anaphy

1. Seeley’s
ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology
Tenth Edition
Cinnamon Vanputte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo
See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables
pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

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Chapter 4
Tissues
Lecture Outline

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Tissue
A tissue is a group of cells with similar structure
and function, plus the extracellular substance
surrounding them.
Histology is the study of tissues.

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Types of Tissues
There are four tissue types in the human body:
1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue
2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type
that makes up part of every organ in the body
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or shortens,
making movement possible
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating and
controlling many body activities

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Epithelial Tissues
Epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and
protects surfaces, both outside and inside the
body.
Included under the classification of epithelial
tissue are the exocrine and endocrine glands.

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Epithelial Tissue Characteristics
1. Mostly composed of cells
2. Covers body surfaces
3. Distinct cell surfaces
4. Cell and matrix connections
5. Nonvascular
6. Capable of regeneration

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Characteristics of Epithelium
Figure 4.1
(top) ©Victor Eroschenko; (bottom) ©Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images

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Functions of Epithelial Tissues
1. Protects underlying structures
2. Acts as a barrier
3. Permits passage of substances
4. Secretes substances
5. Absorption of substances

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Classification of Epithelia1
Epithelial tissues are classified primarily
according to the number of cell layers and the
shape of the superficial cells.
The cell layers can be simple, stratified, or
pseudostratified.
The cell shapes can be squamous, cuboidal,
columnar, or a special transitional shape, that
varies with the degree of stretch.

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Classification of Epithelia2
Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of
cells, with each cell extending from the
basement membrane to the free surface.
Stratified epithelium consists of more than one
layer of cells, but only the basal layer attaches
the deepest layer to the basement membrane.

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Classification of Epithelia3
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a
special type of simple epithelium, that appears
to be falsely stratified.
It consists of one layer of cells, with all the cells
attached to the basement membrane.
Due to variations in the shape of the cells, the
epithelia appears stratified.

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Classification of Epithelia4
There are three types of epithelium based on
idealized shapes of the epithelial cells:
1. Squamous cells are flat or scalelike.
2. Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped—about as
wide as they are tall.
3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than they are
wide.

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Simple Squamous Epithelium1
Simple squamous epithelium is a single layer of
thin, flat cells.
Some substances easily pass through this thin
layer of cells, but other substances do not.
The lungs, simple squamous epithelium, allows
for gas exchange.
The kidneys, simple squamous epithelium, helps
filter wastes from the blood while keeping blood
cells inside the blood vessels.

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Simple Squamous Epithelium2
Table 4.2a
©McGraw-Hill Education/Al Telser

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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium1
Simple cuboidal epithelium is a single layer of
cube-like cells that carry out active transport,
facilitated diffusion, or secretion.
They have a greater secretory capacity than
simple squamous epithelial cells.

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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium2
Table 4.2b
©Victor Eroschenko

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Simple Columnar Epithelium1
Simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of
tall, thin cells.
The large size of these cells enables them to
perform complex functions, such as secretion.
The simple columnar epithelium of the small
intestine produces and secretes mucus and
digestive enzymes.

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Simple Columnar Epithelium2
Table 4.2c
©Victor Eroschenko

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Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium1
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium secretes
mucus, which covers its free surface.
Cilia in the airways move the mucus and
accumulated debris toward the throat, where it
is swallowed.

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Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium2
Table 4.2d
©Victor Eroschenko

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Stratified Squamous Epithelium1
Stratified squamous epithelium forms a thick
epithelium because it consists of several layers of
cells.
Though the deepest cells are cuboidal or columnar
and are capable of dividing and producing new
cells, the naming is based on the shape of the
surface cells.
There are two types of stratified squamous
epithelia: keratinized stratified squamous and
nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelia.

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Keratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
The outer layer of the skin is comprised of a
keratinized squamous epithelium.
The keratin reduces the loss of water from the
body.

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Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous
Epithelium
Stratified squamous epithelium of the mouth is
a moist nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.
This nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium provides protection against abrasion
and acts as a mechanical barrier.
Water, however, can move across it more readily
than across the skin (keratinized stratified
squamous).

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Stratified Squamous Epithelium2
Table 4.3a
©McGraw-Hill Education/Al Telser

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Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Stratified cuboidal epithelium consists of more
than one layer of cuboidal epithelial cells.
This epithelial type is relatively rare and is found
in sweat gland ducts, ovarian follicular cells, and
the salivary glands.
It functions in absorption, secretion, and
protection.

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Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Stratified columnar epithelium consists of more
than one layer of epithelial cells; the surface cells
are columnar but the deeper cells are irregular or
cuboidal in shape.
Like stratified cuboidal epithelium, stratified
columnar epithelium is relatively rare, found in the
mammary gland ducts, the larynx, and a portion of
the male urethra.
This epithelium carries out secretion, protection,
and some absorption.

