'Ethiopian Ocean': a 16th c. Colonial Term, the Treaties of Alcáçovas (1479), Tordesillas (1494) and Zaragoza (1529), and the Ottoman Stiffness and Incompetence
First published on 10th May 2021 here:
https://megalommatis.wordpress.com/2021/05/10/ethiopian-ocean-a-16th-c-colonial-term-the-treaties-of-alcacovas-1479-tordesillas-1494-and-zaragoza-1529-and-the-ottoman-stiffness-and-incompetence/
Contents
I. Misinterpretation of a 15th c. Unhistorical Term by 21st c. Crooks
II. No 'Ethiopian Ocean' (or Sea) in 'Classical Geographical Works'
III. Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Iranians, the Circumnavigation of Africa, and the Geographical Terms Used
IV. Libya (: 'Africa'), the Periplus of Hanno, and the Early Use of the Term 'Atlantic Sea'
V. The Terms 'Ocean' and 'Sea', and the leading Ancient Egyptian Scholar Ptolemy the Geographer
VI. The Treaties of Alcáçovas (1479), Tordesillas (1494) and Zaragoza (1529), and the Use of the Terms 'Sea of Ethiopia' and 'Sea of India'
VII. The Treaties of Alcáçovas, Tordesillas and Zaragoza, Portuguese-Spanish Colonial Conquests, Ottoman Ignorance and Stiffness, and the Collapse of the Islamic World
The document summarizes major periods and events in ancient Egyptian history:
1) The Old Kingdom collapsed due to civil wars, famines from drought, and overtaxation of resources to fund massive building projects. This led to the First Intermediate Period of division and instability.
2) The Middle Kingdom saw the rise of Thebes and more accessible pharaohs who expanded trade and irrigation. The Second Intermediate Period was marked by Asian invasions and the rule of Hyksos in Lower Egypt.
3) The New Kingdom reunified Egypt and expanded its territories under militaristic rulers like Hatshepsut, who rebuilt trade networks, and Ramses II, who fought the Battle
Discussion of difficulties in establishing dates in History especially in Civilizations before BC. The date we are trying to pin down is the date for the Exodus by Mosses and the Israelite's from Egypt. Part two of the lecture we will show and discuss the beautiful artwork of the New Kingdom.
The New Kingdom of Egypt was a period of great power and expansion under pharaohs like Hatshepsut, Tutmosis III, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramesses II. Some key events included Hatshepsut ruling as one of Egypt's most successful female pharaohs, Tutmosis III's military campaigns expanding Egyptian control, Akhenaten briefly establishing a new monotheistic religion, and Ramesses II engaging the Hittites in history's first recorded peace treaty after the Battle of Kadesh. However, internal divisions and foreign invasions later contributed to the decline of Egypt's New Kingdom and its independence.
Nefertiti was an Egyptian queen and wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten during the 14th century BC. She and her husband established the cult of Aten, the sun god, and promoted artwork depicting this new monotheistic religion. In 1912, archaeologists discovered a famous bust of Nefertiti that has become one of the most iconic symbols of Egypt. Over a hundred years later, the legacy of Nefertiti and the artifact depicting her still captivate people today.
Nefertiti was born in 1390 BCE and married King Amenhotep IV (later known as Akhenaten) at age 15. As Queen, Nefertiti played a vital role during Akhenaten's leadership and the couple had six daughters and possibly one son. After 14 years of Akhenaten's rule, Nefertiti disappeared in 1336 BCE when she was around 40 years old. Some believe she may have become Pharaoh after her husband's death.
Ancient Egypt prospered due to its stable government structure and interaction with other cultures. The Egyptian empire was first formed along the fertile Nile River valley. A unified kingdom was established around 3100 BC under King Menes, beginning the Old Kingdom period of pyramid building. Subsequent kingdoms including the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom expanded Egypt's territories and established trade networks, while maintaining political and religious rule centered on the pharaoh.
The most powerful person in ancient Egypt was the Pharaoh, who was both the political and religious leader. As political leader, the Pharaoh owned all the land, made laws, collected taxes, and led the military. As religious leader, the Pharaoh performed rituals and oversaw temple construction to honor the gods. Pharaohs were believed to be both human and divine, and would become gods after death. They ruled Egypt for thousands of years, building monuments and leading military campaigns to maintain Egyptian power.
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt lasted from around 2030 to 1640 BCE. After a period of decentralization following the Old Kingdom, two kings helped regain order and centralize power under the pharaoh once more. Egypt engaged in increased trade during this period and a new writing system was developed. The economy was based on agriculture along the fertile Nile River valley. Art from this period depicted more realistic human figures and stories from Egyptian mythology and the afterlife. Architecture consisted primarily of simpler pyramids and temples. Eventually, foreign influences weakened royal power, leading to the Second Intermediate Period.
The document summarizes major periods and events in ancient Egyptian history:
1) The Old Kingdom collapsed due to civil wars, famines from drought, and overtaxation of resources to fund massive building projects. This led to the First Intermediate Period of division and instability.
2) The Middle Kingdom saw the rise of Thebes and more accessible pharaohs who expanded trade and irrigation. The Second Intermediate Period was marked by Asian invasions and the rule of Hyksos in Lower Egypt.
3) The New Kingdom reunified Egypt and expanded its territories under militaristic rulers like Hatshepsut, who rebuilt trade networks, and Ramses II, who fought the Battle
Discussion of difficulties in establishing dates in History especially in Civilizations before BC. The date we are trying to pin down is the date for the Exodus by Mosses and the Israelite's from Egypt. Part two of the lecture we will show and discuss the beautiful artwork of the New Kingdom.
The New Kingdom of Egypt was a period of great power and expansion under pharaohs like Hatshepsut, Tutmosis III, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramesses II. Some key events included Hatshepsut ruling as one of Egypt's most successful female pharaohs, Tutmosis III's military campaigns expanding Egyptian control, Akhenaten briefly establishing a new monotheistic religion, and Ramesses II engaging the Hittites in history's first recorded peace treaty after the Battle of Kadesh. However, internal divisions and foreign invasions later contributed to the decline of Egypt's New Kingdom and its independence.
Nefertiti was an Egyptian queen and wife of Pharaoh Akhenaten during the 14th century BC. She and her husband established the cult of Aten, the sun god, and promoted artwork depicting this new monotheistic religion. In 1912, archaeologists discovered a famous bust of Nefertiti that has become one of the most iconic symbols of Egypt. Over a hundred years later, the legacy of Nefertiti and the artifact depicting her still captivate people today.
Nefertiti was born in 1390 BCE and married King Amenhotep IV (later known as Akhenaten) at age 15. As Queen, Nefertiti played a vital role during Akhenaten's leadership and the couple had six daughters and possibly one son. After 14 years of Akhenaten's rule, Nefertiti disappeared in 1336 BCE when she was around 40 years old. Some believe she may have become Pharaoh after her husband's death.
Ancient Egypt prospered due to its stable government structure and interaction with other cultures. The Egyptian empire was first formed along the fertile Nile River valley. A unified kingdom was established around 3100 BC under King Menes, beginning the Old Kingdom period of pyramid building. Subsequent kingdoms including the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom expanded Egypt's territories and established trade networks, while maintaining political and religious rule centered on the pharaoh.
The most powerful person in ancient Egypt was the Pharaoh, who was both the political and religious leader. As political leader, the Pharaoh owned all the land, made laws, collected taxes, and led the military. As religious leader, the Pharaoh performed rituals and oversaw temple construction to honor the gods. Pharaohs were believed to be both human and divine, and would become gods after death. They ruled Egypt for thousands of years, building monuments and leading military campaigns to maintain Egyptian power.
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt lasted from around 2030 to 1640 BCE. After a period of decentralization following the Old Kingdom, two kings helped regain order and centralize power under the pharaoh once more. Egypt engaged in increased trade during this period and a new writing system was developed. The economy was based on agriculture along the fertile Nile River valley. Art from this period depicted more realistic human figures and stories from Egyptian mythology and the afterlife. Architecture consisted primarily of simpler pyramids and temples. Eventually, foreign influences weakened royal power, leading to the Second Intermediate Period.
Science and technology of ancient civilizationsMarvin Gonzaga
1. Egypt is among the oldest civilizations, located in North Africa along the Nile River. Early settlements began around 5500 BCE as nomadic groups sought water and began farming.
2. The Egyptians had advanced knowledge in astronomy, using instruments to accurately align structures like the Great Pyramids. They also had a 365 day calendar system divided into three seasons.
3. Alexandria was founded in 331 BCE by Alexander the Great and grew to be a major center of learning and science, attracting scholars from across the Mediterranean. It declined after the rise of Christianity and wars between Christian Byzantines and Muslim Arabs.
During the Middle Kingdom (2175-1541 BCE):
- Thebes became the new capital and Egypt was reunited under its rule. Egypt expanded its territory by annexing Nubia and established trade routes.
- Pharaohs like Amenemhat I and the 12th dynasty built large temples and public works projects. They conquered Nubia and established a golden age of literature and craftsmanship.
- Egyptian beliefs about the afterlife changed - common people were now believed to have an afterlife alongside the pharaoh, which influenced Judaism and Christianity. This period marked the peak of Egypt's power before its decline.
This document provides information about the geography, history, and economy of ancient Egypt. It focuses on how the Nile River was the defining geographic feature, dividing the land into fertile black soil along its banks and desert red soil beyond. It describes the four main divisions of ancient Egyptian geography: Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt, separated by the Nile's flow northward, and the east and west banks. Key topics covered include the Egyptian name for the Nile Valley ("Kemet"), the economy's reliance on agriculture, social classes, hieroglyphic writing, and structures like the pyramids and Sphinx at Giza.
Ancient Greece; Part 2; session iv-- Hellenism Jim Powers
After Alexander the Great conquered the Near East in the 4th century BCE, the process of Hellenization spread Greek culture and established new Greek cities across a vast area. New cities were founded by Alexander and later by the Seleucids and Ptolemies, who established dynasties ruling over the new Hellenistic kingdoms. Many new cities were planned settlements with Greek institutions and populations comprised of Greeks as well as local peoples. One such prominent city was Antioch, founded by Seleucus I, which grew to be a major cultural and economic center in the region. The Attalid kingdom in Pergamon also supported the growth and spread of Greek culture. The largest and most influential city was
The concluding session of Ancient Greece describes the places and culture of the Successor states between the death of Alexander the Great and the rise of Rome
The document provides an overview of ancient Egyptian art from the Early Dynastic Period through the Late Period. It highlights several important developments, including the stepped pyramid built by Imhotep for Pharaoh Djoser in the Third Dynasty, the Great Pyramids and Sphinx built at Giza in the Fourth Dynasty, and temples constructed by Hatshepsut and Ramesses II in the New Kingdom. The document features over 100 images of Egyptian artifacts, monuments, and artworks spanning Egyptian history.
Ancient Egypt was the first country to be united under a single government and culture, establishing the concept of a nation-state. Its geography, isolated by deserts and waterways, helped foster a unified culture. The annual flooding of the Nile River allowed Egypt to develop a large, centralized population and surplus agriculture. This led to the rise of powerful pharaohs who ruled as divine kings and directed labor toward massive construction projects like the pyramids. The strict social hierarchy and religious beliefs centered on Ra and Osiris helped maintain political and social stability in Ancient Egypt.
Over 8,000 years ago in ancient Egypt, before the pyramids and pharaohs, people argued over rights to use water from the Nile River. Over time, a single leader emerged to monitor the distribution of water, a role which became more important and evolved into the position of pharaoh. Pharaohs ruled as divine kings and heads of state, overseeing religious rituals, military forces, construction projects, and ensuring adequate food supplies and law and order.
The document discusses the key features and importance of the Nile River to the development of Egyptian civilization. It describes how the annual flooding of the Nile provided fertile soil that allowed for agriculture. Egyptian society was organized around the flooding cycle of the Nile. Key periods of Egyptian history saw the construction of pyramids and the rise and fall of powerful pharaohs and kingdoms. The Nile Valley provided an environment conducive to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt and the emergence of one of the earliest civilizations.
The document summarizes gold artifacts from ancient civilizations spanning 3000 years, curated in a virtual exhibition. It describes Sumerian, Egyptian, Mycenaean, Greek, Thracian, Scythian, Persian, and Bactrian goldwork, noting techniques like repoussé, chasing, and granulation. Cultural influences are traced from Sumeria to Egypt to Greece and beyond. The stream of influence is depicted as interconnected rather than a straight line, with ideas crossing borders as empires and groups overlapped.
The document provides an overview of ancient Egyptian civilization from around 3000 BC to 2134 BC, known as the Old Kingdom period. It discusses important figures like Menes, who united Egypt, and dynasties like the Third and Fourth, which saw the rise of pyramid building including the pyramids of Giza. The Old Kingdom marked the peak of Egyptian power and cultural achievement before a period of decline.
Discussion of the Who Was Akhenaton and was he the first to create a religion believing in one God. What was his wife Nefertiti role in the development of the new Culture and Art of the Amana Period. How did his new beliefs end, what was Horemheb and King Tut's Role.
