraged a shift in emphasis from
computer technology to its applications.
That is, finding ways to use computers for
enhancing teaching and learning gained
prominence in the research. Today, the
use of multimedia, the Internet (especially
the World Wide Web), and various forms
of distance learning are widespread.
Interest in using computers as tools to
support language learning is growing,
both from the perspective of a language
educator and that of a language learner.
CALL
Computer-assisted language
learning (CALL) is defined as "the
search for and study of applications of
the computer in language teaching and
learning".[1]
CALL embraces a wide range
of information and communications
technology applications and approaches
to teaching and learning foreign
languages, from the "traditional" drill-and-
practice programs that characterised
CALL in the 1960s and 1970s to more
recent manifestations of CALL, e.g. as
used in a virtual learning
environment and Web-based distance
learning.

2. The term CALI (computer-assisted
language instruction) was in use before
CALL. CALI fell out of favour among
language teachers, however, as it
appeared to imply a teacher-centred
approach (instructional), whereas
language teachers are more inclined to
prefer a student-centred approach,
focusing on learning rather than
instruction. CALL began to replace CALI
in the early 1980s (Davies & Higgins
1982: p. 3)]
and it is now incorporated
into the names of the growing number
of professional associations worldwide.
The current philosophy of CALL puts a
strong emphasis on student-centred
materials that allow learners to work on
their own. Such materials may be
structured or unstructured, but they
normally embody two important features:
interactive learning and individualized
learning. CALL is essentially a tool that
helps teachers to facilitate the language
learning process. It can be used to
reinforce what has already been learned
in the classroom or as a remedial tool to
help learners who require additional
support.
The design of CALL materials generally
takes into consideration principles of
language pedagogy and methodology,
which may be derived from different
learning theories (e.g. behaviourist,
cognitive, constructivist) and second-
language learning theories
A combination of face-to-face teaching
and CALL is usually referred to
as blended learning. Blended learning is
designed to increase learning potential
and is more commonly found than pure
CALL.
Three historical phases of CALL,
classified according to their underlying
pedagogical and methodological
approaches:
 Behavioristic CALL: conceived in the
1950s and implemented in the 1960s
and 1970s.
 Communicative CALL: 1970s to
1980s.
 Integrative CALL: embracing
Multimedia and the Internet: 1990s
onward

3. Most CALL programs in Warschauer &
Healey's first phase, Behavioristic CALL
(1960s to 1970s), consisted of drill-and-
practice materials in which the computer
presented a stimulus and the learner
provided a response. At first, both could
be done only through text. The computer
would analyse students' input and give
feedback, and more sophisticated
programs would react to students'
mistakes by branching to help screens
and remedial activities. While such
programs and their underlying pedagogy
still exist today, behaviouristic
approaches to language learning have
been rejected by most language
teachers, and the increasing
sophistication of computer technology
has led CALL to other possibilities.
The second phase described by
Warschauer & Healey, Communicative
CALL, is based on the communicative
approach that became prominent in the
late 1970s and 1980s (Underwood
1984). In the communicative approach
the focus is on using the language rather
than analysis of the language, and
grammar is taught implicitly rather than
explicitly. It also allows for originality and
flexibility in student output of language.
The communicative approach coincided
with the arrival of the PC, which made
computing much more widely available
and resulted in a boom in the
development of software for language
learning. The first CALL software in this
phase continued to provide skill practice
but not in a drill format—for example:
paced reading, text reconstruction and
language games—but the computer
remained the tutor. In this phase,
computers provided context for students
to use the language, such as asking for
directions to a place, and programs not
designed for language learning such
as Sim City, Sleuth and Where in the
World is Carmen Sandiego? were used
for language learning. Criticisms of this
approach include using the computer in
an ad hoc and disconnected manner for
more marginal aims rather than the
central aims of language teaching.
The third phase of CALL described by
Warschauer & Healey, Integrative CALL,
starting from the 1990s, tried to address
criticisms of the communicative approach
by integrating the teaching of language
skills into tasks or projects to provide
direction and coherence. It also coincided
with the development of multimedia
technology (providing text, graphics,
sound and animation) as well as
Computer-mediated communication
(CMC). CALL in this period saw a
definitive shift from the use of the
computer for drill and tutorial purposes

