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AGRICULTURE TEACHERS USE OF QUESTIONING
Agriculture Teachers’ use of Questioning Techniques - A
Qualitative Analysis
Monyatsi Tomeletso
Molepolole College of Education
An Associate Institution of the University of Botswana
Gaborone, Botswana

AGRICULTURE TEACHERS’ USE OF QUESTIONING
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Abstract
This research study was part of a larger study I carried out on exploration of Form 5 teachers of
Agriculture’s use of questioning techniques between August 2013 and May 2014. This article
focused on objective; Do teachers apply questioning techniques of prompting, probing,
redirection and wait-time I in actual classes if so, how and why? The study employed a
qualitative method using descriptive/ interpretive paradigm and sociocultural theory to
understand agricultural teachers’ questioning behavior. Study population was 392 Form 5
agriculture students distributed in ten (10) classes and their five (5) agriculture teachers. From
the 5 Form five agriculture teachers, four (4) were sampled using convenience sampling and
observed teaching for eighty (80) minutes and later interviewed. Data from classroom
observations was transcribed and analyzed using Thematic Analysis in order to understand how
teachers apply questioning techniques in actual classes. Interviews were analyzed using
Thematic analysis in order to understand why teachers questioned the way they did. The results
showed that teachers’ did not rephrase questions, did not use follow up probes adequately, and
applied a less strict form of redirection. On positive note teachers redirected questions well, and
gave enough wait - time I.
Keywords: Questioning; Questioning techniques; Agriculture teachers.

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The use of questions as a teaching method dates back to Socrates’ ancient Greece
(Ozmon & Craver, 1990; Cahn, 2012). Despite this reality, an amassed amount of research gives
impression that teachers are lacking in questioning skills. Wilson and Smetana (2011) report that
teacher- centered interaction patterns still saturate classroom instruction up to today, despite
efforts to nurture active learner involvement through questioning in the United Kingdom. In
Pakistan teachers were reported failing to prompt (Ali, Tariq & Topping, 2009). In South Korea
and Portugal teachers did not give students enough to think about answers to oral questions (Cho
et al., 2012; Albergaria-Almeida, 2010).
In Botswana, where this research was carried out, questioning was reported dominated by
correct answer exchanges without any meaningful learning (Rowell & Prophet, 1990). Teachers
have been observed to allow only a few questions, with little manipulation of ideas (Fuller &
Snyder, 1990). I made similar observations as senior teacher II in one senior school as a
supervisor of student teachers joining the agricultural department.
Revised National Policy on Education (RNPE, 1994) of Botswana acknowledges
incongruence between pedagogical approaches of teachers in the country and the philosophy of
learner centered classrooms it espouses. In mapping the way forward Botswana General
Certificate of Secondary Education (BGCSE, 2000) Agriculture syllabus describe teachers’ role
as that of a proficient facilitator, and manager of student learning. The two aforementioned
documents are therefore uncompromising in demanding active learner involvement.

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Active learner involvement can be achieved amongst others through questioning (Wilson
& Smetana, 2011; Gallimore & Tharp, 2003; Dillon, 1988; Jacobsen, Eggen, Kauchak, &
Dulaney, 1985). A decade after Prophet’s findings, and half a decade after inception of RNPE
(1994), teachers in Botswana were reported using expository teaching methods, believing it helps
learners in passing national examinations (Tabulawa, 1997). Even though a good amount of
research has been carried on questioning in Botswana, Agricultural teachers in senior schools
have been left out. Hence this study will focus on this group of academics. Unlike some of the
past studies, which studied classroom interactions broadly, I studied specific questioning
techniques of prompting, probing, redirection and wait - time I. This approach ensured less
breadth but increased depth as a result enhanced theoretical and practical understanding of the
different questioning techniques studied.
According Jacobsen et al., (1985) when teachers ask a question and a student fails to
answer or provide a wrong answer most teachers usually call the next student whose hand is up
or answer the question themselves. A better approach to use is to apply prompting which is use
of hints or rephrasing to help her/ him correct the original response (Moore, 1988).
Moore (1985) explains a technique called probing, which is use of questions that obliges
students to think more prudently about their preliminary response. These questions serve to
elucidate (Nicholl & Tracy, 2007), advance critical awareness and to refocus a discussion
(Moore, 1988). By their nature higher order questions and follow up probes require preparation,
they take time to ask and to answer and can be time consuming (Nicholl & Tracy, 2007). Some
helpful examples of follow up probing questions are “what happen if?” How would you?”, or

