Construction Material & Structural Design

CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL & STRUCTURAL DESIGNING
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Mr. N. Sriskanda Raja for the opportunity to
explore the field of Construction material and structural design. His encouragement,
guidance, and support were invaluable in my work. I would also like to thank my friends and
family for their support
Thank You.

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CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT......................................................................................................................................1
CONTENT .............................................................................................................................................................2
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................................3
TASK-01 ................................................................................................................................................................4
1.1 DESCRIBE REQUIRED MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES SEPARATELY...............................4
1.2 IDENTIFY AN ALTERNATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE EACH MATERIAL CONSIDERED ABOVE
AND COMPARE WITH ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES. ....................................................14
TASK-02 ..............................................................................................................................................................17
2.1 EXPLAIN THE TESTING METHOD AVAILABLE TO CONFIRM THE QUALITY OF THE
FOLLOWING. GIVE SUITABLE TEST RESULT IN EACH CASE........................................................17
2.2 DESCRIBE THE METHOD TO IMROVE THEIR PROPERTIES............................................................25
2.3 DESCRIBE THE APPROPRIATE METHOD OF STORING FOR THOSE MATERIALS......................27
TASK-3 ................................................................................................................................................................33
3.1 BRIEF ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE IN THIS DESIGN. ............................................................................33
CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................................44
REFERENCE .......................................................................................................................................................45

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INTRODUCTION
This assignment is based on the subject Construction Material & Structural Design Analysis
and covers the first learning outcomes taught in this subject during the first semester of
BTEC HND in Quantity Surveying.
This part of Material Science and Structural Analysis is about the materials used in
construction and Engineering. It covers the materials used to construct building elements and
their properties, availability of alternative materials and their applications, quality testing
methods of each material, reasons for improving the material properties and the methods of
improving their properties.
This assignment consists of three tasks. In the first task, we are discuss about different
construction material for partitioning wall, roof work and finishing & discuss alternative
materials partitioning wall, roof work and finishing. In the second task, discuss about quality
control test for concrete and brick, method of preserving timber, site storage requirements
and methods of storing cement, steel and timber. And final task is design the part of first floor
slab panel and a beam to the given scenario.

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TASK-01
1.1 DESCRIBE REQUIRED MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
SEPARATELY.
Floor finishes – Ceramic floor tiles
There are two type ceramic tiles;
1. Porcelain
2. Non-porcelain
Both are made from feldspar and clay minerals dug from the Earth. These raw materials
are pulverized and crushed before particles are separated by size. Different grades are
carefully measured, mixed and ground together. Tiles are formed by dry-pressing the mixture
or following a wet-mill process. After tiles are pressed into shapes and glaze is applied,
they're fired in a kiln for a specific time. This kiln time affects the hardness of the tile and
whether it's called a non-porcelain ceramic tile or porcelain tile. Both types are very durable
and wear well.
Properties of Ceramic Tiles
Durability:
 There are many design and colors of porcelain tiles.
 Porcelain tiles are generally made by the dry-pressed method from porcelain
clays. Dry-milled tiles are bisque-fired at lower temperatures, then glazed and
refired for two or three days at temperatures of 2,300 degrees Fahrenheit. This tile
is dense, fine-grained, impervious to wear and extremely durable. Porcelain tile is
available in a glazed, matte or unglazed finishes.
 Ceramic paver tiles are non-porcelain similar to quarry tile in color and thickness.
They're suitable for high-traffic areas where a heavy-duty floor surface is needed.
Paver ceramic tiles are ideal in factories or industrial plants where they take a lot
of abuse.

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Slip resistant:
 It hard to slip on ceramic tile.
 Ceramic or non-porcelain tiles are usually made from red or white clay and fired in a
kiln. Wet-milled tiles require much less time to fire, sometimes only one hour at
temperatures of 2100 degrees Fahrenheit. They're finished with a durable glaze with
color and a pattern. Quarry tile has dense body with low porosity and is very strong.
The rough surface makes these tiles more slip-resistant.
Frost Resistant:
 Ceramic tile works well in cooler environments.
 Glazed porcelain tile has a low water absorption rate, less than 0.5 percent, and is
resists frost. Ceramic tile is dense and, because its hard surface doesn't absorb water,
it decreases humidity in usage areas.
Damage Resistant:
 Ceramic tile is very durable.
 Paver and quarry tiles are resistant to abrasives and can be used in areas where they're
exposed to sand, grit and gravel. They don't chip or fade from wear and aren't
damaged by direct sunlight. This tile is dense and its hard surface doesn't absorb
water.
Crack Resistant:
 You’ll be hard-pressed to find chips or cracks in ceramic tile.
 Glazed tile is resistant to crazing and hairline cracks. Porcelain tile retains its color
and pattern and is virtually impervious to wear. These tiles are suitable for residential
use, high-traffic areas and industrial areas.
Stain-Resistant and Low Maintenance:
 Ceramic tile floors are a breeze to clean.
 Ceramic porcelain tiles are resistant to stains. Some have a liquid glass coating baked
onto the surface of the clay. This glaze increases the tiles' protection against staining
as well as the number of colors and designs that can be used. Once installed, ceramic
tile is easy to clean and requires no special maintenance.