4. (the computer as a finite, authoritative
base for a specific task) to a medium for
extending education beyond the
classroom. Multimedia CALL started with
interactive laser videodiscs such
as Montevidisco (Schneider & Bennion
1984)]
and A la rencontre de
Philippe (Fuerstenberg 1993),]
both of
which were simulations of situations
where the learner played a key role.
These programs later were transferred to
CD-ROMs, and new role-playing
games (RPGs) such as Who is Oscar
Lake? made their appearance in a range
of different languages.
A significant amount of literature explored
the potential of computer technology
regarding teaching and learning
languages more effectively. Dunkel
(1990), for example, asserted that the
possibilities of using computer technology
as a tool could include increasing
language learners' self-esteem,
vocational preparedness, language
proficiency, and overall academic skills.
Furthermore, the benefits of multimedia,
the Internet, and various forms of
distance education were explored by
many others (e.g., Armstrong & Yetter-
Vassot, 1994; Garrett, 1991; Ruschoff,
1993; Sussex, 1991). Educators were
particularly interested in technology's
interactive capabilities, such as providing
immediate feedback and increasing
learner autonomy, in addition to the
capability of simulating realworld
situations using audio, video, and
graphics (Chun & Brandy 1992; Hoffman,
1995-1996; Jones, 1991; Legenhausen &
Wolff, 1990).
Discussions of the benefits of computer
technology included the exploration of the
application of certain technologies in
specific language areas. Hypermedia
technology, with its linking and interactive
capabilities, was discussed as a tool to
enhance vocabulary learning (Liu, 1994)
and reading comprehension (Hult, Kalaja,
Lassila, & Lehtisalo, 1990). Chun and
Plass (1997) considered the potentials of
using video and audio to support text
comprehension. Kramsch and Andersen
(1999) argued that multimedia technology
could provide authentic cultural contexts
that are important for language learning.
Others advocated CALL programs,
especially voice-interactive CALL for
improving learners' speaking skills
(Ehsani & Knodt, 1998; James, 1996).
Computer technology in combination with
a conferencing system was considered
an effective means of providing goal-
directed writing courses tailored to
different learning styles (Cornu, Decker,
Rosseel, & Vanderheiden, 1990). In
addition, Cononelos and Oliva (1993)

5. reported employing Usenet and e-mail to
connect students in an Italian class with
native speakers to facilitate discussions
on cultural issues. Others shared their
personal experiences in using electronic
dictionaries for reading and writing
(Hulstijn, 2000) and Web Course in a Box
(1997-- 2000) software to teach German
(Godwin-Jones, 1999).
The pedagogical benefits of computer-
mediated communication (CMC) as
facilitated through e-mail and programs
such as the Daedalus Integrated Writing
Environment (1988-2002) became one of
the most commonly discussed topics in
foreign language literature (Salaberry,
1996). Some language educators
implemented this new medium in the
classroom and reported on its linguistic
and psychological benefits (Beauvois,
1992, 1994; Chun, 1994;
GonzalezBueno, 1998; Gonzalez-Bueno
& Perez, 2000; Kelm, 1992; Kern, 1995;
Kroonenberg, 1994-1995; Sullivan &
Pratt, 1996; Van Handle & Corl, 1998;
Warschauer, 1995-1996). Unlike many
individual CALL applications, CMC
seems to promote meaningful human
interaction that can foster the language
learning process. That is, advocates
claim that CMC can be an excellent
medium for cultivating new social
relationships within or across classrooms,
resulting in collaborative, meaningful, and
cross-cultural human interactions among
members of a discourse community
created in cyberspace (Salaberry, 1996;
Warschauer, 1997; Warschauer, Turbee,
& Roberts, 1996; Zhao, 1996).
Daedalus
Many studies on CMC examined the use
of InterChange, a component of
Daedalus (1988-2002), in second
language-learning classrooms (Beauvois,
1992; Chun, 1994; Kelm, 1992; Kern,
1995). InterChange is a synchronous
discussion tool that allows users to have
real-time written conversations and was
originally developed to teach English
composition and literature to native
speakers of English (Bump, 1990).
However, its usage has been expanded
to second language instruction. One of
the most important reasons that
InterChange has received a good deal of
attention from second language teaching
professionals is that it enables students
to have meaningful and authentic
conversations with others in the target