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explain why you?”
Redirection, states Jacobsen et al., (1985) is the framing and asking of a divergent
question and receiving responses from several students. The technique increase the average
number of student participation in class. According to Brophy and Good (as cited in Jacobsen et
al., 1985) generally teachers do not redirect questions to specific students. In addition, when
questions are redirected ‘perceived high achievers’ are given more answering opportunities than
‘perceived low achievers.’
According to Moore (1985) when teachers learn to extend wait time from 3 to 5 seconds
failure to respond declines, voluntary responses rises, and speculative thinking surges. Cho et al.,
(2012) studied the medical school faculty member’s perception on questioning technique. The
study results show that faculty members wait-time 1 was 2.5 seconds, a figure close to the
recommended wait-time 1 of 3-5 seconds. Enough wait-time I increase length of learners’
answers, encourage volunteering to answer, reduce unsuccessful answers and boosts academic
performance. Tofade, Elsner, and Haines (2013) recommended that where high-order questions
are used it may be essential to provide 1 to 2 minutes of wait - time I.
Purpose and objective
Academicians who have been following classroom research that focused on use of oral
questioning and teacher students’ interactions or classroom life in Botswana by writers like
(Fuller & Snyder, 1990; Rowell & Prophet, 1990; Tabulawa, 1997) will be better informed as to
what directions future research in questioning should take in as far as; type of data to collect,

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framework(s), philosophical underpinning and type of analysis to use are concerned. Training
institutions will better understand strengths and weaknesses of teachers as regards use of
questioning and may re-think methodologies used in training of teachers to make them better
equipped in questioning. Policy makers can use the findings of the study to (re-) orientate future
legislations to support use of certain philosophical and pedagogical dispensations in training
institutions. For example in England government enacted a Policy that strongly prescribed . . .
how teachers should teach using ‘interactive whole class teaching’ (IWT) which stressed active
learner involvement by answering questions, explaining and demonstrating their methods and
solutions to fellow learners (Black, 2007). The objective of this research was therefore to answer
the question; Do teachers apply questioning techniques of prompting, probing, redirection and
wait - time I in actual classes if so, how and why?
Theoretical Framework
The study used Lev Vygotsky theory of Socioculturalism which states that work
behaviour in schools is explained by cultural, social and individual spheres” (McInerney,
Walker, & Liem, 2011). Social interactions in schools manifest itself in numerous means,
amongst which are ‘scaffolding’ or negotiation (Gallimore & Tharp, 2003). Scaffolding involves
the opinion that new learning takes place when a learner who is working within the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD) which is ‘the difference between the level of the tasks that can be
performed with the help of adults and the level of tasks that can be solved with independent
activity’ (Rosa & Montero, 2003, p. 79).