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REQUIRED MATERIAL FOR FLOOR FINISHES:
 Cement
 Paste
Cement:
 Cement is made from an intermediate product called clinker.
 Clinker itself is a complex mixture formed during high temperature reactions of
limestone, clay, sand and iron.
 It contains calcium oxide (CaO), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), silica dioxide (SiO2) and
small amounts of iron oxide (Fe2O3).
 Cement act as a binding agent in concrete tiles fitting time.
 When the constituents of concrete - aggregates, cement and water are mixed together,
cement react with water to form a binding agent with course aggregate and sand.
 The reaction of cement with water is known as hydration.
Properties of cement
The following are the most important properties of cement.
Initial setting time: The noticeable stiffening of cement past is known as initial set.
The time taken for initial set is known as initial setting time. It is about 45 minutes for
Ordinary Portland Cement and it can be adjusted by adding the admixture called retarders.
Final setting time: Final set is the stage at which setting is complete and the hardening
process responsible for the development of strength begins.
The time taken for the final set is known as final setting time and it is around 10 hours
for ordinary cement.

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TYPES OF CEMENT
Different types of cement are available in the market for different purpose.
Type Uses
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) General purposes
Rapid Hardening Portland Cement (RHPC) Formwork has to be removed early or
High early strength is required
White Portland Cement
Colored Portland Cement
Architectural purposes
Low heat Portland cement.
(LHPC)
Concrete dams, bridge abutments etc.
Shulpher Resisting Cement (SRC) Maritime structures
Figure 02
Figure 03
Figure 02
Figure 04 Figure 05

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Wall finishes – Aluminum glazed partition
Aluminum is a material widely used for the partitions in the office environment. It is
preferred to be used because of the following reasons.
1. Aesthetic appearance
2. Light weight
3. Re-usable
4. Durable for a long period
5. It takes small area as the wall can be made with smaller thickness
In most places, the aluminum sections are combined with glass to make the partitions. Some -
times aluminum sheets are used in place of glass where the transparency is not preferred.
After iron, aluminium is now the second most widely used metal in the world. The properties
of aluminium include: low density and therefore low weight, high strength, superior
malleability, easy machining, excellent corrosion resistance and good thermal and electrical
conductivity are amongst aluminum’s most important properties. Aluminium is also very
easy to recycle.
Properties of Aluminium
Weight:
One of the best known properties of aluminium is that it is light, with a density one third that
of steel, 2.700 kg/m3. The low density of aluminium accounts for it being lightweight but this
does not affect its strength.
Strength:
Aluminium alloys commonly have tensile strengths of between 70 and 700 MPa. The range
for alloys used in extrusion is 150 – 300 MPa. Unlike most steel grades, aluminium does not
become brittle at low temperatures. Instead, its strength increases. At high temperatures,
aluminium’s strength decreases. At temperatures continuously above 100°C, strength is
affected to the extent that the weakening must be taken into account.

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Formability:
Aluminium’s superior malleability is essential for extrusion. With the metal either hot or
cold, this property is also exploited in the rolling of strips and foils, as well as in bending and
other forming operations.
Conductivity:
Aluminium is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. An aluminium conductor weighs
approximately half as much as a copper conductor having the same conductivity.
Joining:
Features facilitating easy jointing are often incorporated into profile design. Fusion welding,
Friction Stir Welding, bonding and taping are also used for joining.
Reflectivity:
Another of the properties of aluminium is that it is a good reflector of both visible light and
radiated heat.
Corrosion resistance:
Aluminium reacts with the oxygen in the air to form an extremely thin layer of oxide. This
layer is dense and provides excellent corrosion protection. The layer is self-repairing if
damaged.
Aluminium is extremely durable in neutral and slightly acid environments.
In environments characterized by high acidity or high basicity, corrosion is rapid.
Non-magnetic material:
Aluminium is a non-magnetic (actually paramagnetic) material. To avoid interference of
magnetic fields aluminium is often used in magnet X-ray devices.