'The Kingdom of Kush' - an online lecture by Dr Chris NauntonChristopher Naunton
The Kingdom of Kush: Egypt’s mighty rival in the south. Egypt expanded into the territory to its south at various times in history, built monuments there and influenced the beliefs and practices of the people they encountered. But the influence went both ways; at times the tables turned and the Kingdom of Kush, centring on the cities of Kerma and later Napata and Meroe, became more powerful than Egypt. Kings of Kush even came to rule Egypt as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. They retreated after a century of rule but continued to thrive in the middle Nile Valley for centuries more, burying their rules under distinctively tall pyramids. This is their story.
The document divides history into periods from Prehistory to the Modern Age in order to better understand societal changes over time. It provides details about several early civilizations including Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Mesopotamia was located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and was divided into city-states that sometimes formed empires. Egypt was located along the Nile River and was ruled by powerful pharaohs. Ancient Greece consisted of independent city-states that were often at war, while Rome grew from a small city to a large empire that conquered many territories through war.
The document summarizes depictions of Arabs and Muslims in the illustrations of the Chronicle of John Skylitzes.
The illustrations show: 1) Andalusians conquering Crete in the 9th century, depicted by their turbaned leader; 2) Nikephoros Phokas' reconquest of Crete from the Arabs in 961; 3) The conquest of Sicily by the Aghlabids in the 9th century, showing envoys and battles; 4) A Bulgarian embassy requesting an attack on Constantinople from the Fatimid caliph; 5) Dexterity of a Muslim prisoner; 6) Using money or cunning in warfare; 7) Land and naval battles and
The Old Kingdom in Egypt lasted from around 2650-2134 BCE and saw the rise of pyramid building under pharaohs like Djoser. The First Intermediate Period then began around 2181 BCE as the centralized power declined, leading to conflict between Upper and Lower Egypt. Global cooling caused famine and civil unrest. The economy relied heavily on agriculture along the Nile. Religion centered around gods like Ptah in Memphis and Re in Heliopolis, though their roles were debated. Trade occurred with places like Nubia, Canaan, and Byblos.
Egypt is an ancient civilization located in North Africa with the Sinile Peninsula extending into Asia. It has a population of over 81 million people mostly living along the Nile River. Egypt experienced a revolution in 2011 that removed President Hosni Mubarak from power after 30 years. Egypt has a long history dating back thousands of years with notable periods including the Ancient Egypt era known for constructing pyramids, the Ptolemaic and Roman rule, and the Muslim and Ottoman period when Egypt was absorbed into the Islamic Empire.
The two most important trends of the early archaic period were the spread of Greek culture and the new governmental model of tyranny. Both had profound effects upon Greek history
Humans are in born explorers. Throughout history, one of the deepest human impulses has been the
drive to voyages to explore, encounter, and reveal the unknown. The history of exploration is complete
with noteworthy success stories and the unfortunate failures of many explorers. People have always
been curious about the world and this quest for knowledge has driven explorers on bold adventures
throughout the ages. Voyages and Exploration has also been motivated by the desire for wealth and
power, the wish to spread one’s culture and religion, and the need to reach new trading partners. Many
navigational tools and map-making developed over time have enabled explorers to reach these goals.
Science and technology of ancient civilizationsMarvin Gonzaga
1. Egypt is among the oldest civilizations, located in North Africa along the Nile River. Early settlements began around 5500 BCE as nomadic groups sought water and began farming.
2. The Egyptians had advanced knowledge in astronomy, using instruments to accurately align structures like the Great Pyramids. They also had a 365 day calendar system divided into three seasons.
3. Alexandria was founded in 331 BCE by Alexander the Great and grew to be a major center of learning and science, attracting scholars from across the Mediterranean. It declined after the rise of Christianity and wars between Christian Byzantines and Muslim Arabs.
During the Middle Kingdom (2175-1541 BCE):
- Thebes became the new capital and Egypt was reunited under its rule. Egypt expanded its territory by annexing Nubia and established trade routes.
- Pharaohs like Amenemhat I and the 12th dynasty built large temples and public works projects. They conquered Nubia and established a golden age of literature and craftsmanship.
- Egyptian beliefs about the afterlife changed - common people were now believed to have an afterlife alongside the pharaoh, which influenced Judaism and Christianity. This period marked the peak of Egypt's power before its decline.
This document provides information about the geography, history, and economy of ancient Egypt. It focuses on how the Nile River was the defining geographic feature, dividing the land into fertile black soil along its banks and desert red soil beyond. It describes the four main divisions of ancient Egyptian geography: Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt, separated by the Nile's flow northward, and the east and west banks. Key topics covered include the Egyptian name for the Nile Valley ("Kemet"), the economy's reliance on agriculture, social classes, hieroglyphic writing, and structures like the pyramids and Sphinx at Giza.
Ancient Greece; Part 2; session iv-- Hellenism Jim Powers
After Alexander the Great conquered the Near East in the 4th century BCE, the process of Hellenization spread Greek culture and established new Greek cities across a vast area. New cities were founded by Alexander and later by the Seleucids and Ptolemies, who established dynasties ruling over the new Hellenistic kingdoms. Many new cities were planned settlements with Greek institutions and populations comprised of Greeks as well as local peoples. One such prominent city was Antioch, founded by Seleucus I, which grew to be a major cultural and economic center in the region. The Attalid kingdom in Pergamon also supported the growth and spread of Greek culture. The largest and most influential city was
The concluding session of Ancient Greece describes the places and culture of the Successor states between the death of Alexander the Great and the rise of Rome
The document provides an overview of ancient Egyptian art from the Early Dynastic Period through the Late Period. It highlights several important developments, including the stepped pyramid built by Imhotep for Pharaoh Djoser in the Third Dynasty, the Great Pyramids and Sphinx built at Giza in the Fourth Dynasty, and temples constructed by Hatshepsut and Ramesses II in the New Kingdom. The document features over 100 images of Egyptian artifacts, monuments, and artworks spanning Egyptian history.
Ancient Egypt was the first country to be united under a single government and culture, establishing the concept of a nation-state. Its geography, isolated by deserts and waterways, helped foster a unified culture. The annual flooding of the Nile River allowed Egypt to develop a large, centralized population and surplus agriculture. This led to the rise of powerful pharaohs who ruled as divine kings and directed labor toward massive construction projects like the pyramids. The strict social hierarchy and religious beliefs centered on Ra and Osiris helped maintain political and social stability in Ancient Egypt.
Over 8,000 years ago in ancient Egypt, before the pyramids and pharaohs, people argued over rights to use water from the Nile River. Over time, a single leader emerged to monitor the distribution of water, a role which became more important and evolved into the position of pharaoh. Pharaohs ruled as divine kings and heads of state, overseeing religious rituals, military forces, construction projects, and ensuring adequate food supplies and law and order.
The document discusses the key features and importance of the Nile River to the development of Egyptian civilization. It describes how the annual flooding of the Nile provided fertile soil that allowed for agriculture. Egyptian society was organized around the flooding cycle of the Nile. Key periods of Egyptian history saw the construction of pyramids and the rise and fall of powerful pharaohs and kingdoms. The Nile Valley provided an environment conducive to the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt and the emergence of one of the earliest civilizations.
The document summarizes gold artifacts from ancient civilizations spanning 3000 years, curated in a virtual exhibition. It describes Sumerian, Egyptian, Mycenaean, Greek, Thracian, Scythian, Persian, and Bactrian goldwork, noting techniques like repoussé, chasing, and granulation. Cultural influences are traced from Sumeria to Egypt to Greece and beyond. The stream of influence is depicted as interconnected rather than a straight line, with ideas crossing borders as empires and groups overlapped.
The document provides an overview of ancient Egyptian civilization from around 3000 BC to 2134 BC, known as the Old Kingdom period. It discusses important figures like Menes, who united Egypt, and dynasties like the Third and Fourth, which saw the rise of pyramid building including the pyramids of Giza. The Old Kingdom marked the peak of Egyptian power and cultural achievement before a period of decline.
Discussion of the Who Was Akhenaton and was he the first to create a religion believing in one God. What was his wife Nefertiti role in the development of the new Culture and Art of the Amana Period. How did his new beliefs end, what was Horemheb and King Tut's Role.
'The Kingdom of Kush' - an online lecture by Dr Chris NauntonChristopher Naunton
The Kingdom of Kush: Egypt’s mighty rival in the south. Egypt expanded into the territory to its south at various times in history, built monuments there and influenced the beliefs and practices of the people they encountered. But the influence went both ways; at times the tables turned and the Kingdom of Kush, centring on the cities of Kerma and later Napata and Meroe, became more powerful than Egypt. Kings of Kush even came to rule Egypt as the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. They retreated after a century of rule but continued to thrive in the middle Nile Valley for centuries more, burying their rules under distinctively tall pyramids. This is their story.
The document divides history into periods from Prehistory to the Modern Age in order to better understand societal changes over time. It provides details about several early civilizations including Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Mesopotamia was located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and was divided into city-states that sometimes formed empires. Egypt was located along the Nile River and was ruled by powerful pharaohs. Ancient Greece consisted of independent city-states that were often at war, while Rome grew from a small city to a large empire that conquered many territories through war.
The document summarizes depictions of Arabs and Muslims in the illustrations of the Chronicle of John Skylitzes.
The illustrations show: 1) Andalusians conquering Crete in the 9th century, depicted by their turbaned leader; 2) Nikephoros Phokas' reconquest of Crete from the Arabs in 961; 3) The conquest of Sicily by the Aghlabids in the 9th century, showing envoys and battles; 4) A Bulgarian embassy requesting an attack on Constantinople from the Fatimid caliph; 5) Dexterity of a Muslim prisoner; 6) Using money or cunning in warfare; 7) Land and naval battles and
The Old Kingdom in Egypt lasted from around 2650-2134 BCE and saw the rise of pyramid building under pharaohs like Djoser. The First Intermediate Period then began around 2181 BCE as the centralized power declined, leading to conflict between Upper and Lower Egypt. Global cooling caused famine and civil unrest. The economy relied heavily on agriculture along the Nile. Religion centered around gods like Ptah in Memphis and Re in Heliopolis, though their roles were debated. Trade occurred with places like Nubia, Canaan, and Byblos.
Egypt is an ancient civilization located in North Africa with the Sinile Peninsula extending into Asia. It has a population of over 81 million people mostly living along the Nile River. Egypt experienced a revolution in 2011 that removed President Hosni Mubarak from power after 30 years. Egypt has a long history dating back thousands of years with notable periods including the Ancient Egypt era known for constructing pyramids, the Ptolemaic and Roman rule, and the Muslim and Ottoman period when Egypt was absorbed into the Islamic Empire.
Similaire à 'Ethiopian Ocean': a 16th c. Colonial Term, the Treaties of Alcáçovas (1479), Tordesillas (1494) and Zaragoza (1529), and the Ottoman Stiffness and Incompetence
The two most important trends of the early archaic period were the spread of Greek culture and the new governmental model of tyranny. Both had profound effects upon Greek history
Humans are in born explorers. Throughout history, one of the deepest human impulses has been the
drive to voyages to explore, encounter, and reveal the unknown. The history of exploration is complete
with noteworthy success stories and the unfortunate failures of many explorers. People have always
been curious about the world and this quest for knowledge has driven explorers on bold adventures
throughout the ages. Voyages and Exploration has also been motivated by the desire for wealth and
power, the wish to spread one’s culture and religion, and the need to reach new trading partners. Many
navigational tools and map-making developed over time have enabled explorers to reach these goals.
The document discusses how exploration has changed and stayed the same over time. It notes that while modes of transportation have changed from boats to space shuttles, the destinations have expanded from uncharted earth territories to outer space. A key continuity is that the reason for exploration - curiosity and seeking resources - remains the same. Extensive training is required for all explorers, whether Polynesian voyagers or astronauts.
The Age of Exploration from the 15th to 16th centuries led to major global impacts as explorers like Columbus, da Gama, and Magellan sought new trade routes to Asia but instead encountered unknown lands and peoples. Their voyages resulted in the exchange of goods, diseases, and the mixing of populations between the Old World and New World, permanently altering the course of world history.
The Spread of New Ways in Eurasia, 200 CE to 1000 CERequired Rea.docxjoshua2345678
The Spread of New Ways in Eurasia, 200 CE to 1000 CE
Required Reading
We will all read Chapter 4 in The Human Journey as well as other readings and videos specific to the Discussion Board topic you choose. Those readings can be found in the Discussion Board itself. To access the required reading, click on the Discussion Board link below and then on the Week Three Discussion 1 link.
There are two topics for each Discussion Board this week but you only write on one topic. It should take you about a day to read the materials for a Discussion Board. To help you follow what is happening historically to whom by whom and where, be sure to consult the time lines at the start of each chapter and the maps printed throughout the book. They will help orient you to the main developments we are studying.
At the end of the module, students should be able to:
· Explain "southernization"
· Compare and contrast the rise and spread of the world's major salvation religions
· Analyze the role of "Silk Roads" in facilitating the transfer of ideas and material goods across Eurasia
Lecture Notes and Key Terms
Lecture Notes from the Instructor
Rome After People
The Roman Empire had its continuation in the east as the Byzantine Empire. But in the west, Europe was shattered by the destruction of Roman institutions. It literally crumbled as people vacated the dying or destroyed urban centers and fled to the country and simpler rural lifeways.
In onsite classes, I like to show the History Channel program called Life After People to demonstrate what it must have felt like to watch a sophisticated complex urban civilization devolve back to nature in the post-classical era. It uses Computer-Generated Imaging to show that, in a scenario where people are removed, time destroys the icons of our complex industrial civilization. Vines tear apart skyscrapers and algae clogs Hoover Dam. The lights go out and nature and wildlife cover the urban landscape.You can rent or stream this video from Netflix.