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Amongst the many ways of negotiation of meanings with students is through
questioning. Questioning is deemed valuable for two main teaching advantages, first; if
the teacher questions, there is mental and verbal stimulation of pupils, which gives them
practice and exercise. Second; during this exercise of the pupil’s speech and thought, the
teacher will be able to assist and guide the student’s weaving of evidence and their use of
intellect (Gallimore &Tharp, 2003).
Culture, states Ratner, (as cited in Daniels, 2001, p.132), “comprises social
concepts but also . . . definite ethics of behaviour, systems of control and power,
allocation of opportunities, and rewards and punishments.” The relationship between the
individual and culture of which s/he is a member is one of interdependence; in their
development, each shapes and is shaped by the other.
Vygotsky stated that although biological development is genetically controlled, the
capabilities for acting, thinking, feeling and communicating that makes us human are crucially
dependent on cultural practices and tools which may be of material and /or psychological nature
(e.g. language books, maps, theories, institutions).
Social sphere, states McInerney et al., (2011) include classroom as one of the
constituents. Others being school and family both of which are not dynamics of interest in this
study. Social sphere or classroom climate may also be as defined classroom relationships and
interactions between the teacher and students and among students, including shared perceptions
and behaviours (Koth, Bradshaw, & Leaf, 2008).

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Individual sphere refers to intrapersonal factors that influence one’s work behaviour.
Important to this study is prior knowledge (McInerney, et al., 2011). In a study by Wells (2001),
it was observed that students were able to understand new learning and make their own meaning
of it when teachers employed prior learning.
Methods
The study used qualitative methodology (Creswell, 2014), constructivist/ interpretative
paradigm and hermeneutics as the underpinning philosophy. Themes and verbatim extracts
from participants were used to illustrate both positive and negative cases.
The study population were five (5) agriculture teachers and their form 5 students (n =
392) in one senior school, in the year 2014. The school is located 40kms from Gaborone the
capital city of Botswana. Convenience sampling was used to sample teachers to answer the
question ‘Do teachers apply the questioning techniques of prompting, probing, redirection and
wait - time I in actual classes, if so, how and why?’ According to Weiers (2002) ‘members of
such sample are chosen primarily because they are both readily available and willing to
participate’ (p. 146). Four out of five teachers were selected, observed teaching, captured on
voice recorder and later interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire.
50% of the sampled teachers were males. The four teachers were given pseudonyms to
protect their identities. All teachers held Bachelor of Science in Agriculture and were senior
teacher II’s. Three of the teachers had 16 – 20 years of teaching experience and one had 11- 15

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years. The pseudonyms were, Mrs Kgosi, Mrs Morake, Mr Bonang, and Mr Thabang. Names
used for students were also pseudonyms.
Data collection
A Philips voice tracer was used for voice recording of class lessons of the four teachers
chosen through convenience sampling. All lessons lasted 80 minutes. Topics taught were on
game farming and livestock diseases.
Interview Schedule was used to interview teachers using a predetermined semi-structured
questionnaire. The interview schedule designed had an opening, body and a closing (Brewer,
2000). Interview about teachers’ use of each of the questioning techniques began with the
question, ‘Please briefly talk about your job experience in particular teacher students’ relations
and instructional issues.’ This question served as an ice breaker. The second question which was
varied depending on which questioning technique was the focus of interest at any point in time
was, ‘From class observations you seem keen to use hints/ probes/ redirection questions/ wait /
not to wait after a student answered. Is there a reason for this?’ ‘Does it help you as a teacher?’
‘Does it help student involved?’ The interviewer would then ask follow up questions to get more
information from the interviewee on any interesting answers.
Semi-Structured Interview Schedule; it was developed from guidelines provided
(Creswell, 2014; Brewer, 2000). Other measures taken to enhance validity were; discussing
negative cases, which helps to exemplify and support positive cases and to show exceptions to
discussed trends and in the process portray truth in real life (Brewer, 2000).