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Roof finishes – suspended ceiling
TIMBER
Timber refers to wood used for construction purposes. A tree that yields good wood of
construction is called standing timber. After felling a tree, its branches are cut and its stem is
roughly converted into pieces of suitable length, so that it can betransported to timber yards.
This form of timber is known as rough timber. By sawing, rough timber is converted in to
various commercial sizes like planks, battens, posts, beams etc. such forms of timber are
known as converted timber. The timber obtained after falling trees is known as rough timber
and after the timber is being sawn and cut in to commercial sizes is known as converted
timber.
Soft wood and hard wood
Wood obtained from conifer is named as soft wood and hard wood is taken from deciduous
trees. It is quite possible some soft wood to be stronger than the hard wood.
 Chir, deodar, fir, kail, pine, spruce are the examples for soft wood.
 Babul, Oak, Sal, Teak, mahogany are some examples for hard wood.
Properties of Timber
Colour:
The color of wood may uniform, mottled or streaked. It varies from creamy white to jet black
thorough varying shades like grey, yellow, pink brown and purple. In many species, color of
the wood varies from outer to inner parts. Freshly cut surfaces are lighter in color but after
exposure to atmosphere.
Odour:
When freshly cut, many varieties of wood have a characteristic smell. It gradually reduces
after expose to atmosphere. Teak has a characteristic smell of old leather.

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Hardness:
It is measured by resistance to scratching. Based on the hardness, timber is grouped into
following three types.
 Soft to very soft timber- Finger nail can cause markings.
 Moderately heavy wood- No marking by nail but markings may cause readily with
knife.
 Heavy to very hard timber-knife markings caused with.
Density:
Density is an important property because denser wood are stronger. However, while finding
density care should be taken to weigh dry wood. Since a wet wood can give more weight.
Density is weight for unit volume. The density varies considerably in different timber.
Structurally the higher denser timber is having higher strength.
Grain:
It refers to the direction or alignment of the cells. Timber has good strength along the grain
compared to its strength across the grains. Close grains refers to a type of wood in which the
fiber hurdles are very closely packed together.
Texture:
This refers to the size and distribution of cells but not to alignment. Majority of wood have
even texture. However some woods like teak exhibit uneven texture due to difference in the
size and distribution of cells in different parts of the growth rings. Based on texture the
timber can be classified in to three main classes
 Fine textured
 Medium coarse-texture
 Coarse-texture
Bending strength:
This refers the strength of timber as beam. Both compression and tension, and also shear
strength play a part when timber acts as a beam. Modulus of elasticity of the timber can be
determined from the static bending strength.

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Front finishes – Granite Cladding
 Granite slabs are made by cutting and polishing the granite stone. It is a
natural material and it does not undergo any manufacturing process.
 Granite, from igneous rock, is a very hard, crystalline, and primarily composed of
feldspar, quartz accompanied by one or more dark minerals. It is visibly homogeneous
in texture.
 The term "Granite" means "grain" in Latin word "Granum" because of its granular
nature.
 Granite is the hardest building stone, and granite slabs and granite tiles occupy a
prominent place among dimensional stones. Due to its hardness, resistance to
weathering, capability to take mirror polish, fascinating colors and textural patterns,
granite slabs and granite tiles are extremely popular.
 The principal characteristics of granite also include high load bearing capacity,
crushing strength, abrasive strength, amenability to
cutting and shaping without secondary flaws,
ability to yield thin and large slabs and - above all -
durability.
 Due to highly dense grain, it is impervious to stain.
Polished granite slabs and granite tiles have
achieved a special status as building stones globally. Granite is also used for wall
cladding, roofing, flooring, and a variety of other interior and exterior applications.
Properties of Granite
Color:
Since it is taken from special kind of stone, option for color is limited. It is normally available
in dark colors such as black, brown etc.
Texture:
There are not many options. But there is a sparkling effect due to the presence of crystals.
Figure 06

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Size:
Since it is cut from the natural stone, it is available in the form of large size tiles and slab
with limited thickness. Thickness is usually more than 10 mm.
Hardness:
It is a very hard material like rock.
Appearance: It has a majestic appearance. That is why it is considered to be a luxurious
material.
Cost:
It is expensive and costlier more than ten times the cost of normal tiles.
Figure 07

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1.2 IDENTIFY AN ALTERNATIVE MATERIAL FOR THE EACH
MATERIAL CONSIDERED ABOVE AND COMPARE WITH
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES.
 Alternative Material For Ceramic Floor Tile
My alternative material is luxury vinyl tiles. Compare with ceramic tiles…
Advantages
 Good smooth surface
 It will keep cool
 High to end look performance
 True life colour and texture
 Warm and soft for foot
 We can select any colour and design
 Not scratches and spills
 Not fading
Disadvantages
 It’s not as durable as real stone.
 Costs more than regular ceramic flooring
 Maintenance is difficult
 Labour cost is high
 If a small part of tile damage then we have to remove and arrange difficult
 Trim pieces can be unattractive and do not transition
 It is not ideal for bathrooms or areas with showers and tubs, stairs, or anywhere other
than flat surfaces.