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Transitional Epithelium1
Transitional epithelium is a special type of
stratified epithelium that can be greatly
stretched.
The shape of the cells change as the epithelium is
stretched.
Transitional epithelium lines cavities that can
expand greatly, such as the urinary bladder.
It also protects underlying structures, like the
urinary bladder, from the caustic effects of urine.

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Transitional Epithelium2
Table 4.3b
©Victor Eroschenko

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Free Cell Surfaces
Most epithelia have a free surface that is not in
contact with other cells and faces away from
underlying tissues.
The characteristics of the free surface reflect its
functions.
The free surface can be smooth or lined with
microvilli or cilia.
Cilia move materials over the top of the cell.
Microvilli increase surface area.

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Cell Connections1
Cells have several structures that hold one cell to
one another or to the basement membrane.
These structures do three things: mechanically bind
the cells together, help form a permeability barrier,
and provide a mechanism for intercellular
communication.
Desmosomes are mechanical links that bind cells
together.
Hemidesmosomes are half desmosomes that
anchor cells to the basement membrane.

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Cell Connections2
Tight junctions prevent the passage of
materials between epithelial cells because they
completely surround each cell, similar to the
way a belt surrounds the waist.
Materials that pass through the epithelial layer
must pass through the cells, so those cells
regulate what materials can cross.
Tight junctions are found in the lining of the
intestines.

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Cell Connections3
Gap junctions are small channels that allow
small molecules and ions to pass from one
epithelial cell to an adjacent one.
Most epithelial cells are connected to one
another by gap junctions, and researchers
believe that molecules or ions moving through
the gap junctions act as communication signals
to coordinate the activities of the cells.

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Cell Connections4
Figure 4.2

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Glands1
Glands are secretory organs that secrete substances
onto a surface, into a cavity, or into the
bloodstream.
Glands are composed primarily of epithelium, with
a supporting network of connective tissue.
Glands with ducts are called exocrine glands.
Both the gland and its ducts is lined with epithelium.
Endocrine glands are ductless glands; they secrete
their products (termed hormones) into the
bloodstream.

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Glands2
Most exocrine glands are multicellular,
comprised of many cells.
Some exocrine glands are composed of a single
cell, like goblet cells, that secrete mucus.
Multicellular exocrine glands can be classified
according to the structure of their ducts and
secretory regions.
Simple glands have a single, non-branched duct,
some have branched ducts.

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Glands3
Compound exocrine glands have multiple,
branched ducts.
Glands with secretory regions shaped as tubules
(small tubes) are called tubular, whereas those
shaped in saclike structures are called acinar or
alveolar.
Tubular glands can be straight or coiled.
Glands with a combination of the two are called
tubuloacinar or tubuloalveolar.

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Exocrine Gland Structures
Figure 4.3

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Glands4
Exocrine glands can also be classified according
to how products leave the cell.
Merocrine secretion involves the release of
secretory products by exocytosis.
Apocrine secretion involves the release of
secretory products as pinched-off fragments of
the gland cells.
Holocrine secretion involves the shedding of
entire cells.

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Exocrine Glands and Secretion Types
Figure 4.4

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Connective Tissue
Connective tissue is a diverse primary tissue type
that makes up part of every organ in the body.
Connective tissue differs from the other three
tissue types in that it consists of cells separated
from each other by abundant extracellular matrix.
Connective tissue is diverse in both structure and
function.
Connective tissue is comprised of cells, protein
fibers, and an extracellular matrix.

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Functions of Connective Tissue
1. Enclose and separate other tissues
2. Connecting tissues to one another
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body
4. Storing compounds
5. Cushioning and insulating
6. Transporting
7. Protecting

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Connective Tissue Cells1
The specialized cells of the various connective
tissues produce the extracellular matrix.
The name of the cell identifies the cell functions.
Osteoblasts form bone, osteocytes maintain it,
and osteoclasts break it down.
Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous
connective tissue, and fibrocytes maintain it.
Chondroblasts form cartilage and chondrocytes
maintain it.

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Connective Tissue Cells2
Found in connective tissue are cells associated
with the immune system, such as white blood
cells.
Macrophages are large cells that are capable of
moving about and ingesting foreign substances,
including microorganisms in the connective
tissue.
Mast cells are nonmotile cells that release
chemicals, such as histamine, that promote
inflammation.

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Extracellular Matrix
The extracellular matrix of connective tissue has
three major components: protein fibers, ground
substance, and fluid.
1. Ground substance consists of non-fibrous
protein and other molecules.
The structure of the matrix is responsible for the
functional characteristics of connective tissues—
for example, they enable bones and cartilage to
bear weight.