Rome’s collapse sent Europe backward into a simpler, non-urbanized period. Imagine all the complexities of urban life that we’ve discussed – diversified roles, complex religions and rituals, and levels of classism from elites to slaves – falling apart. The population of the City of Rome itself was reduced from about 1 million to around 10,000.
Without slaves and overseers to maintain baths, theaters, aqueducts and other public amenities of urban Roman life all over Europe, these structures and the customs associated with them fell to ruin. Even literacy and theoretical knowledge fell by the wayside. Historians called it the “Dark Ages” because of an absence of writing from this period to “illuminate” for us what happened then.
Janet Abu-Lughod in her book, Before European Hegemony, paints a picture of Europe as a virtual backwater in the post-classical period. Not so the rest of the Old World! Trade and commerce, exchange of ideas, language, and culture, and a steady stream of.
The document discusses the Age of Exploration from the 15th to 18th centuries. It describes some of the motives for European exploration such as seeking gold, spreading Christianity, and gaining glory. While these expeditions advanced technology and connected the world in new ways, they also had negative impacts like exposing indigenous people to disease, conquering their lands, and destroying native cultures and societies. The document examines both the positive and negative outcomes of this era of exploration.
This document provides a book review and commentary on the book "Trojan Horse of Western History" by Anatoly V. Belyakov and Oleg A. Matveyshev. The reviewer critiques the authors' lack of consideration of important historical sources from Egypt, Ugarit, Assyria, and Babylon that are relevant to understanding the late 2nd millennium BCE Near East. The reviewer argues these sources could have provided crucial context for the authors' alternative interpretation of the Trojan War presented in their book. Additionally, the reviewer notes the authors did not conduct an extensive study of Hittite sources, which limits their analysis of developments in western Anatolia and beyond during this time period.
The document discusses the history of ancient Egypt, tracing how ancient Egyptians came to settle along the Nile River and develop agriculture-based societies. It then examines how the Egyptians came to understand the universe through their observation of natural phenomena like the sun and flooding of the Nile. The document also explores the emergence of ancient Egyptian religion centered around concepts of good versus evil and the afterlife, as well as how both pharaohs and commoners sought to achieve immortality through elaborate tombs and pyramids.
What was Ordinary in the Antiquity looks Odd today, due to the Greco-centric Fallacy of the Biased European Colonial 'Academics'
Contents
Introduction
I. Fayoum, Al Bahnasa (Oxyrhynchus), and Ancient Egyptian Papyri
II. Karl Wessely and his groundbreaking research and publications
III. Papyrus fragment 1224 of Karl Wessely's SPP VIII
IV. Βουλγαρικ- (Vulgarik-)
V. Eastern Roman Emperor Maurice's Strategicon and the Bulgarian cloaks
VI. Historical context and the Ancient History of Bulgars
VII. Historical context, the Silk Roads, and Bulgarian exports to Egypt
VIII. Academic context and the Western falsehood of a Euro-centric World History
i- the conceptualization of World History
ii- the contextualization of every single document newly found here and there
iii- the stages of historical falsification that were undertaken over the past 500 years
iv- the forgers themselves and their antiquity
v- and last but not least, several points of
a) governance of modern states
b) international alliances, and
c) the ensuing captivity of all the targeted nations, each one well-adjusted into the preconceived role that the forgers invented for it
The document discusses the Battle of Kadesh between the Egyptian and Hittite empires in the 13th century BCE. It provides context on the primary sources that describe the battle and the key players involved. While Rameses II depicted an Egyptian victory, modern scholars believe the battle was likely a draw. The battle took place at Kadesh in Syria, which was an important trade hub that both empires sought to control. The Egyptian and Hittite forces both utilized chariot forces and iron weapons in this battle.
Ancient Egypt Essay
Essay about Ancient Egypt
History of Egypt Essay
Egypt Research Paper
The Egyptian Pyramids Essay
Egypt And Ancient Egypt
Essay on Life in Ancient Egypt
Modern Day Egypt
Essay on Egyptian Culture
Essay on Egypt
Egypt Essay
Egyptian Art Essay
The Age of Exploration led to many discoveries and changes in Europe. Explorers from different European countries embarked on journeys seeking wealth from new trade routes to Asia and the Spice Islands. This led to the discovery of the New World and new opportunities for countries to establish colonies and trade goods. The influx of wealth from these new sources transformed Europe's economy and led to the Commercial Revolution with the establishment of new businesses and industries. However, contact and conquest of native peoples also led to devastating epidemics as diseases were unintentionally spread from Europe to populations lacking immunity.
Содержание
Введение
I. Цивилизованный восточный мир и южно-балканская периферия
II. Хеттский имперский порядок и беспорядочные варвары Западной Анатолии, Южных Балкан, Крита и Анатолийского моря
III. Нашествия народов моря как определяющий исторический факт и Троянская война как бесполезная ложь
IV. Что скрывается за фальшивым термином «ахейский мир»?
V. Без глубокого понимания египетской, хеттской, анатолийской, ханаанской и месопотамской цивилизаций невозможно понять их отсталую периферию
VI. Почему исторические источники Диона Златоуста заслуживают доверия, а отговорки Гомера оказались отвлекающим маневром
VII. Абсолютное очернение позднеантичных греков древнеегипетским первосвященником как цели человеческой истории.
VIII. Египетский жрец, собеседник Диона Златоуста, читал «Анналы» Рамзеса III.
IX. Фальшивый термин «Древняя Греция» мешает нам оценить разрушительную неудачу Гомера.
Х. Заключение
Contents
Introduction
I. The civilized Oriental World & the South Balkan periphery
II. The Hittite imperial order and the disorderly barbarians of Western Anatolia, South Balkans, Crete and the Anatolian Sea
III. The Sea Peoples' invasions as a determinant historical fact and the Trojan War as a worthless falsehood
IV. What is hidden behind the false term 'Achaean World'?
V. Without an in-depth comprehension of the Egyptian, Hittite Anatolian, Canaanite and Mesopotamian civilizations, no one can possibly understand their backward periphery
VI. Why Dio Chrysostom's historical sources are trustworthy and Homer's pretenses are proven red herring
VII. The absolute denigration of the Late Antiquity Greeks by the Ancient Egyptian high priest as the destination of Human History
VIII. Dio Chrysostom's Egyptian sacerdotal interlocutor had read Ramses III's Annals
IX. The fake term 'Ancient Greece' prevents us from assessing Homer's devastating failure
X. Conclusion
------------
First published on 25th May 2023 here:
https://megalommatiscomments.wordpress.com/2023/05/25/sea-peoples-invasions-egypt-the-hittite-empire-its-achaean-allies-lukka-peleset-the-trojan-war-homers-intentional-falsehood-and-the-modern-european-forgery-ancient-greece/
Western Europeans had a limited understanding of the broader world system during the 15th century, according to the documents. Document 1 describes differing European views on the extent of inhabitable land, showing disagreement and uncertainty. Document 2 describes unfamiliar religious practices in India, indicating limited prior exposure. A historian would say Western Europeans were in a peripheral position, as the documents suggest their knowledge was incomplete and they were just beginning maritime expansion and encounters with other cultures.
Similaire à 'Ethiopian Ocean': a 16th c. Colonial Term, the Treaties of Alcáçovas (1479), Tordesillas (1494) and Zaragoza (1529), and the Ottoman Stiffness and Incompetence (16)
Мировая политика как черное и белое: Иран и Израиль, или как люди становятся жертвами намеренно проецируемых на них заблуждений
Содержание
Введение
I. Каждый сектантский подход и каждая сектантская мысль являются порочной ошибкой и нетерпимым поступком
II. Политическая ситуация и международные отношения не определяют природу режимов, правительств и государств
III. Когда дело касается мировых дел, не существует шахматной доски с «черными» и «белыми» клетками
IV. Все СМИ сообщают одну и ту же ложь, меняя только «шахматные наборы»
V. Достоинство иранцев и палестинцев является наиболее спорным вопросом
VI. Вера в обещания, данные врагами, замаскированными под друзей, может оказаться смертельной
VII. Военные и фермеры против королевской семьи и аятолл
VIII. Нет никакой разницы между Ираном и Египтом, когда дело доходит до раболепия по отношению к крупным колониальным схемам
Contents
Introduction
I. Every sectarian approach and every sectarian thought are a vicious mistake and an intolerable act.
II. Political situations and international relations do not define the nature of regimes, governments, and states.
III. When it comes to world affairs, there is no such thing as a chessboard with "black" and "white" squares.
IV. All mass media report the same lies, changing only the «chess sets».
V. The dignity of the Iranians and the Palestinians is a most controversial subject.
VI. Believing promises given by enemies disguised as friends may be lethal.
VII. Military and farmers against the royals and the ayatollahs
VIII. There is no difference between Iran and Egypt when it comes to servility toward major colonial schemes.
За пределами афроцентризма: предпосылки для того, чтобы Сомали возглавила африканскую деколонизацию и девестернизацию
Содержание
Введение
I. Деколонизация и отказ афроцентрической интеллигенции
II. Афроцентристским африканским ученым следовало бы отобрать египтологию у западных востоковедов и африканистов.
III. Западная узурпация африканского наследия должна быть отменена.
IV. Афроцентризм должен был включать в себя резкую критику и полное неприятие так называемой западной цивилизации.
V. Афроцентризм как форма африканского изоляционизма, проводящая линию разделения между колонизированными странами Африки и Азии.
VI. Общая оценка человеческих ресурсов, времени и необходимых затрат
VII. Деколонизация означает, прежде всего, деанглификацию и дефранкизацию.
Contents
Introduction
I. Decolonization and the failure of the Afrocentric Intelligentsia
II. Afrocentric African scholars should have been taken Egyptology back from the Western Orientalists and Africanists
III. Western Usurpation of African Heritage must be canceled.
IV. Afrocentrism had to encompass severe criticism and total rejection of the so-called Western Civilization
V. Afrocentrism as a form of African Isolationism drawing a line of separation between colonized nations in Africa and Asia
VI. General estimation of the human resources, the time, and the cost needed
VII. Decolonization means above all De-Anglicization and De-Francization
Contents
Introduction
I. A fictional concept: the origin of the fraud
II. A construct based on posterior textual sources
III. The deceitful presentation
IV. 5th century BCE texts found in 15th c. CE manuscripts do not make 'History'.
V. Abundant evidence of lies and deliberate distortions attested in the manuscript transmission
VI. Darius I the Great, the Behistun inscription, and Ctesias
VII. The historical Assyrian Queen Shammuramat and the fictional Queen Semiramis of the 'Ancient Greek sources'
VIII. The malignant intentions of the Benedictine liars: from the historical Darius I the Great to the fictional Semiramis
IX. The vicious distortions of the Benedictine liars: from Ctesias to Herodotus
亞里斯多德作為歷史偽造品,西方世界的虛假歷史和腐爛的基礎,金灿荣和他敏銳的評論
Аристотель как историческая подделка, фальшивая история и гнилые основы западного мира, и проницательные комментарии профессора Цзинь Канронга
Contents
I. Aristotle: a Major Founding Myth of the Western World
II. When, where and by whom was the Myth of Aristotle fabricated?
III. The Myth of Aristotle and its first Byproducts: Scholasticism, East-West Schism, the Crusades & the Sack of Constantinople (1204)
IV. Aristotelization: First Stage of the Westernization and the Colonization of the World
V. Aristotelization as Foundation of all the Western Forgeries: the so-called Judeo-Christian Heritage and the Fraud of Greco-Roman Civilization
VI. The Modern Western World as Disruption of History
VII. The Myth of Aristotle and the Monstrosity of Western Colonialism
Introduction
I. Chinese as the First Foreign Language in Egypt
II. Systematic Dissociation and Separation from Western Europe and North America
III. The Egypt - Sudan - Libya Confederation
IV. How the Chinese-Egyptian Alliance will reshape Africa into Five Mega-States
Contents
Introduction
I. Toshka or New Valley Project
II. Water Desalination Plants
III. Relocation of a Sizeable Part of Egypt's Population
IV. The Rafah-Taba Canal
V. Twenty (20) Chinese Universities to operate in Egypt
--------
First published on 18th January 2024 here:
https://megalommatiscomments.wordpress.com/2024/01/18/a-special-military-alliance-with-china-is-egypts-only-chance-for-survival-iv/
Contents
I. Grave Threats for Egypt's Existence and Serious Danger for China's Expansion
II. Perspectives of the Strategic Alliance between Egypt & China
III. Two Chinese Military Bases in Egypt: One Million Chinese Military on African Soil
IV. Joint Chinese-Egyptian Military Operations in Sudan and the Perspectives of a Chinese-Egyptian-Sudanese Alliance
V. Joint Chinese-Egyptian Military Operations in Libya and the Perspectives of a Chinese-Egyptian-Libyan Alliance
----------
First published on 16th January 2024 here:
https://megalommatiscomments.wordpress.com/2024/01/16/a-special-military-alliance-with-china-is-egypts-only-chance-for-survival-iii/
The rise of China as a world superpower has hitherto been a long path marked with several successes and advances, but also significant drawbacks and failures. The Arab Spring can be seen from many viewpoints and interpreted as per its impact on diverse states, but it was indisputably a severe impediment to China's attempt to penetrate in Africa and offer the numerous African nations a trustworthy perspective and a valuable support in terms of nation building and sustainable development. It goes without saying that, if the Chinese establishment truly intends to bring forth a groundbreaking change at the worldwide level, Beijing must carefully take the lesson of those circumstances before 13 years and overwhelmingly modify China's understanding of perplex situations and approach to long standing problems, notably the European colonialism in Africa and elsewhere.