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 Alternative Material For Aluminium Glazed Partition
My alternative material is gypsum board. Compare with Aluminium Glazed Partition…
Advantages
 Ease of installation
 Fire Resistive
 Sound isolation
 Durability
 Economical
 Versatility
Disadvantages
 Easily damaged if exposed to water
 Its supports the growth of mould/fungi as gypsum is a porous and lightweight
substance.
 Alternative Material For Timber
My alternative material is asbestos sheet. Compare with Timber…
Advantages
 Economical material.
 It covers more space with less intermediate supports.
 Fixing time is less
 It remains cool as it observes less heat.
Disadvantages
 Durability is less
 Can’t be used again

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 Transportation is difficult
 Alternative Material For Granite Cladding
My alternative material is paint. Compare with Granite…
Advantages
 Buying cost is very low compare with granite
 More economical
 Maintenance is easy
 Can plaster any wanted designs.
 Easily apply
 Labour cost is low
 Used for any elements
 Transportation is easy and also transportation cost is less
 Provide smooth surface.
Disadvantages
 Durability is less

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TASK-02
2.1 EXPLAIN THE TESTING METHOD AVAILABLE TO
CONFIRM THE QUALITY OF THE FOLLOWING. GIVE
SUITABLE TEST RESULT IN EACH CASE.
TEST FOR CONCRETE
Mainly three types of test are available in sites for testing of concrete. Such as,
1. Slump test
2. Cube test
3. Compaction factor test
Slump Test
Materials and tools;
 The sample of freshly mixed concrete (about half a wheelbarrow full)
 wheelbarrow and shovel
 Flat steel plate about 600 x 600mm by 3mm thick
 Metric rule or tape measure
 Scoop
 Steel tamping rod, 16 mm in diameter by 600mm long that has at least one end
rounded
 Standard slump mould (The footplates should be positioned 5 mm above the base of
the cone.
100mm
300mm
200mm
Figure 08

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Method of testing
 Mix the concrete in the wheelbarrow.
 Wipe all the tools with a damp cloth.
 Prepare the surface, wet, no dirt
 Place the cone on the surface
 Put firmly two feet on the peddles
 Fill the cone at ½ heights with concrete
 Apply 35 blows with standard rod evenly on the surface
 Fill up to 2/3 or 3/4level.
 Apply another even 35 blows
 Level the surface without pressing or without adding water
 Remove the feet from the paddies
 Remove the master cone and keep near the concrete cone
 The more slump has more workability
Results of slump test: Average Slumps
Slump Class Slump Range (mm) Workability
S1 10-40 Low
S2 50-90 Medium
S3 100-150 Medium / High
Table 1
Figure 09

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The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped concrete,
the slump is termed as true slump, shear slump or collapse slump. If a shear or collapse slump
is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test repeated. A collapse slump is an
indication of too wet a mix. Only a true slump is of any use in the test. A collapse slump will
generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability mix, for which slump
test is not appropriate. Very dry mixes; having slump 0 – 25 mm are used in road making,
low workability mixes; having slump 10 – 40 mm are used for foundations with light
reinforcement, medium workability mixes; 50 - 90 for normal reinforced concrete placed
with vibration, high workability concrete; > 100 mm.
COLLAPSE SHEAR TRUE
In a collapse slump the
concrete collapses
completely
In a shear slump the top portion
of the concrete shears off and
slips sideways.
In a true slump the concrete
simply subsides, keeping more
or less to shape.
Figure 10

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Cube test
Cube test is used for check or measure
compressive stress (Grade) of concrete. at
least 6 cubes should be prepared for each
batch of concrete.
The dimension of each cube is
150mmX150mmX150mm. Three cubes are sending to test to 7days, 28days.Pieces of writing
paper (absorbent paper) for labels, pen or, pencil, Mould release oil and Grease are important
to cube test.
Method of Testing
 Use standard size moulds for cube is150mm x 150mm x 150mm (Internal)
 Each cubes Should be clean and apply lubrical oil
 Filling the cubes- fill in three layers Surface should be smooth
 Compaction – Compaction process of cubes depends on the compaction method used
in sites.
 After 1 day take the cube out from the moulds and put into the deep water tank
 Ensure the total cube should be covered with water
 After 7 days take three cubes out from the tank
 Send them to the nearest lab
 After 28 days take other three and send to the lab.
Result for cubic test:
 Compressive Stress = Breaking load/Surface Area.
 The cube strength is the stress failure after 7 days. If the strength specification is not
achieved at 7 days, a further test is undertaken at 28 days. If the strength specification
is not achieved at 28 days, specimen cores may be taken from the paced concrete for
laboratory analysis.
 Typical 28 day characteristic crushing strength is graded 7.5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35
and 40 N/mm2
. Those which not more than 5 percent of the test result are allowed to
fall.
Figure 11