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1. Matrix Protein Fibers
Three types of protein fibers—collagen, reticular,
and elastic—help form most connective tissues.
a. Collagen fibers, which resemble microscopic
ropes, are very flexible but resist stretching.
b. Reticular fibers are very fine, short collagen
fibers that branch to form a supporting network.
c. Elastic fibers have the ability to return to their
original shape after being stretched or
compressed, giving tissue an elastic quality.

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2. Matrix Ground Substance
The ground substance consists of non-fibrous
molecules and is shapeless. .
It consists of proteoglycans, which are large
molecules that consist of a protein core
attached to many long polysaccharides.
Proteoglycans trap large quantities of water
between the polysaccharides, which allows
them to return to their original shape when
compressed or deformed.

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Types of Connective Tissues1
The two main types of connective tissue are
embryonic and adult connective tissue.
By eight weeks of development, most of the
embryonic connective tissue has become
specialized to form the types of connective
tissue seen in adults.

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Types of Connective Tissues2
1. Loose connective tissue consists of relatively
few protein fibers that form a lacy network, with
numerous spaces filled with ground substance
and fluid.
Three subdivisions of loose connective tissue are
areolar, adipose, and reticular.
a. Areolar connective tissue primarily consists of
collagen fibers and a few elastic fibers.
The most common cells in loose connective
tissue are the fibroblasts.

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Types of Connective Tissues3
Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes, or fat
cells, which contain large amounts of lipid for
energy storage.
Adipose tissue pads and protects parts of the
body and acts as a thermal insulator.
Reticular tissue forms the framework of
lymphatic tissue, such as in the spleen and
lymph nodes, as well as in bone marrow and the
liver.

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Areolar Connective Tissue
Table 4.5a
©Ed Reschke

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Adipose Tissue
Table 4.5b
©Ed Reschke

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See page 80.
Reticular tissue

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Types of Connective Tissues4
Dense connective tissue has a relatively large
number of protein fibers that form thick bundles
and fill nearly all of the extracellular space.
There are two major subcategories of dense
connective tissue: collagenous and elastic.

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Types of Connective Tissues5
Dense collagenous connective tissue has an
extracellular matrix consisting mostly of collagen
fibers.
Dense collagenous connective tissue having the
collagen fibers oriented in the same direction is
termed dense regular.
Examples of dense regular are tendons and
ligaments.

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Types of Connective Tissues6
Dense collagenous connective tissue having the
collagen fibers oriented in the multiple
directions is termed dense irregular.
Examples of dense irregular are in the dermis of
the skin and in organ capsules.

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Dense Regular Collagenous
Connective Tissue
Table 4.6a
©Victor Eroschenko, ©Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images

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Types of Connective Tissues7
Dense elastic connective tissue has abundant
elastic fibers among its collagen fibers.
The elastic fibers allow the tissue to stretch and
recoil.
Examples include the dense elastic connective
tissue in the vocal cords. (blood vessels)
A genetic condition called Marfan syndrome
results from, in part the inability to properly
maintain and form elastic fibers.

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Dense Regular Elastic Connective
Tissue
Table 4.6b
©Victor Eroschenko

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Supporting connective tissue

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Cartilage1
Cartilage is composed of chondrocytes, located
in spaces called lacunae within an extensive
matrix.
Collagen in the matrix gives cartilage flexibility
and strength.
Cartilage is resilient because the proteoglycans
of the matrix trap water.
Cartilage provides support, but if bent or slightly
compressed, it resumes its original shape.

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Cartilage2
There are three types of cartilage: hyaline,
fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage.
Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type of
cartilage and has many functions, such as covering
the ends of bones, where they form joints.
Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does hyaline
cartilage and is able to withstand compression and
resist tearing or pulling.
Fibrocartilage is found in the intervertebral disks.

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Hyaline Cartilage
Table 4.7a
©Victor Eroschenko

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Cartilage3
Fibrocartilage has more collagen than does
hyaline cartilage and is able to withstand
compression and resist tearing or pulling.
Fibrocartilage is found in the disks between the
vertebrae (bones of the back) and in some joints,
such as the knee and temporomandibular (jaw)
joints.

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Cartilage4
Elastic cartilage contains elastic fibers in addition
to collagen and proteoglycans.
The elastic fibers appear as coiled fibers among
bundles of collagen fibers.
Elastic cartilage is able to recoil to its original
shape when bent.
The external ear, epiglottis, and auditory tube
contain elastic cartilage.

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Fibrocartilage and Elastic Cartilages
Table 4.7b,c
©Victor Eroschenko

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Bone1
Bone is a hard connective tissue that consists of
living cells and a mineralized matrix. Osteocytes
are located within lacunae.
The strength and rigidity of the mineralized
matrix enables bones to support and protect
other tissues and organs.
Two types of bone tissue exist: spongy bone and
compact bone.