In the first part of this series of articles, I expanded on a) the centuries-old Western hatred of Egypt, b) the existing historical threats against the Valley of the Nile, c) the gradual process of decomposition that the criminal Western gangsters applied to Libya and the Sudan over the past 12 years, and d) the direct relationship between the otherwise worthless Renaissance Dam (also known as GERD), which has been built in the Occupied Benishangul land (currently province) of Abyssinia (Fake Ethiopia), and the Abyssinian 'Prophecy' against Egypt and Sudan. This is the link:
https://megalommatiscomments.wordpress.com/2024/01/01/a-special-military-alliance-with-china-is-egypts-only-chance-for-survival/
In the present article, I will complete the presentation of the Egyptian approach to the need of the Egyptian-Chinese Military Alliance and I will expand on the Chinese perspective towards the topic.
Contents
I. The War in Gaza and the Destabilization of the Red Sea Region
II. The Rise of China as a World Super-power
III. The Irrevocable Prerequisites of China's Worldwide Predominance
The Western World hates Egypt terribly; that's why all the administrations of the country -pseudo-royal (khedivial), presidential (military) or Islamist (republican)- were always appointed after French, English and/or American decision or active involvement and with Western support only to function as local ignorant servants definitely unable to fathom the deeply self-destructive nature of the acts that their foreign masters force them to implement, and absolutely unsuspicious of the venomous hatred that their beastly superiors harbor against the Holy Land that is the Valley of the Nile down to Khartoum.
Contents
I. Western Hatred against Egypt and Plans against Mankind
II. The End of Egypt may be very close
III. Egypt and the Pulverization of Sudan and Libya
IV. The Renaissance Dam in the light of the Abyssinian 'Prophecy' against Egypt and Sudan
Περιεχόμενα
Α. Πνευματικότητα, Θρησκείες, Θεολογίες και Ιδεολογίες
Β. Αποδοχή μιας άλλης θρησκείας και δράση προσηλύτων
Γ. Εγκλήματα προσηλυτιστών
Δ. Αλλαγή θρησκείας, προσηλυτισμός και πολυπολιτισμικότητα
Ε. Δεν υπάρχει το Ισλάμ ως θρησκεία χωρίς τις ιστορικές ισλαμικές επιστήμες
Επίλογος
Προτάσεις για την Υπέρβαση της Θράκης, του Κοσμά Μεγαλομμάτη: Εξόρμηση, 5 Μαρτίου 1990; Πολιτικά Θέματα, 2-8 Μαρτίου 1990; Οικονομικός Ταχυδρόμος, Ιούλιος 1990
Proposals to transcend the problem in Thrace, by Cosmas Megalommatis: Exormisi (Sortie), 5 March 1990; Politika Themata (Political Matters), 2-8 March 1990; Oikonomikos Tahydromos (Economic Courier), July 1990
Предложения по преодолению проблемы во Фракии, автор Космас Мегаломматис: Exormisi (Вылазка), 5 марта 1990 г.; Политика Фемата (Политические вопросы), 2–8 марта 1990 года; Ойкономикос Тагидромос (Экономический курьер), июль 1990 г.
Σουννίτες και Σιίτες: στη ρίζα της διαφοράς, του Κοσμά Μεγαλομμάτη – Εποπτεία 119, Ιανουάριος 1987, σελ. 29-37
Sunnis and Shiites: at the root of the dispute, by Cosmas Megalommatis: Epopteia (‘Overview’) 119, January 1987, p. 29-37
Сунниты и шииты: в основе спора, (автор:) Кузьма Мегаломматис: Эпоптея («Обзор») 119, январь 1987 г., с. 29-37
Η διεθνής αντιμετώπιση της ισλαμικής Περσίας, του Κοσμά Μεγαλομμάτη: Εποπτεία 119, Ιανουάριος 1987, σελ. 38-48
How the international community treated the Islamic Republic of Iran, by Cosmas Megalommatis: Epopteia (‘Overview’) 119, January 1987, p. 38-48
Как международное сообщество относилось к Исламской Республике Иран, (автор:) Кузьма Мегаломматис: Эпоптея («Обзор») 119, январь 1987 г., стр. 38-48
Η Πολιτική Ζωή στην Ισλαμική Περσία, του Κοσμά Μεγαλομμάτη: Εποπτεία 119, Ιανουάριος 1987, σελ. 19-28
Political Life in Islamic Iran, by Cosmas Megalommatis: Epopteia (‘Overview’) 119, January 1987, p. 19-28
Политическая жизнь в исламском Иране, (автор:) Кузьма Мегаломматис: Эпоптея («Обзор») 119, январь 1987 г., с. 19-28
——————————–
Συνήθεις αναγνώστες μου θα παραξενευθούν επειδή χρησιμοποιώ τον όρο ‘Περσία’ αντί ‘Ιράν’ στο συγκεκριμένο άρθρο, καθώς και σε πολλά άλλα άρθρα, εγκυκλοπαιδικά λήμματα, επιστημονικ΄ά άρθρα, και βιβλία δημοσιευμένα στην δεκαετία του 1980 και στις αρχές του 1990. Αυτό οφείλεται στο γεγονός ότι ο όρος αυτός είναι περισσότερο γνωστός και αγαπητός στο ελληνόφωνο αναγνωστικό κοινό, ενώ ο όρος ‘Ιράν’ ακούγεται μάλλον ξενικός. Τότε έγραφα για να πληροφορήσω και να κατατοπίσω σχετικά με θέματα ιστορικού, πνευματικού, θρησκευτικού και πολιτιστικού ενδιαφέροντος σχετιζόμενα με το Ιράν, καθώς και για υποθέσεις επιμελώς αποκρυμμένες σε όλο τον δυτικό κόσμο, όπως επίσης και για δημιουργήσω συμπάθεια προς το Ιράν εναντίον του οποίου στρέφονταν η Δυτική Ευρώπη, το σοβιετικό μπλοκ, οι ΗΠΑ, άλλες δυτικές χώρες, και τα τρισάθλια σκουπίδια των εθελόδουλων κυβερνητών του ανύπαρκτου και ανυπόστατου “αραβικού” κόσμου. Βεβαίως και τότε γνώριζα πολύ καλά ότι ο εξεπίτηδες προτιμώμενος από την μεροληπτική, αποικιοκρατική, δυτική βιβλιογραφία όρος ‘Περσία’ είναι ολότελα λαθεμένος, επειδή το Φαρς (Περσία) αποτελεί μόνον ένα μικρό τμήμα του ιστορικού Ιράν.
Several of my readers may be astounded because I use the term ‘Persia’ instead of ‘Iran’ in this article, as well as in many other articles, entries to encyclopedias, scholarly articles and books published in the 1980s and the early 1990s. This is due to the fact that this term is better known and preferred by the Greek-speaking readership, while the term ‘Iran’ sounds rather foreign to them. At the time, I was writing in order to inform and enlighten about historical, spiritual, religious and cultural topics pertaining to Iran, as well as about matters carefully hidden throughout the Western world, and in order to generate sympathy for Iran against which Western Europe, the Soviet bloc, the USA, other Western countries, and the wretched, docile and useless rulers of the non-existent “Arab” world had formed an alliance. Of course, even then, I was fully aware of the fact that the term ‘Persia’, which is intentionally supported by the biased colonial Western scholarship, is wrong; this is so because Fars (Persia) is only a small part of historical Iran.
Κοσμάς Μεγαλομμάτης, Ουροβόρος: Παγκόσμια Μυθολογία, Ελληνική Εκπαιδευτική Εγκυκλοπαίδεια, 1989
Кузьма Мегаломматис, Уроборос (свернувшийся в кольцо змей или дракон, кусающий себя за хвост): мировая мифология, Греческая педагогическая энциклопедия, 1989
Kosmas Megalommatis, Ouroboros oder Uroboros (‘Selbstverzehrer’ oder ‘Schwanzverzehrender’ / eine zusammengerollte Schlange oder ein Drache, der sich in den Schwanz beißt): Weltmythologie, Griechische Pädagogische Enzyklopädie, 1989
Kosmas Gözübüyükoğlu, Ouroboros (kendi kuyruğunu ısıran bir yılan): Dünya Mitolojisi, Yunan Pedagoji Ansiklopedisi, 1989
قزمان ميغالوماتيس، اوروبروس (دُنبخوار/مار یا اژدهایی است که دماش را میخورد): اساطیر جهانی، دایره المعارف آموزشی یونانی، 1989
Côme Megalommatis, Ouroboros (un serpent ou un dragon qui se mord la queue): Mythologie mondiale, Encyclopédie pédagogique grecque, 1989
1989 قزمان ميغالوماتيس، الأوربوروس (الثعبان أو التنين وهو يأكل ذيله.) : الأساطير العالمية، الموسوعة التربوية اليونانية،
Cosimo Megalommatis, Urobòro (chiamato anche uroburo o uroboros o ancora ouroboros / un serpente o un drago che si morde la coda, formando un cerchio senza inizio né fine): mitologia mondiale, Enciclopedia pedagogica greca, 1989
Cosimo Megalommatis, Uróboros (uróboro o ouroboro o uroboro / serpiente que se come la cola): mitología mundial, Enciclopedia pedagógica griega, 1989
Cosmas Megalommatis, Ouroboros (or Uroboros / a serpent or dragon eating its own tail): World Mythology, Greek Pedagogical Encyclopedia, 1989
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
Liberal Approach to the Study of Indian Politics.pdf
'Ethiopian Ocean': a 16th c. Colonial Term, the Treaties of Alcáçovas (1479), Tordesillas (1494) and Zaragoza (1529), and the Ottoman Stiffness and Incompetence
1. 'EthiopianOcean': a 16th c. Colonial Term,
the Treatiesof Alcáçovas(1479), Tordesillas
(1494) and Zaragoza (1529), and the Ottoman
Stiffnessand Incompetence
How can a new geographical term, first used by a late 15th c. Catholic pope, help us
evaluate the incompetence, misery and absolute failure of the Ottoman sultans who,
after being idiotic enough to invade a small city (Constantinople, 1453) that would
only plague them with many troubles, after being pathetic enough not to make the
most of an illustrious victory (Chaldiran, 1514),and after being demented enough to
make of the sands of Arabia, Egypt and Libya part of their sultanate (1517), thought
it possible for them to be the driving force of the Islamic world only to allow Spain
and Portugal to rule the waves and prepare the demolition of Islam in just 400 years?
Contents
I. Misinterpretation of a 15th c. Unhistorical Term by 21st c. Crooks
II. No 'Ethiopian Ocean' (or Sea) in 'Classical Geographical Works'
III. Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Iranians, the Circumnavigation of Africa,and the
Geographical Terms Used
IV. Libya (: 'Africa'), the Periplus of Hanno, and the Early Use of the Term 'Atlantic
Sea'
V. The Terms 'Ocean' and 'Sea', and the leading AncientEgyptian Scholar Ptolemy
the Geographer
VI. The Treaties of Alcáçovas (1479), Tordesillas (1494) and Zaragoza (1529), and the
Use of the Terms 'Sea of Ethiopia' and 'Sea of India'
VII. The Treaties of Alcáçovas, Tordesillas and Zaragoza,Portuguese-Spanish
Colonial Conquests, Ottoman Ignorance and Stiffness, and the Collapse of the
Islamic World
I. Misinterpretation ofa 15th c. UnhistoricalTerm by 21st c.
Crooks
It sounds strange that the misuse of an Ancient Greek and Latin term by a 15th c.
pope relates to the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the destruction of the entire
Islamic world, but the whole world is nothing more than an enormous field of
semiotics whereby all signs exert impact on one another. At this point, it would
suffice to state that the term "Ethiopian Ocean' was first used in a Treaty signed by
Portugal and Spain under the auspices of the Catholic pope in 1494; that treaty
actually was the death warrant of the Ottoman Sultanate (not yet Caliphate at that
time) and of the Islamic world.
I should rather narrate things in the correct order;few days ago, a friend of mine
based in the Arabian Peninsula sent me a link to an article published in a South
African site under the title "Mapmakers once referred to the southern Atlantic Ocean
as the Ethiopian Ocean" (see after the end of the present article: Addendum I). I
realized immediately what it all was about, but I visited the web page, only to realize
2. that the nonsensical and confusing article was the mere reproduction of an earlier
report, which was initially published in another site; at the bottom of the article, you
can read the following: "This report was written by Africa Check, a non-partisan fact-
checking organization.View the original piece on their website". I subsequently
visited that site, which is an outfit of the French secret services {I am sorry, I meant
'of the Agence France-Presse (AFP) Foundation'}. Details about the Africa Check non-
profit fact checking organization (including their finances and controversial
sponsors) you can find here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa_Check
If you need to spare your time, yes! You guessed correctly! Among the sponsors of
that self-styled organization, you can find the disreputable and fraudulentfinancier
George Soros' Open Society Foundation for South Africa (OSF-SA; get the basics
here: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Society_Foundation_for_South_Africa)
and the notorious Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (now that they will get divorced,
the name will have to change). Next time you want to learn more about African
History, set up your own 'non-partisan fact-checking kiosk' and get some money
from the lottery (it will not be as dirty as that coming from the aforementioned
crooks)! But I am digressing.