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 The table below shows the compressive strength gained by concrete after 1, 3, 7, 14
and 28 days with respect to the grade of concrete we use.
Age Strength percentage
1 days 16%
3 days 40%
7 days 65%
14 days 90%
28 days 99%
Table 02
Compaction Factor Test
Method of testing:
The sample of concrete is placed in the
upper hopper up to the brim.
The trap-door is opened so that the
concrete falls into the lower hopper.
 Take 30cm cylinder in same size
 Open or close at top and bottom
 Close all cylinders at bottom
 Take known weight of concrete (1kg, 2kg,5kg)
 Put the concrete into the top cylinder
 Open the bottom of first cylinder
 Allow concrete to fill middle cylinder
 Open the bottom of middle cylinder
 Allow concrete to fill bottom cylinder
 Weight the concrete fall into bottom cylinder
The concrete in the cylinder is weighed again. This weight is known as the weight of fully
compacted concrete.
Figure 12

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TEST FOR STEEL
There are several tests been conducted to find out the properties of structural steel. In
construction it is a very important task to make sure the stability of construction and the
durability of the structure
 Tension test – By this test we can find out following details of the specific steel bar.
 Yield strength
 Yield point elongation
 Tensile strength
 Elongation
 Reduction of area
 Bend test
 Hardness test - this will be demonstrated in lab.
 This method shall be used to determine the yield point, ultimate strength, and percent
elongation, bend test, and weight per foot for bar sizes #3 through #8. For bar sizes
equal or greater to a #9 bar, this procedure is applicable only for the yield point,
weight per foot, and bend test.
Specimen Requirements:
1. Two test specimens that are approximately 3' (0.9 m) in length of each size and each
heat are required for testing.
2. One specimen is normally tested for tensile strength while the other is tested for bend.
Test Procedure
 The tension test specimen shall be gage marked with a center punch with an 8"
(20cm) gage length near the middle of the specimen.
 The purpose of the gage mark is to provide reference points for determination of the
percent of elongation. Punch marks shall be light, sharp, and accurately spaced
(8"±1/16"(20 cm ±0.15cm) gage).

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 It is the function of the gripping or holding device of the machine to transmit the load
from the heads of the machine to the specimen under test. The essential requirement is
that the load shall be transmitted axially.
 This implies that the centers of the action of the grips shall be in alignment, insofar as
practical, with the axis of the specimen at D-40 the beginning and during the test, and
that bending or twisting be held to a minimum. Gripping the specimen shall be
restricted to the section outside the gage length.
 The speed of the testing shall not be greater than that at which the load and behavior
of the specimen can be properly observed.
 Determination of Tensile Properties – Yield Point – Halt of the Pointer Method. In
this method and increasing load is applied to the specimen at a uniform rate. The load
at which there is a halt or hesitation of the load indicating pointer is noted and termed
the “yield point”. The stress at this point is computed and termed the yield stress.
Calculate the yield stress by dividing the load at the “yield point” by the nominal
cross-sectional area of the test specimen.
 Tensile Strength –
Calculate the tensile strength of the Deformed Bar by dividing the maximum load the
specimen sustains during a tension test by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Nominal bar areas as specified in AASHTO M31 shall be used in computations.
 Elongation –
 To determine the percentage of elongation, fit the ends of the fractured specimen
together carefully and measure the distance between the gage marks to the nearest
1/8" (0.32 cm). The elongation is the increase in length of the gage length, expressed
as a percentage of the original gage length. In reporting elongation values, give both
the percentage increase and the original gage length.
 If any part of the fracture takes place outside of the middle half of the gage length or
in the punched or scribed mark with in the reduced section, the elongation value
obtained may not be representative of the material. If the elongation measured meets
the minimum requirements specified, no further testing is needed. However, if the
elongation is less than the minimum requirements discard the specimen and retest a
new specimen

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Bend Test – The bend test is one method for evaluating ductility, but it cannot be considered
as a quantitative means of predicting service performance in bending operations. The severity
of the bend test is primarily a function of the angle of bend and inside diameter to which the
specimen is bent, and of the cross-section of the specimen. These conditions are varied
according to location and orientation of the test specimen and the chemical composition,
tensile properties, hardness, type, and quality of the steel specified.
Bend the test specimen at room temperature to an inside diameter, as designated by the
applicable product specifications, to the extent specified without major cracking on the
outside of the bent portion. The speed of bending is ordinarily not an important factor.
TEST FOR CEMENT
There are some field tests which give some basic idea about the quality of the cement without
elaborate facility of laboratory in the field. These tests are as given under;
I. Date of manufacture should be seen on the bag. It is important because the strength
reduces with age.
II. Open the bag and see that lumps should not be present in the bag. It will ensure that
no setting has taken place.
III. Thrust your hand into the cement bag and it should give cool feeling. It indicates that
no hydration reaction is taking place in the bag.
IV. Take a pinch of cement between the fingers. It should give smooth feeling.
V. Throw handful of cement on water. It should float initially before finally settling.
VI. Take 100g of cement and make a stiff paste. Prepare a cake with sharp edges and put
on the glass plate. Immerse this plate in water. Observe that the shape shouldn’t get
disturbed while settling. It should be able to set and attain strength. Cement is capable
of setting under water also and that is why it is also called ‘Hydraulic Cement’.