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Data analysis
To answer the first part of the question ‘Do teachers apply the questioning techniques of
prompting, probing, redirection and wait - time I [emphasis added], if so, how?’ I used quasi-
statistics. According to Becker ( as cited in Maxwell (2010) qualitative researchers usually pose
quantitative statements orally, employing words like many, often, typically and so on .Becker
therefore suggested that such use of quantitative statements can be validated by use of what is
called quasi statistics which is simple counts of things to substantiate use of words like
sometimes, usually, most, etc. Use of quasi statistics also contributes to internal generalizability
in case studies. In order to achieve both substantiated quantitative claims in a qualitative study
and internal generalizability voice recordings were transcribed. In each transcript researchers
counted all opportunities that came up (total opportunities) and required application of
prompting technique. From these total opportunities, researcher counted those in which the
teacher applied the technique (used opportunities) and expressed them as a percentage of the
total opportunities. The same steps were followed for probing and redirection.
With regard to wait - time I, ten (10) questions were randomly sampled for each teacher
making a total of forty (40) questions. Using a stop watch wait-time I for each question was
captured as time from a moment teacher finished asking a question to a moment he/ she called a
student to answer. In this case there were forty (40) total opportunities, because forty questions
were sampled. Therefore used opportunities for wait - time I refers to instances where a teacher
waited for a minimum of 3 seconds based on standard wait- time I of 3 – 5 seconds by Rowe ( as

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cited in Moore, 1988). The results were presented in a table showing counts of total opportunities
and percentages of used opportunities for each questioning technique.
To answer the second part of the question ‘Do teachers apply the questioning skills of
prompting, probing, redirection and wait - time I in actual classes, if so how [emphasis added]
and why?’, transcriptions were analyzed and verbatim extracts from the transcripts were
provided to illustrate ‘good’ and ‘bad’ use of these questioning techniques.
To answer the last part of the question ‘Do teachers apply the questioning skills of
prompting, probing, redirection and wait - time I in actual classes, if so how and why [emphasis
added]? Interviews were analyzed into themes using Brewer’s guidelines on thematic analysis
(Brewer, 2000), and verbatim extracts were used to support themes that came up during teacher
interviews.
This research was checked by Office of Research and Development in University of [ ]
and Ministry of Education & Skills Development (MoE & SD) in [ ] and was found to meet the
required level of ethical considerations.
Limitations
When I arrived at the school for data collection, it was difficult to get all the students to
one venue at the same time because they were engaged in different practical subjects in the
afternoons. I then resorted to sampling from class lists and using teachers to administer the
questionnaire in the afternoons or during lessons depending on what suits them. Because of the
large number of agriculture classes (ten in all) I could not be present in all classes when the

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questionnaire was administered, as a result presence of the teacher alone could have
compromised the students responses and thereby negatively affected the credibility of results.
Results
The aim of the study was to answer the question; Do teachers apply questioning
techniques of prompting, probing, redirection, wait - time I in actual classes, if so, how and why?
To answer first part of the question ‘do teachers apply the questioning techniques of prompting,
probing, redirection and wait - time I in actual classes?’ I applied quasi statistics. As shown in
table 1, I found out that teachers applied questioning techniques of redirection and wait - time I a
lot, hardly prompt and their application of probing was average.
Table 1: Percentage Used opportunities for each of the questioning techniques
Prompting Probing Redirection Wait - time I
ƒ Utilised (%) ƒ Utilised (%) ƒ Utilised (%) ƒ Utilised (%)
28 13 (46) 28 14 (50) 15 13 (87) 40 27 (68)
To answer the second part of the question ‘Do teachers apply questioning techniques of
prompting, probing, redirection and wait - time I in actual class if so, how [emphasis added]?’ I
selected extracts from lesson transcripts to illustrate both good and bad use for each of the

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questioning techniques. I found out that teachers did not prompt the particular student who
answered wrongly or had no idea, teachers did not apply the many variants of probing, and
teachers redirected well but involved only a few students. More over teachers’ redirection
questions even though divergent did not require evaluation and passing of judgments by the
students. At times teachers did not redirect questions to precise individuals. Lastly teachers wait -
time I was perfect. In this section and preceding ones, the following key was used. Letter ‘T’
represented Teacher, ‘S’ represented Student, double S, (SS) represented students answering in
chorus or whole class answering, ‘R’ represented Respondent in interviews, and ‘I’ represented
Interviewer.
Prompting
Good examples of prompting never surfaced in lessons observed. Extract 1 illustrates an
attempt by one of the teachers to prompt but still the questions were not directed to any particular
student.’ In extract two, the questions were not directed to the student who answered ‘no idea.’
Extract 1
T: “You mean you still don’t know the difference between a grazer and a browser? hmm, so
normally in our ranges, you find browsers and grazers leaving together. What is the intention?”
(Silence)