The Africa Check report (see after the end of the present article: Addendum II) was
titled "The Atlantic Ocean was known as Ethiopian Ocean until the 19th century",
which is a monstrous lie. I am sure that the present article will help many people
understand that this world's fraudulent 'fact-checking' institutes and othersimilar
associations are set up by criminals intending to tyrannically impose their forgery
systematization and their pseudo-historical dogma which is situated at the antipodes
of the real History of the Mankind, but this is not the intention with which I write
now.
Both publications refer to an earlier post on Instagram (a site belonging to the
notorious Facebook) in which part of a historical map is featured, whereas the
caption reads: "Today's southern half of the Atlantic Ocean in classical geographical
works was known as Aethiopian or Ethiopian Sea or Ocean". This is a lie. Where
does the historical truth lie?
II. No 'Ethiopian Ocean' (or Sea)in 'Classical Geographical
Works'
It is clear that 15th century maps and more recent cartography do not constitute
"classical geographical works". This term denotes AncientGreek and Roman authors,
geographers, historians, scholars, captains, merchants and sailors, who wrote texts of
geographical contents.
Geography and cartography were highly developed in Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria,
Hittite Anatolia, Phoenicia and Carthage, as early as the 2nd millennium BCE (on the
basis of documentation hitherto excavated).Pharaoh Nechao II (610-595 BCE) hired
Phoenicians, who were the then world's most skillful navigators and therefore
cartographers, and tasked them (around 600 CE) with the circumnavigation of
Africa, which they completed in two years, sailing clockwise around Africa. This fact
was not saved in Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic records, but in the part of Ancient
3. Greek Herodotus' Histories in which he narrates his sojourn and studies in Egypt (ca.
453-450 BCE).
Narrating the circumnavigation of Africa,which was undertaken by the Phoenicians
commissioned by Pharaoh Nechao, Herodotus names South Atlantic 'southern sea'
(Histories, book IV, 42):
42. I wonder, then, at those who have mapped out and divided the world into
Libya, Asia, and Europe; for the difference between them is great, seeing that
in length Europe stretches along both the others together, and it appears to
me to be beyond all comparison broader. For Libya shows clearly that it is
encompassed by the sea, save only where it borders on Asia; and this was
proved first (as far as we know) by Necos king of Egypt. He, when he had
made an end of digging the canal which leads from the Nile to the Arabian
Gulf, sent Phoenicians in ships, charging them to sail on their return voyage
past the Pillars of Heracles till they should come into the northern sea and so
to Egypt. So the Phoenicians set out from the Red Sea and sailed the southern
sea; whenever autumn came they would put in and sow the land, to whatever
part of Libya they might come, and there await the harvest; then, having
gathered in the crop, they sailed on, so that after two years had passed, it
was in the third that they rounded the Pillars of Heracles and came to Egypt.
There they said (what some may believe, though I do not) that in sailing
round Libya they had the sun on their right hand.
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Herodotus_The_Persian_Wars_(Godley)/Book_IV
In Ancient Greek the text reads:
θωμάζω ὦν τῶν διουρισάντων καὶ διελόντων Λιβύην τε καὶ Ἀσίην καὶ
Εὐρώπην· οὐ γὰρ σμικρὰ τὰ διαφέροντα αὐτέων ἐστί· μήκεϊ μὲν γὰρ παρʼ
ἀμφοτέρας παρήκει ἡ Εὐρώπη, εὔρεος δὲ πέρι οὐδὲ συμβάλλειν ἀξίη φαίνεταί
μοι εἶναι. Λιβύη μὲν γὰρ δηλοῖ ἑωυτὴν note ἐοῦσα περίρρυτος, πλὴν ὅσον
αὐτῆς πρὸς τὴν Ἀσίην οὐρίζει, Νεκῶ τοῦ Αἰγυπτίων βασιλέος πρώτου τῶν
ἡμεῖς ἴδμεν καταδέξαντος· ὃς ἐπείτε τὴν διώρυχα ἐπαύσατο ὀρύσσων τὴν ἐκ
τοῦ Νείλου διέχουσαν ἐς τὸν Ἀράβιον κόλπον, ἀπέπεμψε Φοίνικας ἄνδρας
πλοίοισι, ἐντειλάμενος ἐς τὸ ὀπίσω διʼ Ἡρακλέων στηλέων ἐκπλέειν ἕως ἐς
τὴν βορηίην θάλασσαν καὶ οὕτω ἐς Αἴγυπτον ἀπικνέεσθαι. ὁρμηθέντες ὦν οἱ
Φοίνικες ἐκ τῆς Ἐρυθρῆς θαλάσσης ἔπλεον τὴν νοτίην θάλασσαν· ὅκως δὲ
γίνοιτο φθινόπωρον προσσχόντες ἂν σπείρεσκον τὴν γῆν, ἵνα ἑκάστοτε τῆς
Λιβύης πλέοντες γινοίατο, καὶ μένεσκον τὸν ἄμητον· θερίσαντες δʼ ἂν τὸν
σῖτον ἔπλεον, ὥστε δύο ἐτέων διεξελθόντων τρίτῳ ἔτεϊ κάμψαντες
Ἡρακλέας στήλας ἀπίκοντο ἐς Αἴγυπτον. καὶ ἔλεγον ἐμοὶ μὲν οὐ πιστά, ἄλλῳ
δὲ δή τεῳ, ὡς περιπλώοντες τὴν Λιβύην τὸν ἥλιον ἔσχον ἐς τὰ δεξιά.
http://artflsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-
bin/perseus/citequery3.pl?dbname=GreekApr19&getid=0&query=Hdt.%204
Further bibliography on the topic, you can find here:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necho_II#Ambitious_projects
4. III. Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Iranians, the Circumnavigation
of Africa, and the Geographical TermsUsed
Herodotus mentions also other efforts of circumnavigation of Africa that were
undertaken but not completed successfully; the story of Sataspes, who was the
nephew of the Achaemenid Iranian Emperor Darius I the Great (522-486 BCE),is
quite informative. Sataspes was forced to undertake the circumnavigation of Africa
to save his life. He was dispatched to Egypt (then an Iranian province named
Mudraya in Old Achaemenid Iranian),thence fully equipped, and assisted to sail. He
moved counterclockwise, which seems to have been a matter of bad planning or
unfortunate decision; he sailed out of the Mediterranean, advanced southwards, and
reached a coastland inhabited by African Pygmies probably in the area of today's
Congo. There, for undefined reasons, he decided to discontinue his voyage and
returned back to Egypt and Iran; he later justified his decision as due to inability to
further proceed.
In this narrative, Herodotus uses the name 'Libya' (Ancient Greek for 'Africa') for the
Black Continent's southernmost confines (Histories, book IV, 43):
43. Thus the first knowledge of Libya was gained. The next story is that of the
Carchedonians: for as for Sataspes son of Teaspes, an Achaemenid, he did not
sail round Libya, though he was sent for that end; but he feared the length
and the loneliness of the voyage and so returned back without accomplishing
the task laid upon him by his mother. For he had raped the virgin daughter of
Zopyrus son of Megabyzus; and when on this charge he was to be impaled by
King Xerxes, Sataspes’ mother, who was Darius’ sister, begged for his life,
saying that she would lay a heavier punishment on him than did Xerxes; for
he should be compelled to sail round Libya, till he completed his voyage and
came to the Arabian Gulf. Xerxes agreeing to this, Sataspes went to Egypt,
where he received a ship and a crew from the Egyptians, and sailed past the
Pillars of Heracles. Having sailed out beyond them, and rounded the Libyan
promontory called Solois, he sailed southward; but when he had been many
months sailing far over the sea, and ever there was more before him, he turned
back and made sail for Egypt. Thence coming to Xerxes, he told in his story
how when he was farthest distant he sailed by a country of little men, who
wore palm-leaf raiment; these, whenever he and his men put in to land with
their ship, would ever leave their towns and flee to the hills; he and his men
did no wrong when they landed, and took naught from the people but what
they needed for eating. As to his not sailing wholly round Libya, the reason
(he said) was that the ship could move no farther, but was stayed. But Xerxes
did not believe that Sataspes spoke truth, and as the task appointed was
unfulfilled he impaled him, punishing him on the charge first brought against
him. This Sataspes had an eunuch, who as soon as he heard of his master’s
death escaped to Samos, with a great store of wealth, of which a man of
Samos possessed himself. I know the man’s name but of set purpose forget it.
In Ancient Greek the text reads:
οὕτω μὲν αὕτη ἐγνώσθη τὸ πρῶτον, μετὰ δὲ Καρχηδόνιοι εἰσὶ οἱ λέγοντες·
ἐπεὶ Σατάσπης γε ὁ Τεάσπιος ἀνὴρ Ἀχαιμενίδης οὐ περιέπλωσε Λιβύην, ἐπʼ
5. αὐτὸ τοῦτο πεμφθείς, ἀλλὰ δείσας τό τε μῆκος τοῦ πλόου καὶ τὴν ἐρημίην
ἀπῆλθε ὀπίσω, οὐδʼ ἐπετέλεσε τὸν ἐπέταξέ οἱ ἡ μήτηρ ἄεθλον. θυγατέρα γὰρ
Ζωπύρου τοῦ Μεγαβύζου ἐβιήσατο παρθένον· ἔπειτα μέλλοντος αὐτοῦ διὰ
ταύτην τὴν αἰτίην ἀνασκολοπιεῖσθαι ὑπὸ Ξέρξεω βασιλέος, ἡ μήτηρ τοῦ
Σατάσπεος ἐοῦσα Δαρείου ἀδελφεὴ παραιτήσατο, φᾶσά οἱ αὐτὴ μέζω ζημίην
ἐπιθήσειν ἤ περ ἐκεῖνον· Λιβύην γάρ οἱ ἀνάγκην ἔσεσθαι περιπλώειν, ἐς ὃ ἂν
ἀπίκηται περιπλέων αὐτὴν ἐς τὸν Ἀράβιον κόλπον. συγχωρήσαντος δὲ
Ξέρξεω ἐπὶ τούτοισι, ὁ Σατάσπης ἀπικόμενος ἐς Αἴγυπτον καὶ λαβὼν νέα τε
καὶ ναύτας παρὰ τούτων ἔπλεε ἐπὶ Ἡρακλέας στήλας· διεκπλώσας δὲ καὶ
κάμψας τὸ ἀκρωτήριον τῆς Λιβύης τῷ οὔνομα Σολόεις ἐστί, ἔπλεε πρὸς
μεσαμβρίην· περήσας δὲ θάλασσαν πολλὴν ἐν πολλοῖσι μησί, ἐπείτε τοῦ
πλεῦνος αἰεὶ ἔδεε, ἀποστρέψας ὀπίσω ἀπέπλεε ἐς Αἴγυπτον. ἐκ δὲ ταύτης
ἀπικόμενος παρὰ βασιλέα Ξέρξεα ἔλεγε φὰς τὰ προσωτάτω ἀνθρώπους
μικροὺς παραπλέειν ἐσθῆτι φοινικηίῃ διαχρεωμένους, οἳ ὅκως σφεῖς
καταγοίατο τῇ νηὶ φεύγεσκον πρὸς τὰ ὄρεα λείποντες τὰς πόλιας· αὐτοὶ δὲ
ἀδικέειν οὐδὲν ἐσιόντες, βρωτὰ δὲ μοῦνα ἐξ αὐτέων λαμβάνειν. τοῦ δὲ μὴ
περιπλῶσαι Λιβύην παντελέως αἴτιον τόδε ἔλεγε, τὸ πλοῖον τὸ πρόσω οὐ
δυνατὸν ἔτι εἶναι προβαίνειν ἀλλʼ ἐνίσχεσθαι. Ξέρξης δὲ οὔ οἱ συγγινώσκων
λέγειν ἀληθέα οὐκ ἐπιτελέσαντά τε τὸν προκείμενον ἄεθλον ἀνεσκολόπισε,
τὴν ἀρχαίην δίκην ἐπιτιμῶν. τούτου δὲ τοῦ Σατάσπεος εὐνοῦχος ἀπέδρη ἐς
Σάμον, ἐπείτε ἐπύθετο τάχιστα τὸν δεσπότεα τετελευτηκότα, ἔχων χρήματα
μεγάλα, τὰ Σάμιος ἀνὴρ κατέσχε, τοῦ ἐπιστάμενος τὸ οὔνομα ἑκὼν
ἐπιλήθομαι.
IV. Libya (: 'Africa'), the Periplusof Hanno, and the Early Use of
the Term 'Atlantic Sea'
Early in his Histories, Herodotus names the entire sea west of Europe and Africa
"Atlantic Sea" (Histories, book I, 203):
203. The Caspian is a sea by itself, having no connection with any other. The
sea frequented by the Greeks, that beyond the Pillars of Hercules, which is
called the Atlantic, and also the Erythraean, are all one and the same sea. But
the Caspian is a distinct sea, lying by itself, in length fifteen days' voyage
with a row-boat, in breadth, at the broadest part, eight days' voyage.