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2.2 DESCRIBE THE METHOD TO IMROVE THEIR PROPERTIES.
Methods Of Improving Properties Of Concrete
The following factors have been identified to improve the properties of concrete.
Factors of concrete’s Improving properties;
 Strength.
 Room temperature.
 Moisture condition.
 Setting time.
 Selection of good cement.
To construct the good quality concrete we should decrease the water/cement ratio. We should
use sufficient water for hydration. Also, water/cement ratio be between 0.45 and 0.55.
According increase the diameter of steel bars, we can increase the strength of concrete. Steel
bars which stretch diameter out can be used to improve its strength.
Concrete should be used after 28 days or more from constructing date. We have to control the
environment factors by adding water. Water should be added after 24 hours. Water should be
added evenly on whole surface.
Methods Of Improving Properties Of Steel
There are several methods can be applied to improve the properties of the steel, they are Heat
treatments
Properties of steel can be altered by applying a variety of heat treatments
 Annealing: Heat to austenite range (about10°C above the austenite line) then slowly
cool to room temp. Results in softer steel reduced internal stress, increases ductility
and toughness.
 Normalizing: Same as annealing but heat to 40°C above the austenite line. Then air
cool. Produces a uniform, fine-grained structure. Considered as a corrective treatment
and not for strengthening.

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Steel Alloy Treatments
Alloy agents are added to improve one or more of the following properties.
 Hardness
 Corrosion resistance
 Ductility
 Strength

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2.3 DESCRIBE THE APPROPRIATE METHOD OF STORING FOR
THOSE MATERIALS.
STORING METHOD OF CEMENT
Importance of proper storage of cement
The binding property and strength of cement depend upon its capacity for chemical reaction,
which can take place in the presence of water. Cement if not stored properly can absorb
moisture from the atmospheric air or any other source and react with it chemically. The
strength of such type of cement when used would be adversely affected to the extent such
reaction would have taken place.
Or prevention of cement against deterioration and retaining its freshness its storage should be
such that no dampness or moisture is allowed to reach cement either from the ground, walls
or from the environment. This becomes particularly important during the humid season and in
coastal regions when atmospheric air contains higher amount of moisture in
Cement storing at the site
Figure 13

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Cement goes down at site
The arrangement should be such that it is convenient both for stacking and removal of cement
bags and it also leaves adequate space for movement and inspection of bags for counting
purposes etc.,
No cement bags should be stacked in contact with an external wall. A clear space of at least
60 cm should be left between the exterior wall and the stacks
Cement bags should be placed closely together in the stack to reduce circulation of air as
much as possible. Cement bags should not be stacked more than ten bags high to avoid
lumping or ‘warehouse pack’ under pressure. If the stack is more than seven bags high,
arrange the bags in header and stretcher fashion (i.e.) alternately length-wise and cross-wise,
to achieve interlocking between them and lessening the danger of toppling over, the
arrangement of two stacks with a height of seven bags and ten bags respectively.
For extra safety during rainy season, the stacks of cement bags should be enclosed
completely in polythene sheets (at least 700 gauge thick) or similar material if it is anticipated
that cement would not be required for a prolonged period. This can be achieved by making a
large loose sack of the polythene sheet and arranging cement bags within it with flaps of the
sheet closing on the top of the pile. Care should be taken to ensure that the polythene sheet is
not damaged any time while in use
Temporary storage at site
Sometimes cement requirement of a day or two may have to be stored at site in the open. In
such cases cement bags should be laid on a dry platform made of wooden planks resting over
brick-masonry concrete, dry sand aggregates raised about 15 cm above the ground level.
The stack must be kept fully covered with tarpaulin or polythene sheet and protected against
atmospheric moisture. The covering sheets must overlap each other properly. Temporary
storage on open storage should not be adopted in wet weather.
Proper method for removal of cement bags
When removing bags from storage, cement bags should be removed from upto two or three
tiers on the backside rather than only from one tier on the front as shown in the figure. If the
rows are thus stepped back, there is less chance of over-turning of bags.