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Bone2
Spongy bone has spaces between trabeculae or
plates, of bone and therefore resembles a
sponge.
Compact bone is more solid, with almost no
space between many thin layers of mineralized
matrix.

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Bone3
Table 4.8
©Trent Stephens

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fluid

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Blood1
Blood is a liquid connective tissue
It contains a liquid matrix, termed the plasma,
along with formed elements.
The formed elements are erythrocytes,
leukocytes, and platelets.
It functions in transport of food, oxygen, waste,
hormones, and other substances.

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Blood2
Table 4.9
©Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images

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Muscle1
The main function of muscle tissue is to
contract, or shorten, making movement
possible.
Muscle contraction results from contractile
proteins located within the muscle cells.
The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal,
cardiac, and smooth.

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Muscle2
Skeletal muscle attaches to the skeleton and
enables the body to move.
Skeletal muscle cells are striated, or banded,
because of the arrangement of contractile
proteins within the cells.

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Skeletal Muscle
Table 4.10a
©Ed Reschke

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Muscle3
Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart; it is
responsible for pumping blood.
Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical but much
shorter than skeletal muscle cells.
Cardiac muscle cells are striated and usually
have one nucleus per cell.
They are often branched and connected to one
another by intercalated disks.

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Cardiac Muscle
Table 4.10b
©Ed Reschke

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Muscle4
Smooth muscle forms the walls of hollow
organs; it is also found in the skin and the eyes.
Smooth muscle is responsible for a number of
functions, such as moving food through the
digestive tract and emptying the urinary
bladder.
Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each end,
have a single nucleus, and are not striated.

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Smooth Muscle
Table 4.10c
©McGraw-Hill Education/Dennis Strete

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Nervous Tissue1
Nervous tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and
nerves.
It is responsible for coordinating and controlling
many body activities.
Nervous tissue consists of neurons and support
cells, termed glial cells.
The neuron is responsible for conducting action
potentials.
It is composed of three parts: a cell body, dendrites,
and an axon.

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Nervous Tissue2
Table 4.11
©Trent Stephens

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Tissue Membranes1
A tissue membrane is a thin sheet or layer of
tissue that covers a structure or lines a cavity.
Most membranes consist of epithelium and the
connective tissue on which the epithelium rests.
There are four tissue membranes in the body:
cutaneous, mucous, serous, and synovial.
The skin, termed the cutaneous membrane, is
an external body surface membrane.

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Tissue Membranes2
The mucous membranes line cavities that open to
the outside of the body, such as the digestive,
respiratory, and reproductive tracts.
Mucous membranes consist of epithelial cells, their
basement membrane, and a thick layer of loose
connective tissue.
Many, but not all, mucous membranes secrete
mucus.
The functions of mucous membranes include
protection, absorption, and secretion.

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Tissue Membranes3
Serous membranes line cavities that do not open to
the exterior of the body, such as the pericardial,
pleural, and peritoneal cavities.
Serous membranes consist of three components: a
layer of simple squamous epithelium, its basement
membrane, and a delicate layer of loose connective
tissue.
Serous membranes do not contain glands, but they
secrete a small amount of fluid called serous fluid,
which lubricates the surface of the membranes.

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Tissue Membranes4
Synovial membranes line the cavities of freely
movable joints.
They are made up of only connective tissue and
consist of modified connective tissue cells.
Synovial membranes produce synovial fluid,
which makes the joint very slippery, thereby
reducing friction and allowing smooth
movement within the joint.

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Internal Membranes
Figure 4.5

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Tissue Inflammation1
Inflammation is usually a beneficial process
occurring when tissues are damaged.
When viruses infect epithelial cells of the upper
respiratory tract, inflammation and the symptoms
of the common cold are produced.
The inflammatory process occurs in stages.

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Tissue Inflammation2
Inflammation mobilizes the body’s defenses and
isolates and destroys microorganisms, foreign
materials, and damaged cells so that tissue repair
can proceed.
Inflammation produces five major symptoms:
redness, heat, swelling, pain, and disturbance of
function.

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Inflammation
Figure 4.6

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Tissue Repair1
Tissue repair involves substitution of dead cells for
viable cells.
Tissue repair can occur by regeneration or by
fibrosis.
In regeneration, the new cells are the same type as
those that were destroyed, and normal function is
usually restored.
In fibrosis, or replacement, a new type of tissue
develops that eventually causes scar production and
the loss of some tissue function.

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Tissue Repair2
Regeneration can completely repair some tissues,
such as the skin and the mucous membrane of the
intestine. In these cases, regeneration is
accomplished primarily by stem cells.
Stem cells are self-renewing, undifferentiated
cells that continue to divide throughout life.
Tissue repair occurs in sequential steps.

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Tissue Repair3
Figure 4.7