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_History_of_Herodotus_(Rawlinson)/Book_1
In Ancient Greek, the text reads:
ἡ δὲ Κασπίη θάλασσά ἐστι ἐπʼ ἑωυτῆς, οὐ συμμίσγουσα τῇ ἑτέρῃ θαλάσσῃ.
τὴν μὲν γὰρ Ἕλληνες ναυτίλλονται πᾶσα καὶ ἡ ἔξω στηλέων θάλασσα ἡ
Ἀτλαντὶς καλεομένη καὶ ἡ Ἐρυθρὴ μία ἐοῦσα τυγχάνει. ἡ δὲ Κασπίη ἐστὶ
ἑτέρη ἐπʼ ἑωυτῆς, ἐοῦσα μῆκος μὲν πλόου εἰρεσίῃ χρεωμένῳ πεντεκαίδεκα
ἡμερέων, εὖρος δέ, τῇ εὐρυτάτη ἐστὶ αὐτὴ ἑωυτῆς, ὀκτὼ ἡμερέων. καὶ τὰ μὲν
πρὸς τὴν ἑσπέρην φέροντα τῆς θαλάσσης ταύτης ὁ Καύκασος παρατείνει, ἐὸν
ὀρέων καὶ πλήθεϊ μέγιστον καὶ μεγάθεϊ ὑψηλότατον. ἔθνεα δὲ ἀνθρώπων
πολλὰ καὶ παντοῖα ἐν ἑωυτῷ ἔχει ὁ Καύκασος, τὰ πολλὰ πάντα ἀπʼ ὕλης
ἀγρίης ζώοντα·
6. http://artflsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-
bin/perseus/citequery3.pl?query=Hdt.+1.202.4&dbname=GreekApr19
Further bibliography about the topic can be found here:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus#Early_travels
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_History_of_Herodotus_(Rawlinson)
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Herodotus_The_Persian_Wars_(Godley)
In the middle of the 5th c. BCE, the Carthaginian king Hanno undertook an
enormous expedition to colonize the Western coast of Africa; 60 penteconter (50-
oared) ships sailed with 30000 colons and the necessary provisions in order either to
repopulate earlier Carthaginian settlements or to found new colonies. The deeds of
the expedition, which sailed across the West African coast down to today's Sierra
Leone (or to Gabon according others), were narrated in an inscription dedicated to
the temple of Baal Hammon (equated to Saturn by the Ancient Romans and to
Cronos by the Ancient Greeks) in Carthage. You can find further bibliography here:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baal_Hammon
https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/penteconter
The inscription was destroyed during the Roman conquest of Carthage (146 BCE),
but it was however saved in a rather abridged Ancient Greek translation, which is
certainly the product of translators working in the Library of Alexandria during the
3rd or 2nd c. BCE. The Ancient Greek translation uses terms like 'Liby-Phoenicians'
for the 'Carthaginians' (i.e. Phoenicians of Africa), 'Libya' for Africa, and 'Ethiopians'
(i.e. people with burned faces) for various Hamitic peoples inhabiting NW Africa.
Related bibliography, further analysis, and the Ancient Greek text you can find here:
https://www.academia.edu/23363041/The_Periplus_of_Hanno_King_of_the_Carth
aginians_and_explorations_of_West_Africa_before_2450_years
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator
https://el.wikisource.org/wiki/Άννωνος_Περίπλους
One of the earlier Ancient Greek uses of the term 'Atlantic' is noticed in the lyrical
mythical poem 'Geryoneis' of Stesichorus (630-555 BCE); it dates back to the
beginning of the 5th c. BCE. This is saved in fragmentary condition, and it was
mentioned by later poets. The verse reads:
Stesichorus in his Geryoneis calls an island in the Atlantic sea Sarpedonian.
S 86=183 P.M.G. Scholiast on Apollonius of Rhodes
In Ancient Greek, the text reads:
Στησίχορος δὲ ἐν τῇ Γηρυονίδι καὶ νῆσόν τινα ἐν τῷ Ἀτλαντικῷ πελάγει
Σαρπηδονίαν φησί.
S 86 = 183 P.M.G. Schol. Ap. Rhod.1. 211 (p. 26 Wendel)
https://www.loebclassics.com/view/stesichorus_i-
fragments/1991/pb_LCL476.89.xml
In this verse, the Ancient Greek poet (who was born in Calabria and lived in Sicily)
refers to a location off the coast of South Thrace in the Balkan Peninsula. In Greek the
7. term used is 'Atlantic archipelago' (not 'sea'); it clearly corresponds to the sea that we
now call 'Aegean Sea'. The name relates to the mythical Atlantean generation, i.e. the
people of the mythical continent of Atlantis. About:
https://www.greeklegendsandmyths.com/orithyia.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stesichorus
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geryoneis
The Ancient Greek use of the term referred to the Atlas Mountains of NW Africa,
which were associated with Atlas, the mythical king of Mauritania, a homonymous
king of Atlantis (which means 'island of Atlas'), and ultimately with the archetypal,
legendary figure of a Titan named Atlas. As a matter of fact, the location of the
mythical Atlantis in the sea beyond the 'Pillars of Hercules' (i.e. Gibraltar) is the very
reason for which that sea was later named 'Atlantic'.
At this point I must clarify that the Ancient Greek appellation of Gibraltar is due to
the Ancient Greek association of the Phoenician-Carthaginian god Melqart with
Hercules. In reality, the two bronze pillars of the Carthaginian temple of Melqart in
Gibraltar are at the origin of the Ancient Greek appellation. It would therefore be
more accurate to use the expression the 'Pillars of Melqart'.
Clarification of terms and bibliography:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_(mythology)#King_of_Mauretania
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauretania
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean#Etymology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantean
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_(disambiguation)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Hercules#Phoenician_connection
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melqart#Cult
V. The Terms'Ocean'and 'Sea', and the leading Ancient
Egyptian ScholarPtolemy the Geographer
I have to highlight now a last point, namely the fact that, for all ancient nations, the
large expanse of sea west of the western confines of Africa and Europe was a 'sea',
not an 'ocean'. This is so because the sea was identified as salted waters, whereas the
'ocean' was thought to be an enormous stream of 'soft waters' that surrounded all
lands and all seas. As term, the ocean of 'soft waters' was extensively mythologized
within the context of the Ancient Sumerian, Assyrian-Babylonian,Egyptian, Hittite,
and Canaanite-Phoenician cosmogonies and cosmologies, notably as Apsu or Nun.
Basics and bibliography can be found here:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abzu
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nu_(mythology)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ocean
The greatest of all geographers of Late Antiquity was Ptolemy the Geographer who
was also a mathematician,an natural scientist, and an astronomer/astrologer; his
venerated masterpiece, 'Geography' (Γεωγραφική Υφήγησις / Geographiki
Hyphigisis / Geographical Instruction), is at the same time an atlas, a gazetteer
(geographical directory) and an elaborate treatise on cartography. He describes the
limits of regions, he identifies the location of mountains, rivers, promontories,
8. islands, cities, towns and villages, and he names the races of inhabitants of all known
regions of the then known world. He is the first to have used the word 'ocean' in the
(non-mythical) sense of large expanse of sea (as we use it in Modern Times).
1- FIRST EXCERPT
Ptolemy the Geographer never used the term 'Ethiopian sea' (or 'ocean'). He used
various terms to define the sea that we now call 'Atlantic Ocean'. In his book IV, ch. 6
(associated with the 4th table of Africa), Ptolemy described the location of the limits
of Inner Libya (Central Africa); in § 3, the text reads:
Από δε μεσημβρίας τη εντός Αιθιοπία, εν η Αγίσυμβα χώρα κατά γραμμήν
την από του ειρημένου πέρατος έως του κατά τον Εσπέριον και Μέγαν
καλούμενον κόλπον της εκτός θαλάσσης
https://books.google.ru/books?id=4ksBAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source
=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
(edidit Carolud Fridericus Augustus Nobbe, tom. I, Lipsiae 1843; p. 266 - LIB. IV.
Cap.6)
In this sentence, there is no verb; this is due to the fact that the verb is stated before
two paragraphs, atthe very beginning of the chapter: 'περιορίζεται' ('is demarcated').
An English translation reads as:
In its southern side, (Central Africa is demarcated) from Inner Ethiopia,
where there is the land of Agisymba, by means of a line from that point up to
the Hesperian Gulf, which is also called Great Gulf, of the Outer Sea.
This excerpt makes clear the following points:
i- Northern Africa from the western confines of today's Egypt and Sudan to the
Atlantic Ocean was called 'Libya'.
ii- Ptolemy the Geographer used the traditional name of Cush (Ethiopia), i.e. Ancient
Sudan, in a wider sense, referring (not only to the kingdom of Meroe but) to all lands
beyond Sudan down to today's South Africa.
iii- Ptolemy the Geographer mentions a location, namely Agisymba, which is also
known to have been the end of a Roman military and commercial expedition under
Julius Maternus at the time of Domitian (ca. 90 CE). Bibliography:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agisymba and
https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/agisymba-
e108180
iv- Ptolemy the Geographer demarcates the limits between 'Libya' (North Africa west
of Egypt and Sudan) and 'Ethiopia' (viewed in a broader sense as the entire region of
today's Sudan and the southern half of Africa) through a line, which starts in the area
of today's borders between South Sudan and Central African Republic and ends in
the coastlands of Gabon, Equatorial Guinea, and Cameroon,i.e. the Gulf of Guinea.
v- The Gulf of Guinea is called by Ptolemy the Geographer 'Hesperian (: Western)
Gulf' or 'Great Gulf)
vi- The Atlantic Ocean is called 'the Outer Sea'.
2- SECOND EXCERPT
In the next paragraph of his text (§ 4), Ptolemy the Geographer states that "in its
western side, ('Inner Libya' is demarcated) from the Western Ocean (τω δυτικώ
9. ωκεανώ)", therefore mentioning the then most commonly used term for the sea that
we call nowadays 'Atlantic Ocean'.
3- THIRD EXCERPT
In his book IV, ch. 9 (associated with the 4th table of Africa), Ptolemy described the
location and the limits of 'Inner Ethiopia' (Της εντός Αιθιοπίας θέσις: the location of
Inner Ethiopia); the term 'Inner Ethiopia' clearly refers to the part of Eastern Africa
that is located south of today's South Sudan, Central African Republic, Uganda and
North Kenya. In § 1 (p. 283 as per the above link), the text reads:
Η δε υποκειμένη ταύτη τη χώρα και τη όλη Λιβύη Αιθιοπία περιορίζεται,
από μεν άρκτων ταις εκτεθειμέναις μεσημβριναίς γραμμαίς των ειρημένων
χωρών, διηκούσαις τε από του Μεγάλου κόλπου της εκτός θαλάσσης, μέχρι
του ειρημένου Ραπτού ακρωτηρίου, ...
και έτι τω κατά τον Μέγαν κόλπον μέρει του δυτικού ωκεανού,
από δε δυσμών και μεσηβρίας αγνώστω γη,
από δε ανατολών τω από του Ραπτού ακρωτηρίου Βαρβαρικώ κόλπω, ος
καλείται (Βα)τραχεία θάλασσα διά τα βράχη, μέχρι του Πράσου ακρωτηρίου,
και τη εντεύθεν αγνώστω γη.
An English translation reads as:
Being located beyond that land and the entire 'Libya', ('Inner') Ethiopia is
demarcated from the north by the above mentioned southern limits of the
said lands; these limits (lit. lines) stretch from the Great Gulf of the Outer
Sea up to the aforesaid Rhapton promontory, …
… and still to the part of the Western Ocean that is inside the Great Gulf.
(Furthermore, 'Inner' Ethiopia is demarcated) from the west and the south by
an unknown land,
and from the east by the Gulf of Berberia, which stretches from the Rhapton
promontory, which is also named 'Harsh Sea' because of the rocks, up to
Prason promontory and the unknown land beyond.
This excerpt makes clear the following points:
i- The appellations 'Outer Sea' and 'Western Ocean' are interchangeable across
Ptolemy the Geographer's texts.
ii- South of the line going from today's Gabon, North Congo, and the Great Lakes
region to the coast of Tanzania around Daresalaam,the southern third of the Black
Continent was totally unknown to Late Antiquity Egyptian and Mediterranean
explorers and scholars – with the exception of the East African coast down to today's
North Mozambique.
iii- The distance from today's Gabon to the central coastland of Mozambique was not
only unknown to Ptolemy, but also incalculable.
iv- However, it was clear to Ptolemy that those confines constituted the
southernmost part of the world.
v- In fact, 'Inner Ethiopia' is located south of the demarcation line with 'Inner Libya'
(see point ii), and consequently, the Black Continent's southern part is called either
'Inner Ethiopia' or 'unknown land'.
4- FOURTH EXCERPT
10. In his book VIII, ch. 13 {which contains the first table (map) of Africa ('Libya')},
Ptolemy described the contents and the limits of the map. Specifying how the map is
delimited (§ 2), he defines the western limit of the map as per below:
Περιορίζεται δε ο πίναξ .... από δε δύσεως τω δυτικώ Ωκεανώ, ...
https://books.google.ru/books?id=vHMCAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&sourc
e=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
(Ptolemy Kart Friedrich August Nobbe, Claudii Ptolemaei Geographia, tom. II,
Lipsiae 1845; p. 215 - Libyae Tabula I)
An English translation reads as:
And the map is delimited …. from the west by the Western Ocean, …
This shows that the two most ordinary terms used by Ptolemy the Geographer to
denote the Atlantic Ocean are 'outer sea' and 'Western Ocean'. Ptolemy never used
the term 'Ethiopian Sea' (or ocean).