29
Stepping of Tiers while Removing Cement Bags
When removing bags for use, apply the “First in, First out” (FIFO) principle i.e. take out the
oldest cement first. Each consignment of cement should be stacked separately in the go down
so as to permit easy access for inspection and to facilitate removal in a proper sequence. It
would be desirable to pin a play card on each pile of cement indicating the date of its arrival
in the go down.
Storage capacity of cement goes down
While working out the inside dimensions of cement go down for storage of specified quantity
of cement filled bags, the following dimensions may be considered.
Length of Cement bags: 70 cm (average)
Width: :35 cm (average)
Thickness :14 cm (average)
Clearance and passages :60 cm (average)
Effect of storage on strength of cement
The cement when stored for longer period of time loses its strength characteristics. The
strength of cement when used after one year of its production loses its strength by about 40-
50% on application as compared to that of freshly produced cement. The loss of strength
characteristic of cement at different interval of times is as given below in the table.
Figure 14

30
Tips for proper storage of cement
 Do not store in a building where walls, roof and floor are not completely weather
proof.
 Do not store in a new warehouse until the interior is thoroughly dried out.
 Do not make contact with a badly fitted windows and doors and see that they are kept
closed.
 Do not stack against the wall. Always pile on the floor on wooden planks.
 Do not forget to pile bags together.
 Do not pile more than 15 bags high and arrange the bags in header and stretcher
fashion.
 Do not take cement from one tier. Step back to three or four tiers.
 Do not keep dead storage.
 Do not keep bags on the grounds for temporary storage at work site. Pile on raised dry
platform and cover with tarpaulin or polythene sheets.
Because cement is finely ground, it easily absorbs water and also moisture from the air.
Protect cement from getting damp – especially during the monsoons – by storing cement bags
correctly.
 Ideally, store cement in a weatherproof warehouse.
 Stack bags close together, to reduce air circulation, about 30 cm away from the walls
and, preferably, on wooden planks.
 Keep the stacked pile up to a maximum of 15 bags high and about 3 meters in width –
alternately placing the bags lengthwise and crosswise, to safeguard against toppling.
 For extra safety during monsoon, or when the bags are to be stored for long periods,
cover the pile with a polythene sheet.
 Due to pressure, cement – in the lower bags in the stacked pile – may tend to cake.
When taken out to use, all you need to do is to roll these bags over. Also, when
removing stored bags, remove them from two or three tiers, rather than all from one
tier. This will prevent toppling.
 When removing bags for use, do it on a "first in, first out" system. This means
stacking bags separately as they arrive, with date of arrival placards attached to each
pile.

31
STORING METHOD OF STEEL
Steels are very important partition of the building construction work. So, when we store the
steel we should be care below the items. Steel should be kept away from the factors of
corrosions. Because they will increase corrosion such as factors are oxygen, water,
temperature, Salt, CO2, H2S, and HCL. We avoid for corrosion. We cover the by polythene
bags.
Ex: - When we store the steel. Storing place should be far away from the sea.
Steel rods used for concrete work should,
1. Be of specified tensile strength.
2. Develop good bond strengths with concrete.
There are two different types of steel like mild steel and tor steel. Commonly used standard
diameters are 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25 and 32mm. Bar sizes 6 to 16 mm are used in slab while
12 to 32 mm bars are used in beam and column constructions.
Storing
1. Steel bars should be properly to avoid corrosion and distortion by keeping them off
the ground and providing enough support so that they do not bend.
2. Cover should be provided to keep off the rain to store for long period.
3. Clean off large scale of rust before cut and bent.
4. Cement wash steel is not good practice.
5. The storing place should be well-water proofed, dry & not allow exposing H2O (g) &
corrosive gases.
6. Different diameter bars are stored in different places. Because, it is easy to take that
particular purpose.
7. When storing the steel it should be keep 600 mm distance between wall and steel.
8. Steel should be stored in dry ground surface. If not, it is better arranging platform by
bricks, lean concrete and wood planks.

32
Precautions of reinforcement before using in Actual Work
 Reinforcement for RC should free from paint, oil, grease, loose rust and any other
matter likely to impair the bond strength of concrete.
 Rods when bent in to hooks should not crack or split as it will indicate brittle steel.
STORAGE OF CONCRETE
There is no proper storage system to concrete, though concrete is affected by cracks and
shrinkage, but Chlorides, especially calcium chloride, can be used to shorten the setting time
of concrete. However, calcium chloride and (to a lesser extent) sodium chloride are shown to
leach calcium hydroxide and cause chemical changes in Portland cement, leading to loss of
strength, as well as attacking the steel reinforcement present in most concrete.

33
TASK-3
3.1 BRIEF ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE IN THIS DESIGN.
Ultimate Limit State (ULS) - To satisfy the ultimate limit state, the structure must not
collapse when subjected to the peak design load for which it was designed. That is the
structure will not become unfit for their purpose by collapse, overturning, buckling.
Example - A structure is deemed to satisfy the ultimate limit state criteria if all factored
bending, shear and tensile or compressive stresses are below the factored resistances
calculated for the section under consideration.