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T: “To balance what?”
(Silence)
T: “What is the intention? To balance eco . . .?”
SS: “ecosystem.”
Extract 2
As shown in extract 2 when faced with a situation where students, either do not answer at all
(keep quiet) or say “no idea” teachers call a different student whose hand was up to provide an
answer. This is a bad example of prompting.
T: “Can u give me an example of a pathogenic disease caused by bacteria?” (Points at a student)
S: “No idea.”
T: “No idea. Yes?” Sethunya? (Points at a different student)
S: “tuberculosis.”
Probing
As shown in extract 3 use of probing was average. Again, students were allowed to
answer randomly, without the teachers precisely allocating answering opportunities.

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Extract 3
T: “Now looking at this disease (referring to FMD) which animals are affected?”
SS: “cattle”
S: “goats”
S: “sheep”
T: “goats, sheep, cattle. What is common about these animals?”
S: “they are cloven hoofed animals”
As shown in extract 4 in the event teachers probed they did not give themselves time to apply
more variants of the technique to assist student who failed in producing full answers but in
majority of the cases they seemed to give up easily and would call a different student.
Extract 4
T: “What is foreign exchange?”
S: “selling of animals.”
T: Is that foreign exchange?” (Points to a different student)
Redirection
When divergent questions were asked students were called in turns to provide answers.
Even though teachers redirected questions it was observed that in each of the classes in the study

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questions revolved around 8-10 students in every class. This observation was even brought to
attention of teachers during the interview. Extract 5 illustrate a good example of redirection.
Extract 5
T: “One must look at the ecological principles of selecting a game farm. What are they? Yes,
Pinkie.
Pinkie: “Carrying capacity.”
T: “We talked about carrying capacity, what else? Yes, Leungo.
Leungo: “game population?”
As shown in extract 6 the teacher asked a divergent question but did not direct it to any
specific student as a result students answered in chorus and this is a bad example of the
technique.
Extract 6
T: “So if you are to venture into game farming how is it going to uplift your livelihood?”
SS: “employment”
Wait - time I
As shown in extract 7 class observations showed teachers usually pause after asking a
question before calling students to answer. This illustrates a good example of the technique.

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Extract 7
T: “Can you give me reasons why we control diseases?” (Pauses) Yes, Botho.
Botho: “So that we can avoid disease spreading.”
As shown in extract 8 at times teachers did not pause after asking a question. It has to be
pointed out that such cases were very rare. In this particular case the teacher’s wait - time I was
less than two seconds.
Extract 8
“What else is considered in selecting a game farm?” (No pause) Tiny.
Tiny: (silence)
T: “say something, what about energy?”
Now that it was established that teachers apply mostly redirection technique, followed by
wait - time I and examples from teachers’ lessons were used to illustrate how they implement the
different techniques, the last part was to understand why teachers questioned as they did during
lesson observations. As shown in table 2, seven themes emerged during interview with the four
teachers.
Table 2: Themes on why teachers questioned as they did.

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Discussion, Conclusion & Recommendations
A discussion of the finding(s) under each questioning technique incorporates findings
from class observations, and teacher interviews. Verbatim quotes were used to support themes
Questioning techniques Themes
Prompting Theme 1: We prompt; Asked how they assist students with ‘no
idea’ or who fail to respond at all teachers said they rephrased or
used clues. Class observations showed they did not rephrase or use
clues but pointed to a different student.
Probing Theme 2: I know what each can offer; Asked why they did not
probe teachers said they know what each student can offer hence
for some students it is pointless to do it since they will never get the
answer correct.
Theme 3: As a teacher I come last; teachers said students should
give all they know to a question before they can come in.
Redirection Theme 4: Makes students feel motivated and cared for; teachers
used students’ names to redirect questions believing it motivated
them.
Wait - time I Theme 5: I think students should be given time; teachers believed
it is important to pause after asking a question to give students
thinking time.