6. language. This type of computer-
mediated communication (CMC) has
become an emphasis in recent language
movements in part because it promotes
students' equal participation in the
classroom (Chun, 1994; Kern; Sullivan &
Pratt, 1996). In addition, all the language
output produced in the InterChange
session can be saved and sorted
according by sender so that students can
reflect on what they or others say. Thus,
learners have an opportunity to monitor
their own language production and learn
from others' language.
The majority of the studies, however,
focused on the development and
increase of written communication skills
using synchronous and/or asynchronous
communication tools. We recognize that
the genre of writing promoted by the use
of CMC is very similar to oral
communication in tone, register, and
spontaneity. Nevertheless, the language
output in CMC is printed and produced
using the keyboard rather than orally,
with no evidence of accuracy in
pronunciation, intonation, prominence,
and stress. We, therefore, present the
discussion of the CMC studies under the
section dealing with writing skills.
CMC
Definition - What does Computer-
Mediated Communication
(CMC) mean?
Computer-mediated communication
(CMC) is a process in which human data
interaction occurs through one or more
networked telecommunication systems. A
CMC interaction occurs through various
types of networking technology and
software, including email, Internet Relay
Chat (IRC), instant messaging (IM),
Usenet and mailing list servers.
CMC technology saves time and money
in IT organizations by facilitating the use
of all communication formats.
Techopedia explains Computer-
Mediated Communication (CMC)
Computer mediated communication is
divided into synchronous and
asynchronous modes. In synchronous
communication, all participants are online
simultaneously. In asynchronous
communication there are time constraints
on communication messages and
responses, as with emails.
Key CMC features include conversation
recordability, formal communication, and
user identity anonymity, depending on

7. software type - such as IM. However,
CMC user statement interpretation may
be difficult due to the absence of verbal
communication.
Word Processing Software
In addition to specific authorware and
commercial software, the literature also
addressed broader software application
categories that included word processing
software, the Internet, and speech
recognition software. Word processing
software, the most "low-tech" of the tools,
"is perhaps the most accepted and
universal use of computers in education
today" (Hyland, 1993, p. 21). Typically,
word processing software offers features
such as spelling checkers, thesauri,
dictionaries, style checkers, and grammar
checkers (Levy, 1990). Some
researchers asserted that word
processing software tended to increase
student enjoyment or appreciation of
routine assignments by transforming
traditional learning tasks into novel ones
(Greenia, 1992; Scott & New, 1994).
Greenia (1992) described an early use of
a computer-based writing program
whereby the class created, shared, and
turned in electronic assignments on a
floppy disk. The author asserted that this
type of composition process facilitated
the formation of communicative writing
communities and transformed the
conventional directive role of the
instructor into the position of a facilitator
for class discourse. Scott and New
(1994) proposed that the development of
their word processing program Systeme
D helped augment the curriculum by
placing a focus on the writing process.
Nonetheless, despite such positive
reports, "research is unable to confirm
that the quality of computer written texts
is superior to conventionally produced
work" (Hyland, 1993, p. 22).
There were also some negative findings
with regard to the use of word processing
programs in the language classrooms.
For instance, some studies suggested
that students seemed to revise less on a
computer than with paper and pencil
(Hyland, 1993). A possible explanation
for the negative results yielded by some
research may hinge on the assertion that
a student's success depends on his or
her word processing skills. That is, in
addition to their writing skills, students
are also inadvertently evaluated on their