34
Reference Calculation Result
Characteristic strength of concrete (fcu) = 25N/ mm2
Characteristic strength of tor steel (fy)= 460N/ mm2
Density of reinforced concrete = 24N/ m3
Thickness of slab= 150mm
Imposed load = 2.0 KN/m2
Weight of floor finishing = 0.5KN/ m2

35
Sectional Properties
Effective depth = 10 mm bars
Selected nominal Cover=25mm
Shorter span direction= (dx)
h = dx + Ø/2 + c
150 = dx + 10/2 + 25
150 = dx + 5 + 25
dx = 150-30
dx=120mm
Shorter span direction dx = 120mm
dx = 120mm

36
Effective depth = 10 mm bars
Selected nominal Cover=25mm
Longer span direction= (dx)
H = dy + D2 / 2 + D1 +C
150 = dy + 10 / 2 + 10 + 25
dy = 150 – 40
dy = 110mm
Longer span direction dy = 110mm
dy = 110mm

37
BS 8110
Table3.14
Ly/Lx=3/4=1.33<2
Bending moment coefficients
Short span coefficients
βsx 1 at the continuous edge = 0.069
βsx 2 at the mid span =0.051
Long span coefficients
βsy 1 at the continuous edge =0.045
βsy 2 at the mid span =0.034

38
BS 8110
Eqn
14
BS 8110
Eqn
15
Design moment per unit width
Mid span moment in short span direction ( positive moment)=
Mid span moment in long span direction ( positive moment)=
Moment on the continuous in short span direction ( Negative
moment)=
Moment on the continuous in long span direction on (
Negative moment)=
Msx = βsx.n × lx2
= 0.069× 11.87× 52
=20.4758 KN/M2
Msx = βsx.n × lx2
= 0.051× 11.87 × 52
=15.1343 KN/M2
Msy = βsy.n × ly2
= 0.045× 11.87× 62
=19.23 KN/M2
Msy = βsy.n × ly2
= 0.034× 11.87× 62
Msx=
15.1343KN/M2
Msy= 14.529
KN/M2
M1=20.4758KN/M2
M2= 19.23KN/M2

39
=14.529 KN/M2

40
BS8110
Cl 3.4.4.4
Reinforcement requirement
Position of the panel
 Moment (Knm/m)
 k =
M
bd2fcu
 𝑍 = 𝑑 (0.5 + √0.25 +
𝑘
0.9
)
 𝑍𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.95𝑑𝑒
 𝐴𝑠 =
𝑚
0.95×𝑓𝑦𝑍
Moment (Knm/m)
Mid span moment in short span direction
( positive moment)= 15.1343KN/M2
Mid span moment in long span direction
( positive moment)= 14.529KN/M2
Moment on the continuous in short span direction
( Negative moment)= 20.4758KN/M2
Moment on the continuous in long span direction
( Negative moment)= 19.23 KN/M2

41
Shorter span direction Mid Span
M= 15.1343KN/M2
b=1 d2
=952
Fcu= 25
N/mm2
k =
M
bd2fcu
k =
15.1343 × 103
1 × (95)2
× 25
=0.041
𝑍 = 𝑑 (0.5 + √0.25 −
𝑘
0.9
)
𝑍 = 95 (0.5 + √0.25
0.015
0.9
)
𝑍 = 93.39
𝑍 = 93
𝐴𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑚
0.95 × 𝑓𝑦𝑍
𝐴𝑠 =
15.1343 × 106
0.95 × 460 × 93.39
=
15134300
40641
=372.389 = 372
AS=372

42
short span direction continuous edge

43

44
CONCLUSION
I have found more than six materials which are concrete, steel, aluminium, cement, tiles
and timber for do this Assignment. I have explained about each material. Its properties also
explained in task - 1.1.
In task 1.2, the relevant alternative materials have been explained. The purpose of this task is
identified good & suitable alternatives instead of the selected materials. In task 2.1, quality
testing methods of each material has been explained, through this task we can identify
whether the material is good for the construction work.
Very important thing is the description of the methods of improving their properties. Which
are given in Task - 2.1 & 2.2.
How to store the material safely have been explained in task 2.3. I completed this individual
assignment by gathering information from lecturer notes, books, and browsing the internet.
I hope that this assignment will provide the necessary information on selecting good
materials for building construction, and those who read this assignment can gain more
knowledge on constructing any durable and firm building. The lecture note of this subject
was very useful to do this assignment.

45
REFERENCE
 Lecture notes
 Module guide
 Gambhir, M.L.(2004) Concrete Technology.3rd
ed,India;Tata McGraw-Hill publishing
company Limited.
 Alan Everet.(1986) Materials.4th
ed,London;The Mitchell publishing Company
Limited.
 Gupta, AK, Gupta, RC. (1983) Material Science.2nd,india;EPH
 Vazirani, V.N and Chandola, S.P.(2005)Civil Engineering Hand Book- vol2,
india;Khanna publishers
 msm muzahir. (2015). Properties of aluminium. Available:
http://www.aluminiumdesign.net/why-aluminium/properties-of-aluminium/. Last
accessed 30th jul 2015.

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