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that emerged during teacher interviews. The results are presented using a side-by-side approach
and then triangulated.
Prompting
The finding of this study was that teachers rarely prompted. This finding is in agreement
with Jacobsen et al., (1985) and Moore (1985), who stated teachers pass questions to next student
when no answer was forthcoming with the hope of sustaining interest and motivation. In a study
of Pakistan Universities by Ali at el., (2009) report showed teachers’ failed to prompt. In
Botswana, Rowell and Prophet (1990) reported science teachers ignored students’ answers when
wrong. All studies above even though not based on agriculture teachers consistently showed
teachers, irrespective of subject taught did not prompt.
In the interview teachers said that if a student fails to answer they rephrased questions.
This position did not concur with class observation outcomes. Under theme 1; we prompt, Mrs
Morake said “where they seem blank, I would try to think of a leading question.” Mrs Kgosi
concurred as follows; “But the student who says no idea, I think you can rephrase the question.”
Rephrasing is one way of prompting (Moore, 1988; Jacobsen et al., 1985). It is evident from
class observations that teachers seldom rephrased and this is when majority of students did not
understand and therefore no answer was forthcoming. My position is that teachers should
rephrase even to individuals because we teach to individuals in groups not to groups of
individuals (Dillon, 1988).

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Based on class observations’ and teacher interviews it is clear that teachers did not
prompt but were aware of the use of the technique. The finding of this study is in agreement with
those of (Ali at el., 2009; Jacobsen et al., 1985) who both showed teachers, did not prompt.
Probing
The finding of this study is that teachers’ probing was average. Teachers assumed the
role of expanding and explaining students’ answers, while students responded in incomplete
sentences. But, there is evidence that some teachers are engaging students through follow up
probes. This finding is in agreement with Rowell & Prophet (1990) who observed that teachers
in Botswana did not ask students to explain their answers or show how concepts are related but
also pointed out that some teachers were breaking away from traditional didactic pedagogies.
In addition, teachers also missed on opportunities to probe, for instance results show that
only 50% of total opportunities were utilized (see table 1). Using extract 4, it can be argued that
there were several possible follow up probes the teacher could use. The author posits that the
student in the extract was not entirely wrong. The ground for this position is that one way of
getting foreign exchange (forex) is through selling of animals. As such, possible probes could be;
if you sell animals what do you get in return? Possible answers are; money/ foreign exchange.
Another probe assuming the answer is money would be; if the buyer is from outside Botswana
what name do we use to call such moneys? If the student fails to supply the word(s) ‘foreign
exchange’ or ‘forex’, then the question can be passed to next student. If all fail, teacher can give
it as assignment or supply the word(s) since the technique allows it where particular terminology

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should be learned. Probing in this case could have given the student a line of thought; he/she
could possibly use to help remember the term ‘forex’ or foreign exchange in future. The point is
there were many possible routes to follow with probes.
During the interview teachers were asked why they did not ask follow up probes theme 2
came up. For instance Mr Bonang said ‘When I ask the questions I know if one answers this way
I know that’s the best that particular learner can afford.’ Teachers hardly asked students probes
saying they know the kinds of questions each of their students can answer. This means teachers
have stratified students according to perceived ability, and in turn made high order questions a
preserve of the few ‘perceived high performers’. One possible implication is that ‘perceived low
performers’ will remain so, while ‘perceived high performers’ keep improving due to assisted
performance.
In Sociocultural theory, this is akin to testing only fossilised traits because students are
tested on what they already know, while denying them opportunity of performance before
practice as offered by ZPD theory for the development of cognitive capacities (Gallimore &
Tharp, 2003). My position is that ‘perceived low performers’ should equally be exposed to
questions that demands clarification, defending ones answers and supplying evidence to that
effect. According to Ratner (as cited in Daniels, 2001, p.132), part of the definition of culture in
sociocultural theory is ‘allocation of opportunities’, hence I feel right to postulate that it is the
teacher’s role to ensure equal learning chances to all learners by giving equal answering
opportunities to all students regardless of their ‘perceived ability.’