8. word processing skills. Ritter (1993)
suggested that positive changes in
writing behaviors required additional
training time for students to become
accustomed to the use of the software.
Hyland proposed that at least one
semester of word processing was
necessary before improvements in writing
from novice computer users could
appear.
Internet
E-mail, synchronous chat, bulletin
boards, HTML, DHTML, XML, and digital
video are all examples of Internet-based
tools used in second and foreign
language teaching and learning. The
literature provided descriptions of
projects such as e-mail exchange (e.g.,
Hellebrandt, 1999; Kroonenberg, 1994-
1995), Web publishing (e.g., Bicknell,
1999; Pertusa-Seva & Stewart, 2000),
and simulated immersion (e.g., Kost,
1999; Legenhausen & Wolff, 1990;
Nelson & Oliver, 1999; Pertusa-Seva &
Stewart). This particular category of tools
is generally lauded in the literature as an
opportunity to expose students to
authentic, culture-laden contexts to which
they are able to respond by speaking and
writing in the target language
(Hellebrandt). For example, e-mail was
reported to facilitate "very realistic form[s]
of communication because it is a real
conversation about real, relevant topics
with real people" (Kroonenberg, p. 24). E-
mail and synchronous chat can enhance
communicative language skills (Kost) and
can be used to share and collaborate
(Hellebrandt). They are also helpful in
developing critical-thinking skills
(Kroonenberg). Chat, for example,
"cultivates the ability to think and
compose spontaneously" (Kroonenberg,
p. 26). Currently, the literature seems to
be exploring how access to current
authentic materials and native speakers
helps facilitate "virtual" language
immersion for students who cannot
physically travel to a host country.
Speech Recognition Software
Speech recognition software requires a
user to produce meaningful linguistic
units that are then translated by a speech
recognition program. The implication for
second language classrooms is that a
student's oral abilities can be
grammatically analyzed to assess oral
proficiency levels and to provide students
with feedback. Derwing et al. (2000)
stated that the usefulness of speech
recognition software for language
students hinges on its ability to (1)
recognize nonnative utterances and (2)
identify problem areas of student
production to provide corrective
feedback. Thus far, research suggests

9. that speech recognition technology is not
sufficiently reliable to justify its
implementation into second and foreign
language classrooms (Coniam, 1998;
Derwing et al.). Furthermore, Der-wing
and his colleagues reported that,
although the speech recognition software
they evaluated was able to recognize
90% of the words uttered by native
speakers, it was only able to understand
between 24% and 26% of the normative
speakers' utterances (p. 597). Thus,
speech recognition software, in its current
form, would provide unreliable feedback
to foreign language students.
Designing pedagogically effective CALL
activities became a concern. Hoven
(1999) proposed an instructional design
model based on sociocultural theory for
multimedia listening and viewing
comprehension. Watts (1997) suggested
a learner-based design model focusing
on learners' goals and needs, rather than
on the technology itself. In those
discussions, the importance of
technology-enhanced, student-centered
activities was emphasized. Realizing the
lack of design guidelines for language
educators, Hemard (1997) presented
some design principles for creating
hypermedia authoring applications. The
principles included "know[ing] and
appreciating] the intended users' needs,"
"user-task match," and 11 provid[ing]
easy error-solving devices" (p. 15). He
suggested considering such factors as
technical, authoring, task, and interface
requirements when authoring hypermedia
language applications. Based on second
language acquisition theory, Chapelle
(1998) suggested seven criteria for
developing multimedia CALL:
1. making key linguistic characteristics
salient,
2. offering modifications of linguistic
input,
3. providing opportunities for
comprehensible output,
4. providing opportunities for learners to
notice their errors,
5. providing opportunities for learners to
correct their linguistic output,
6. supporting modified interaction
between the learner and the computer,
and
7. acting as a participant in second
language learning tasks.
Computer-Assisted Language Testing
Computer-assisted language testing
(CALT) is generally defined as "an

10. integrated procedure in which language
performance is elicited and assessed" by
computers (Noijons, 1994, p. 38). It
should be noted, however, that some
confusion exists regarding the
terminology used in this area. Computer-
assisted language testing is also referred
to as computer-based testing (CBT). The
abbreviation CALT in the literature
indicates computerized adaptive
language testing in some cases and
computer-assisted language testing in
other cases. In this article, the concept of
CALT includes both computer-assisted
language testing and computerized
adaptive language testing.
Major benefits of using computer testing
cited in the literature included the
possibility of immediate feedback,
individualized testing, and randomization
through test banks to increase testing
security (Alderson, 2000; Brown, 1997;
Dunkel, 1999). The main criticisms were
that (1) productive language abilities (i.e.,
speaking and writing) could not be
assessed by current software with an
acceptable level of accuracy, (2) lack of
computer literacy may place novice
computer users at a disadvantage, and
(3) limitation in testing formats could lead
to decontextualized forms of assessment
(Alderson; Brown; Dunkel).
LITERATURE REVIEW
Davis (1989) clearly indicates that
attitude may influence the level of use of
ICT. Funds amounting to millions would
be wasted expenditure if the classroom
practitioners do not make optimal use of
the resources available.
Barnett (1994), found that technology in
the classroom does enhance learning if
properly employed. He pointed out that
teachers who started out their careers in
an era when technology was not
available would be difficult to convert to
become users of modern technology.
This group, according to him, must first
be convinced of the merits of ICT in
education before they use it in the
classroom. This scholar stated that by no
means must these teachers be coerced
into using technology; they must first be
developed into willing users.
Alessi and Trollip (2001), contended that
a lot of research findings indicate that
using computers to teach is better than
using books, teachers, films or other
more traditional methods.
Albion and Ertmer (2002), suggested that
the duration of exposure of teachers to
ICT is crucial in alleviating the skills and
anxiety level. They argued that short term
exposure to technology would be