A list of Ancient Greek and Roman geographers and related bibliography can be
found here:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography#Roman_period
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geography#Hellenistic_period
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)
https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Κλαύδιος_Πτολεμαίος
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromata
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhapta
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azania
VI. The Treaties of Alcáçovas(1479), Tordesillas(1494)and
Zaragoza(1529), and the Use of the Terms 'Sea of Ethiopia'and
'Sea of India'
During the Christian/Islamic Times in Western Europe, Ptolemy the Geographer's
works constituted the most authoritative source of information about faraway lands
where Western Europeans could not travel because they were in war with the
Muslims, who organized in different empires and kingdoms, sultanates, emirates
and khanates controlled progressively 2/3 of Asia, 2/3 of Africa, and 1/3 of Europe.
During the Crusades, many knights belonging to several Christian religious orders
encountered and secretively cooperated with various members and leaders of
Muslim mystical orders, thus taking with them back to Europe a plethora of valuable
documentation of either scientific-scholarly or spiritual contents. The Crusaders
mainly targeted the Eastern Roman Empire, which managed to withstand the attacks
of Muslim armies for several hundreds of years and after the middle of the 10th c.
started recovering territories from the Islamic Caliphate, notably Antioch (Antakya)
in 969. The real intention of the Crusades launched by the pope of Rome was not the
recapture of Jerusalem and the Christian Holy Lands, but the obstruction of the
Eastern Roman Reconquista; in other words, the schismatic papal authorities of
11. Rome wanted to prevent the Orthodox Eastern Roman Emperors from conquering
Jerusalem, which was located at a distance of less than 700 km from the borders of
the re-strengthened 'Romania' (Ρωμανία: this was the official name of the Eastern
Roman Empire).
The Crusaders failed to consolidate their early victories and, as they united Eastern
Christians, Jews and Muslims against them, returned home, defeated. The only
tangible and permanent result was the debilitation of the Eastern Roman Empire,
which was temporarily invaded by the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade (1204-1261).
Following the collapse of the Eastern Roman Empire at 1453, the path of the Western
European pseudo-Christian kingdoms had opened for the colonial conquest of the
West and the diffusion of the Roman Anti-Christ. The supreme master of the colonial
expansion overseas was the pope of Rome; when the overseas criminality of the
Portuguese and the Spaniards started at the very end of the 15th c., he had already
got rid of the sole Christian opponent, who could denounce and reject the deeply
anti-Christian activities of the conquistadors worldwide: the Eastern Roman Empire.
The detailed study of Ptolemy the Geographer's text, the deep knowledge of all the
terms and the names that he recorded, and the meticulous investigation of the
associated cartography occupied a high position among the tasks of the papal
scholars, who advised and guided the various navigators, naval officers, and colonial
gangsters of Portugal and Spain. It was clear to them that Africa could certainly be
circumnavigated and they were fully aware of the scrupulous division of the Black
Continent that Ptolemy systematically made in his masterpiece (as per above).
It can therefore be easily understood -on the basis of the aforementioned- that every
15th c. Italian, Spanish or Portuguese geographer, cartographer and adviser to a
colonial expedition, who had a strong background in Ptolemy's Geography, would
easily extend the use of Ptolemy's term 'Inner Ethiopia' (or simply 'Ethiopia') to
various parts of Ptolemy's 'unknown lands' where he may have sailed in the last
years of the 15th c. and afterwards. Examples: the coasts of today's Angola, Namibia,
South Africa and South Mozambique and their inlands may have been expansively
called 'Ethiopia' (see above Unit V, 3- THIRD EXCERPT, v-).
This would be a reason to also name the surrounding seas 'Ethiopian Sea' or
'Ethiopian Ocean'. However, the need for new names would arise very soon after
Bartolomeu Dias reached the ' Cabo das Tormentas' (Cape of Storms), which was
later renamed as Cape of Good Hope, in May 1488, and Vasco da Gama effectuated
the first voyage from Western Europe to India (1497-1499). Why the need for new
names would arise it is easy to grasp. The old terms used by Ptolemy the Geographer
could not stand anymore; the term 'Western Ocean' would be meaningless, because if
the Atlantic Ocean was named 'Western Ocean', the Pacific Ocean {crossed by
Magellan (1480-1521) and his fleet during the period 1519-1522} could be viewed as
further located in the West. The same is also valid for Ptolemy the Geographer's term
'Outer Sea', which reflects only world perceptions and worldviews of people grown
and educated in the Mediterranean.
The fierce antagonism between the Portuguese and the Spaniards risked
jeopardizing the papal plans for Roman predominance worldwide though colonial
conquests, forced Christianization, andmass killings of the various indigenous
peoples in Africa, Asia and the Americas. Who had the right to colonize a land or
12. island became a major and most thorny problem; that's why the 15th c. and16th c.
Catholic popes
- issued many documents (namely 'papal bulls', like Æterni regis, which was issued
in 1481, Inter caetera,which was published in 1493, and Dudum siquidem, which
was communicated also in 1493),
- convened many conferences (like the Badajoz Junta in 1524) for royal delegates to
negotiate, and
- signed many treaties (notably the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479, the Treaty of
Tordesillas in1494, the treaty of Vitoria in 1524, and the Treaty of Zaragoza in1529)
with the two royal houses (of Castile/Spain and Portugal).
It was essential for the Catholic popes to prevent wars between Portugal and Castile,
like the Battle of Toro (1476), the Battle of Guinea (1478), and the War of the Castilian
Succession (1475-1479).
Perhaps the Treaty of Alcáçovas is the most important, when it comes to the
conceptualization and the contextualization of the New World Order, which was
tantamount to the colonization andbrought about the elimination of three great
Islamic Empires and of a plethora of sultanates, emirates and khanates. It introduced
a new approach to the world affairs, by totally denying any native people the right to
be self-administered / self-ruled, if they did not belong to one Christian European
monarch – puppet of the Catholic pope. This treaty (1479) generated a precedent,
because it implemented the concept that indigenous nations do not have the right to
even be asked about their colonization by 'Christian' killers, gangsters, and genocide
perpetrators; more critically, this concept applied for all lands – worldwide. In fact, it
triggered the colonial race, which ensued andlasted for more than five centuries,
down to our days.
However, the Treaty of Tordesillas, which was only complemented by the Treaty of
Zaragoza, was more important because technically it meant thatthe entire Muslim
world was deprived from the right to sail anywhere. By introducing the conceptof
papal lines of demarcation between the Portuguese and the Spanish maritime /
colonial zones of colonial rule and commercial exploitation, the Treaty of Tordesillas
prohibited any other nation's boats from sailing anywhere and consequently from
colonizing overseas territories. In fact, the papal lines of demarcation appeared first
in the papal bull Inter caetera (1493) in which it was stipulated that all the lands
located west of a vertical, north-south line passing 100 leagues west of the Azores
should belong to Castile (Spain). In the Treaty of Tordesillas, the papal line only
moved 270 leagues west to generate a balance between the two Catholic colonial
nations.
The treaty of Tordesillas turned the Spaniards toward the Americas and the
Portuguese to the South (i.e. today's Brazil and Western/Southwestern Africa) and
the East (i.e. the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and further up to
today's Indonesia). In 25 years, the future of the Islamic world was mortgaged to the
hilt. All the same, the spectrum of another Portuguese-Spanish war came back in
force, after the Portuguese, having sailed through the Indian Ocean, landed in the
Moluccas (Maluku) islands of today's Indonesia, and few years later, the Spaniards
arrived there too, sailing the other way round through the Pacific Ocean,while
effectuating the circumnavigation of the Earth (the famous Magellan–Elcano
expedition, 1519–1522). A provisory agreement was concluded with the Treaty of
13. Vitoria (1524), which called for a bilateral conference; however the dispute was not
solved in the Badajoz–Elvas conference (1524), and it was only with the Treaty of
Zaragoza (1529) that a second papal line of demarcation was drawn,this time 297.5
leagues east of the Moluccas.
With the second papal demarcation line, the entire world was divided into two zones
(later called hemispheres): Portuguese and Spanish. In fact,almost all the seas of the
world were declared "mare clausum" (Latin for 'closed sea'). The only exceptions
were the North Atlantic (north of the Tropic of Cancer; involving also the North Sea
and the Baltic Sea) and the Mediterranean Sea (including the Black Sea).
1. 'NORTH SEA' (West Atlantic) & 'SOUTH SEA' (most of the Pacific)for Spain
It was then that the need for new names appeared,so that the papal cartographers
immortalize their New World Order, which trapped the Islamic World in an impasse
that heralded the end of every Islamic empire, kingdom or independent state. The
western part of the Atlantic was viewed as their 'North Sea' and the largest part of
the Pacific (until the demarcation line east of the Moluccas) was named 'South Sea'.
2. 'SEA OF INDIA' (Indian Ocean and West Pacific)& ' SEA OF ETHIOPIA'
(Portuguese Sector in South Atlantic) for Portugal
Similarly, the Portuguese introduced the term ' Sea of India' for all the seas between
the Cape of Good Hope and the second papal demarcation line east of the Moluccas.
This large expanse of sea corresponded almost to what the Ancient Greeks and
Romans called 'Red Sea' ('Erythraean Sea') during the Antiquity; but it also included
South China Sea and the Sea of Japan (as per the papal demarcation line). Then,for
the Portuguese sector in Central and South Atlantic (south of the Tropic of Cancer)
the term 'Sea of Ethiopia' was invented and used on the aforementioned grounds,
namely the fact that Ptolemy the Geographer named the lands from Gabon to
Tanzania 'Inner Ethiopia'.
It is however technically wrong to imagine that 16th–19th c.cartographers called the
entire South Atlantic 'Sea of Ethiopia' or 'Ethiopian Ocean' or 'Ethiopic Sea'. This
name concerned only the Portuguese sector in South Atlantic, namely east of the first
papal demarcation line (stipulated in the Treaty Tordesillas, 1494). This means that
the sea off the coast of Uruguay and Argentina, which belonged to Spain, was not
named 'Sea of Ethiopia'.
The two papal demarcation lines were called Meridian (1494) and Anti-Meridian
(1529). However, the two sectors were not exactly equal, although the kings of Spain
insisted on this; the Portuguese got a slightly larger portion, namely 191 degrees of
the Earth circumference, and the Spaniards had to be satisfied with about 169
degrees. It is however clear that the two major colonial treaties and the demarcation
lines were not respected scrupulously.
These were the circumstances under which Ptolemy the Geographer's use of the term
'Inner Ethiopia' for the northern part of Africa's southern half exerted a so posterior
impact as regards a sea where the Ancient Cushitic Qore (kings) of Napata and
Meroe in today's Sudan would have never imagined to sail. Their heirs, namely
today's Arabic-speaking Sudanese and the Cushitic nations of the Oromos, the
Sidamas and others, must find it strange that the name by which the Ancient Greeks
and Romans named their ancestors had a so long history and ramifications – to
14. which the Amhara and Tigray Abyssinian tribes and the modern colonial state of
Abyssinia (Fake Ethiopia) are totally unrelated, except for ludicrously and
shamelessly usurping names that are not theirs. Sic transit gloria mundi!
However, this posterior impact of Ptolemy's use of the term 'Inner Ethiopia' took
gradually an end; this happened, when the mare clausum of the two Catholic
colonial kingdoms started being challenged by several rising rival European
kingdoms and states, namely the Dutch Republic (1588-1795),France, and England,
which advanced the principle of 'mare liberum' (free sea). At the forefront of this
effort was a very remarkable Dutch thinker and scholar Hugo Grotius, who wrote a
homonymous book to defend the interests of the corporation for which he worked:
the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie; VOC). With
'mare liberum' and VOC, the entire world entered the second stage of European
colonialism, the colonial empires of Spain and Portugal started shrinking, and
gradually the term 'Sea of Ethiopia' was forgotten.
For further research about this topics, go through the bibliography and the historical
sources that you can find here:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Alc%C3%A1%C3%A7ovas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeterni_regis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter_caetera
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dudum_siquidem
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeu_Dias
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco_da_Gama
https://ia902703.us.archive.org/33/items/toscanelliandco00vigngoog/toscanellian
dco00vigngoog.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Magellan%E2%80%93Elcano_circu
mnavigation
https://avalon.law.yale.edu/15th_century/mod001.asp
https://avalon.law.yale.edu/16th_century/mod003.asp
https://ehne.fr/en/encyclopedia/themes/treaty-tordesillas-june-7-1494
http://www.enciclopedia-aragonesa.com/voz.asp?voz_id=13214
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iberian_mare_clausum_claims.svg
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/jun7/treaty-tordesillas/
http://ddfv.ufv.es/bitstream/handle/10641/780/La%20Casa%20de%20Contrataci
%C3%B3n%20de%20La%20Coru%C3%B1a.pdf?sequence=1
http://historiasdebadajoz.blogspot.com/2008/11/la-junta-de-badajoz-elvas-de-
1524-sobre.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maluku_Islands
https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junta_de_Badajoz-Elvas
https://avalon.law.yale.edu/16th_century/mod003.asp
http://sevilla.2019-2022.org/wp-
content/uploads/2016/03/12.ICSevilla2019_Tratado-de-Zaragoza-a15.pdf
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Zaragoza
https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tratado_de_Zaragoza
http://pares.mcu.es/ParesBusquedas20/catalogo/description/122513
http://www.self.gutenberg.org/articles/eng/Treaty_of_Zaragoza_(1529)#The_treat
y
https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p66561/mobile/ch04s04.html
16. Many would respond to this question, saying that overseas expansion brings (due to
various reasons) greater wealth to a colonial metropolis than continental land
conquest does.