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Another theme associated with probing is theme 3: Asked what role teacher should play
in helping students provide fully developed answers Mrs Kgosi said “as a teacher I come last,
what I do is throw the question onto the rest of the students.” Mrs Morake said “allowing
students to think deeper helps them to learn . . . I shouldn’t just chip in.” I feel this is a wrong
application of probing and does not resonate well with sociocultural theory. This theory puts the
teacher and students as equals, giving the former the role of facilitator. It is therefore expected
that teachers will always be probing; guiding discussions, asking for explanations and examples
in the quest to reach an answer that is jointly-constructed, not taking a back position, waiting for
students to fail and only coming in to provide a fully-fledged answer that he/ she thought of on
their own.
Redirection
Based on class observation and interviews this study made several finding as follows;
Teachers seemed to practice redirection more than any other questioning technique, but gave
answering opportunities to only a few students in class. The observation that answering
opportunities are concentrated in few hands could be a plausible explanation for the low score on
students’ perception of teacher’s application of redirection technique. This finding is in
agreement with (Jacobsen et al., 1985) that even though teachers redirect, majority of the
students (possibly ‘perceived low achievers’) received low calls to answer questions, hence did
not feel involved.

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Teachers practiced redirection technique in its less strict form. This is because even though
questions redirected were divergent they did not require evaluation and comparison of
alternatives on part of the student and as such did not give the student the intended benefits
inherent in the technique. To the authors’ best knowledge this observation has not been noted
before in Botswana classrooms.
Teachers used students’ names to redirect questions to a precise student. Interviews revealed
teachers felt use of student names to redirect questions ‘made student feel cared for and
motivated’ (theme 4) Mrs Morake had this to say; “You feel that the teacher cares about you, it
motivates them”. Mrs Kgosi said “the students they get motivated; they believe that you care
about them.” It has to be noted that even though teachers gave different reasons for use of
students names the practice does help to redirect questions to specific individuals. According to
Moore (1998) it promotes involvement and achievement. This finding is in disagreement with
that of Brophy and Good (as cited in Jacobsen et al., 1985) who stated that teachers did not
redirect questions to precise students. In this study failing to redirect precisely was observed in
one out of four teachers. I therefore view this observation as one of those negative cases and did
not characterise the case study. Also associated with this discrepant case is overuse of sentence
completion oral questions also called ‘supplying missing words’ ( Rowell & Prophet, 1990)
which appeared to increase occurrence of chorus answering. Teachers were at times not aware of
certain of their class practices, for instance a teacher stated s/he does not allow chorus answering
at all. The teacher even blamed it on poor class management. Surprisingly this was the teacher
whose class observation revealed chorus answering was very dominant than in anybody else’s.