11. inadequate in equipping teachers with the
necessary skills and knowledge for
confident and masterful use of ICT in the
classroom. Educational Planners should
take heed of their findings.
Kent and Facer (2004), stressed that
teachers must be properly trained and
should be keen on using technology in
the classroom.
Sutherland, et al (2004) raise the issue
that ICT alone does not enhance
learning. How ICT is incorporated into
learning activities is what is important.
They also argue that although there is an
extensive research base on teaching and
learning ‘without ICT’which could inform
teaching and learning ‘with ICT’, such
research has not systematically been
drawn upon by policy makers when
developing curricula and guidelines for
teachers on how to use ICT in the
classroom. There is a tendency to think
that ICT is so ‘new’ that its use will be
accompanied by ‘new’ pedagogies that
will somehow transform teaching and
learning. This utopian vision often leads
policy makers and practitioners to ignore
general theoretical perspectives about
teaching and learning, which in our view
are central to all learning, with or without
ICT. These scholars explain the
components of the the InterActive
Education Project making a complex
picture of ICT in education. Each
component looks at ICT in relation to a
specific aspect: teaching and learning,
policy and management, subject cultures,
professional development and learners’
out-of-school uses of ICT.
Brown and Warschauer (2006), echoed
the views of Albion and Ertmer (2002),
when they found that teachers performed
better in using ICT when they were well
grounded in the technology through
workshops and training sessions that are
of substantial duration.
Chan et al. (2007), stresses that the
success or failure of the use of ICTs in a
classroom very much depends on the
implementers. These implanters refer to
the institution administrations as well as
the teacher. Chan et al. (2007), also
recommends that administrative support
should take the form of practical
allocations in terms of infrastructure,
hardware, software and networking
required to conduct IT classes.
Sekharan, et al (2012) seek to find out
whether teachers are ready for the
innovation of ICTs. They check on
teachers attitude toward the use of ICTs

12. in English teaching and the extend to
what teachers use the available ICT
equipment. They carried out a study at
eight primary schools focused on
teachers’ attitude towards ICT’s with
three different variables: 1) actual level of
ICTs use 2) teachers’ age and 3)
experience attending ICTs workshops.
Regarding the actual use of ICTs, there
was found that teachers are using ICT in
the classrooms in a satisfactory level.
This is a very good sign, but the current
situation is not the expected one. More
improvements need to be taken into
consideration to improve on the level of
ICT use. Another finding was that he
level of ICT use is higher when the
attitude towards the use of ICT is more
positive.
In relation to teachers’ age, there is a
negative correlation between age and
attitude. Increasing age would mean a
lower attitude score. The age of teachers
is something that cannot be changed but
their attitude level may be raised by
suitable and frequent workshops.
Education Administrators must recognize
that the older generation may face stress
in the face of new technology. Once this
recognition is there, the authorities
should attempt to give more training,
starting from the very basic to the older
generation. They should also think of
different kinds of workshop and training
for the younger and older teachers. If
possible special workshops should be
held for the older generation as they
differ significantly from the younger
generation in their attitude towards ICT.
The issue involving experience attending
ICTs workshops shows that there exists a
significant difference between the attitude
score of those who have attended ICT
workshops and those who have yet to
undergo any ICT training. This finding
indicates that the workshops are indeed
useful. However the workshops must be
more regular and the workshop learning
content must be different for the younger
and older age group.