Others would focus on the dramatic material and military superiority of the
conquistadores over the invaded empires or tribes.
Several historians would explain the phenomenon by pointing out that, due to the
15th c. – 16th c. Iberian maritime expansions, the entire world trade was remodeled
after very different plans, patterns, methods and processes terminating the
continental empires' prevalence across the trade routes.
Various historians of religion would underscore the fact that the widespread, forced
evangelization of numerous nations and vast populations across the world by the
Iberian Catholic missionaries was an unprecedented event in the History of the
Mankind, which is tantamount to spiritual and physical genocide and to
perpetuation of ceaseless series of crimes against the Mankind.
This is true; neither the early Islamic conquests nor Genghis Khan's thunderous
invasions led to such criminal acts of religion enforcement and mass killings.
However, the aforementioned approaches (and numerous other interpretations) are
not erroneous, but they reveal only aspects of the phenomenon herewith described. I
believe that the 5-century long irreversibility of this phenomenon has more to do
with the core nature of the acts that were then perpetrated however one may narrate
or present them. Undoubtedly, these acts and events were totally evil and inhuman,
and, if one needs a religious definition, they were inherently Anti-Christian.The core
nature of the Spanish and Portuguese colonial conquests reflected a totally different
notion, ethos, mindset, mentality, approach, attitude and conviction thathad not
been hitherto attested throughout the History of the Mankind.
This notion was first revealed in the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1479) whereby no
indigenous nation (in either known or unknown lands or islands) was thought of as
capable of self-rule, self-administration, and self-determination. It is in that treaty,
which basically concerned bilateral Portuguese-Spanish relations, that the concept of
Catholic world dominance was explicitly evoked, conceding to all the other humans,
either inhabitants of major empires or members of minor tribes, no right to be asked
about their opinion, choice and will.
This ultra-totalitarian concept certainly threatened all the nations of the world, and it
is due to this notion that Spain and Portugal first and several other European nations
(Holland, France and England) later colonized the entire world, but whatmatters
most for us to study (and what determined the world developments over the past
500 years) is the reaction of the other major empires and states of the then world.
Evaluating all aspects and repercussions of the phenomenon of the early 16th c.
Portuguese and Spanish thalassocracy and colonial hegemony, we can easily identify
the major empires and states that were targeted by the two crowns andimpacted by
the aforementioned notion and concept, which epitomized the acts and deeds of the
Iberian conquistadors.
17. Genoa and Venice
Genoa and Venice were formidable Mediterranean maritime forces and very wealthy
republics, thanks to their historical trade with the East; they were in constant wars
with the Ottoman Empire and they could not be involved in the colonial conquests at
an early level, but the flourishing and powerful Genoese and Venetian bankers and
magnates, who were also present in the Iberian Peninsula and interconnected with
numerous institutions there, would certainly be able to extract great benefit from
Spain's and Portugal's colonial acquisitions – which they did.
France, Holland and England
Due to the treaties of Tordesillas and Zaragoza, France, Holland and England were
left with the North Atlantic, which would only offer them meager benefits compared
with those of Spain and Portugal; however, these Western European states accepted
the aforementioned notion and concept, which are the quintessence of colonialism,
and prepared themselves to contravene the arbitrary papal presumption of 'mare
clausum' (closed sea). It took them some time to be ready and when they were, they
counter-attacked, advancing their own presumption of 'mare liberum' (free sea), at
the very antipodes of the peremptory papal nonsense.
China
Throughout their very long History, the Chinese were constituted as a great
continental empire with significant maritime activity alongside the eastern
coastlands of Asia and with strong commercial connections with all the other Asiatic
kingdoms and empires. More particularly in the early 16th c., China had ordinary
and close commercial relations with the Kazakh and Uzbek khanates, and the three
major Islamic empires, namely the Mughal Empire of South Asia, the Safavid Empire
of Iran, and the Ottoman Empire.
However, China was never a colonial empire, and every Chinese activity beyond
China's borders was always undertaken for two reasons only, namely to damage a
dangerous invader and to ensure peace across the trade routes west of China. The
notion and concept contained in the treaties of Alcáçovas,Tordesillas and Zaragoza
were absolutely alien and inhuman to the peaceful and serene Chinese worldview
and world conceptualization.That mindset and attitude was opposite to Chinese
culture and faiths as attested throughout millennia. Similarly, the papal demarcation
lines were meaningless to the Chinese as fully contradictory to the traditional
Chinese humanism. About Chinese humanism:
https://www.transcript-publishing.com/media/pdf/80/2e/bf/ts1351_1.pdf
https://science.jrank.org/pages/7762/Humanism-Chinese-Conception.html
https://www.e-ir.info/2020/02/20/an-examination-of-chinese-humanism/
Ottoman Empire, Safavid Empire of Iran, and Mughal Empire
The three major Islamic empires were arguably in the first half of the 16th c. the
world's three largest and most powerful states, with Ming China being the fourth.
Contrarily to China, they had a certain 'colonial' tradition (although the term
'colonial' here is used with a totally different meaning, rather related to historical
colonialism during the Antiquity and the Christian/Islamic times). All three empires
emerged as continuation of earlier empires with a great past, an outstanding
historical heritage, and therefore continuous presence across the trade routes
18. between East and West, namely the historical commercial network that we now call
"silk, spice and frankincense trade routes across lands, deserts and seas".
The Mughal Empire's (and the earlier Delhi sultanates') sphere of influence, cultural
radiation, and commercial contacts stretched from China and Southeast Asia to
Central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, and the coastland of Eastern Africa. However,
the Mughal Empire (and its predecessors) never had an involvement in the
Mediterranean.
The Iranian sphere of influence, cultural radiation, and commercial contacts
stretched from the Balkans, the Black Sea, and the Mediterranean to the coastland of
Eastern Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, Central Asia,South-Southeast Asia, and
China. However, any Iranian kingdom or empire and any state based in Iran anytime
during the Islamic Ages never had an involvement in the Mediterranean.
The Ottoman Empire was the continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire with
another official religion and another official language. Long before becoming the
caliph of the Islamic Caliphate, the Ottoman Sultan willingly became Emperor of the
Eastern Roman Empire and he was therefore styled 'Qaysar-i Rum', i.e. 'Caesar of
Rome' ( ق
ی
صر
روم /Kayser-i Rûm). Idiotically invading in 1453 a rather insignificant
remnant of the erstwhile formidable Eastern Roman Empire, i.e. Constantinople,
Mehmet II was inevitably burdened with an enormously heavy past of incessant
Roman-Constantinopolitan clashes,disputes, intrigues, wars, plots and hatred that
had already lasted for almost 1000 years. Either Mehmet II knew or did not know
what he was doing, as soon as he became real successor to the Eastern Roman
Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos (29 May 1453),Mehmet II drew upon him the
unequalled rage and the vicious rancor of the scheming Catholic popes. About:
https://www.academia.edu/43199538/29_May_1453_The_most_Useless_Ottoman_
Victory
Mehmet II's successors did not have a clue about what the Catholic pope was about
to prepare against them; that's why they inanely thoughtthey had to fight for their
faith, whereas in reality they had to fight for bearing the title of Eastern Roman
Emperor – something that all the Catholic popes after the First Schism (869 - and
even earlier) wanted to deprive the monarchs of the Eastern Roman Empire of. The
entire worldview, the world conceptualization, and the perception of targets, tasks
and expansion perspectives that all Ottoman sultans had in mind were disastrously
erroneous, puerile and nonsensical. Even more catastrophically, victims of their
pseudo-Sunni and bogus-Islamic theologians, sheikhulislams, qadis, muftis and
imams, the Ottoman sultans hated their own Turkish people; they repeatedly
persecuted, butchered, and exiled their Anatolian Turkmen subjects – not to mention
other ethnic groups. The Anti-Turkmen hysteria of the Ottoman family became very
clear 60 years after the useless conquest of Constantinople, namely at the time of the
Shahqulu Revival of Anatolian Mysticism (قولو شاه / Şāh ḳulu) in 1511-1512.
To please and satisfy the heretic, pseudo-Muslim and anti-Islamic theologians of
Constantinople, Selim I suppressed the freedom of the Anatolian Turkmen
population, persecuted and massacred dozens of thousands of people, thus
implementing a sectarian and self-destructive policy, which turned the outright
majority of his sultanate's Muslim inhabitants against him. Thousands of Qizilbash
Muslims when then exiled in Mora (today's Peloponnesus in South Greece). This
19. meant that the criminal and disreputable sultan was the enemy of his own nation,
being merely a puppet at the hands of the idiotic religious sect that controlled his
state. Bibliography and historical sources can be found here, although the events are
poorly described:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eahkulu
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eahkulu_rebellion
So blind Selim I was that he could not even understand the reason why most of his
Janissaries rebelled when he advanced to the East in order to declare war against
another Islamic state, namely the Safavid Empire of Iran. This concludes the case of
the Ottoman Empire, which was a failed state already in the early 16th c., although
this reality became evident to all only 400 years later. Look now at it in its real
dimensions:
When the Catholic popes spent time and effort to solve the differences between two
Christian monarchs,the pseudo-Muslim theologians of Constantinople incited Selim
I to undertake a war against another Islamic Empire!
When the Catholic monarchs used to incite their subjects to check their chances by
exploring and exploiting new lands overseas, Selim I oppressed, killed and deported
his own state's unfortunate inhabitants.
Who were truly the worse rulers for the Muslims?
The Catholic kings of Castile/Spain, who simply expelled from their land those who
did not have their own faith (in 1492)…
… or Selim I, who exiled far from Anatolia those who had the same faith with him
(in 1511-1512)?
The weakness of the Ottoman Empire is characteristically underscored thanks to
similar comparisons that every person, thinking out-of-the-box, can easily make,
without being a specialized Turcologist.
Then, what can one say about the Ottoman ignorance and stiffness?
The second half of the 15th c. and the 16th c.are considered, very correctly, as the
peak of the Ottoman civilization and power. From 1413 until 1595 (from Mehmed I to
Murad III), namely for 182 years, in reality and despite several other pretenders, only
eight (8) monarchs reigned the Ottoman Empire. This shows an impressive stability
with an average reign period of ca. 23 years! However, there was no knowledge, no
intelligence, and no vision. There were only a) a permanent, lascivious interest for
voluptuous moments in the harem and b) a recurring passion for harsh moments in
the battlefield, especially if the looting would end up with the arrival of many new
virgin girls in the harem of the Constantinopolitan palace of the Ottoman 'caliphs'.
The Ottoman sultans failed to have intelligence and insight into their enemies'
realms; they knew nothing about the treaties of Alcáçovas, Tordesillas and Zaragoza,
let alone the extremely alarming notions and concepts involved (as per above). Then,
it is their own mistake that they underestimated the real dangers, which existed for
their state. In this regard, during the 16th and the early 17th c., the Ottoman Empire
failed to react at least in the manner the European rivals of Spain and Portugal did.
After that moment, everything was lost for the stubborn Ottoman family that wanted
20. to rule a universal empire as a tribal enclosure. But very few were then smart enough
to realize that the Sick Man of Europe had been contaminated already in the 15th c.
Even worse, there was no vision, and this is so, because never an Ottoman felt as
universal Islamic Emperor and Caliph. There was no real interest in uniting all
Muslims (to say the least) in a centralized caliphate, because there had never been
any properly centralized form of governance in any Islamic state (with only few
exceptions which only confirm the rule). And at this point, I don't mean modern
states' centralization, but at least Roman Empire-level centralization.
When Selim I managed to win over Ismail I Safavid in Chaldiran (1514), he had an
absolutely unique opportunity to unite in one realm all the lands between the
Balkans and the Indus River. In fact, only an empire this big could possibly mobilize
the resources needed to oppose the Spaniards and the Portuguese in the open seas.
But to unite populations in the first place, you have to be anyone else except an
Ottoman. They were a highly sectarian family and therefore an early failed state with
a pathetic administration, which preferred to control the useless sands of Arabia and
Egypt, instead of really rebuilding the world after the illustrious and unsurpassed
example of Timur (Tamerlane) whose conquests regenerated the Islamic World and
brought about what scholars worldwide rightfully call nowadays 'Timurid
Renaissance' (https://es.unesco.org/silkroad/node/467).
However, Timur disdained terribly the miserable Ottomans whom he vanquished in
1402; unfortunately for them, the descendants of Bayazit I did not take the lesson and
did not make of Timur their own supreme prototype. That's why the Ottomans were
repeatedly humiliated, constantly defeated, and finally dissolved by Kemal Ataturk;
their last reigning offspring, Mehmed VI Vahdettin, was expelled from the Yildiz
Palace in Istanbul, and he had to sail on an English warship to Malta and then San
Remo before he died in 1926. This nefarious misfortune will also befall on any idiots
who use the brainless Ottomans as a possible model for their own dirty politics. But
this will be the topic of another article.