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This finding is in agreement with Cho et al., (2012) who stated that teachers’ perception about
their classroom practices are usually different from actual practices and Rowell & Prophet
(1990) who observed students answering in chorus and supplying missing words. Two of the
teachers interviewed conceded they allowed minimal chorus answering in their classes to
improve class participation and class observations found this to be true. According to them it
gave shy students chance to say something in a crowd. My position is that chorus answering
should be discouraged since studies carried out maintain it is not an academically beneficial
practice (Rowell & Prophet, 1990; Tabulawa, 1997).
Going back to my claim that teachers apply a less strict form of direction, the following
questions were designed to better exemplify redirection as described in literature (Moore, 1988).
The questions were designed from a topic taught by the teachers studied. These questions in
tentative sequence of implementation are “From the study of systems of rearing ostriches, which
system do you think is suitable for your locality? A follow up probe would be “Different
speakers gave systems that they believe are suitable for their localities. Why do you think they
are suitable for your locality?” The researcher thinks redirection questions phrased in this
manner can be good to use during lesson conclusion.
Wait - time I
The finding was that teachers gave students enough time to think during questioning and
this result agrees well with recommended wait - time I. The finding of this study is in agreement
with those of Cho et al., (2012) who found lectures wait - time was 2.5 seconds, a value close to

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recommended wait - time I of 3 - 5 seconds. In the current study teachers wait - time I stood at an
impressive 3.98 seconds. During the interview, theme 5; ‘I believe students should be given
time’ emerged. Mrs Kgosi said ‘I believe that students should be given time to respond’ Asked if
pausing after asking a question is necessary Mr Thabang said ‘yah, its right. That’s the right
thing.’ Teachers agreed that it is important to wait after posing a question. Though teachers held
an incorrect perception of their actual wait - time I, in practice they waited enough. It can also be
said that teachers perceived wait - time I of 1 - 1.5 minutes is also Ok if it is applied when high
order questions are asked as recommended by Tofade et al., (2012).
Conclusion
I conclude that teachers did not always use prompting, that is, hints and rephrases to
assist students who failed to respond but surprisingly they were aware that they must rephrase.
Instead teachers passed question to next student or resorted to use of sentence and word
completion questions as a way of involving students.
Teachers probing was average and their reasoned was that they knew what each student
can offer hence with some students they felt application of the technique would be a worthless
exercise. The other explanation could be that teachers questioning practice of ‘exhausting student
answers’ before they can chip in made them to miss probing opportunities. I use the metaphor of
oil to engine to try to better explain my understanding and expectation in the use of questioning
to stimulate discussions by teachers insofar as sociocultural theory is concerned.

26
Teachers used redirection amply but their distribution of questions was skewed in favor
of the ‘perceived high performers.’ Teachers used a less strict form of redirection in that even
though questions they asked were divergent, the questions did not require evaluation and passing
of judgment by the students. This in turn denied students the benefit to develop in answering
productive and evaluative questions that comes with the technique when it is fully utilized.
Teachers gave students enough time to think after questioning before calling them to
respond; this was good practice by teachers since wait time is vital even in the application of the
other three techniques.
Teachers understood that learning takes place only when there is active participation by
the students and this to them, justified the use of questions as a way of negotiating meaning. This
understanding by teachers is in agreement with the tenets of sociocultural theory, which
postulates that social interaction, which in classrooms manifest itself through questioning plays
an important role in individual learners’ development. Due to this understanding teachers in the
study were observed using questions profusely in an attempt to achieve mental and verbal
stimulation of students, unfortunately teachers were let down by two factors. First, teachers did
not seem to see themselves as equals with students in co-construction of knowledge as postulated
by sociocultural theory. This is because teachers took a back seat as they waited for students to
fail to answer and would come last only to provide a correct answer which may prove difficult to
comprehend by students since they did not take part in its production. Second, teachers allocation
of answering opportunities to students was skewed in favor of ‘perceived high performers’ hence
not democratic as championed by the sociocultural theory.

27
Recommendations
It is recommended that when students cannot answer a question, teachers should give
clues or rephrase, and ensure equal distribute of question amongst students. Teachers should
practice redirection as documented in literature, so that students can reap the inherent benefits of
the techniques, which are ability to evaluate, compare and make judgements. Teachers should
uphold use of students’ names, since it motivates and can achieve fair distribution of answering
opportunities when applied properly. Teachers should uphold their wait - time I since it is at par
with recommended wait - time I of 3-5 seconds.
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