2. Samkhya (साङ्ख्य) means "number" used in the sense of thinking and counting. Thinking is with
reference to basic principles or Knowledge of Self. Counting refers to the twenty-four principles
and others.
Thus, the school specifies the number and nature of the ultimate constituents of the Universe
and thereby imparts knowledge of reality. The term also means "perfect knowledge. Hence it is
a system of perfect knowledge. The main tenets in this school of philosophy are as follows
•Samkhya is strongly dualist accepting the roles of Prakrti (प्रकृ त िः) and Purusha (पुरुषिः) in the
Creation of this Universe.
•Samkhya siddhanta accepts that enumeration of truth can be done by using three of six
accepted pramanas (प्रमाणािः proofs).
•The Trigunas exist in all life forms in different proportions.
3. •It 'enumerates' twenty five Tattvas or true principles; and its chief object is to effect the final
emancipation of the twenty-fifth Tattva, i.e. the purusha or soul.
•The evolutionary process involves Pradhana (Prakruti), Purusha, Mahat (Buddhi), Ahankaraara,
Pancha Jnanendriyas, Pancha Karmendriyas, Panchatanmatras, Panchabhutas and Manas
•While the Samkhya school considers the Vedas as a reliable source of knowledge, a key
difference between Samkhya and Yoga schools, state scholars, is that Yoga school accepts a
"personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal deity".
•The existence of Supreme being is not directly asserted, nor considered very relevant by the
Samkhya philosophers.
•Samkhya school considers moksha (मोक्ष) as a natural quest of every soul.
4. The enquiry into this system of philosophy is to find out the means for eradicating the three
sorts of pain, namely
1.आद्ध्यात्ममक || Internal or Adhyatmika (This can be of further two types - Physical and Mental.
1. Physical Pains: These are caused due to imbalance of Vaata, Pitta and Kapha. The Tri-Doshas as they
are called, are not in harmony causing different illnesses.
2. Mental Pains: These are caused due to various dispositions such as काम, क्रोध, मद, मोह, लोभ, भय,
ममसर, राग, द्धवेष. Various mental diseases, worries, tensions, depression are examples of this pain.
2.आददभौत क || External or Adhibhautika (These are pains caused due to this physical world.
Problems caused due to thorns, animals, scorpion, thunder, cold, heat, rain etc.).
3.आदददैववक || Celestial or Adhidaivika (These include व्याधध due to Yakshas, Rakshasas, Sudden
problems, still born child, unseen problems in important events, ववघ्न, due to दैव etc.)
5. Pain is an embarrassment. It stands in the way of doing Yoga Sadhna and attaining Moksha or
release. According to Samkhya one who has the knowledge of the twenty five principles,
annihilates this pain. The ultimate cessation of the three kinds of pain is the final goal of life.[1]
Pleasure and pain, joy and sorrow really belong to Buddhi or the intellect and the mind. The
Purusha or Self is by its nature free from them all. But due to Ajnana (ignorance) it fails to
distinguish itself from the mind and intellect, and identifies itself with the body and senses. It is
this want of discrimination or feeling of identity (aviveka) between the self and the mind-body
that is the cause of all pain and troubles. Freedom from this suffering comes from knowledge of
the distinction between the two (vivekajnana) and ends the suffering.
6. द्वैत || Dvaita Concept of Purusha and Prakrti
Samkhya denies that anything can be produced out of nothing. It assumes the reality of Purusha
and Prakrti , the knowing Self and the objects known. Prakrti and Purusha are Anadi
(beginningless) and Ananta (infinite). Non-discrimination between the two is the cause for birth
and death. Discrimination between Prakrti and Purusha gives Mukti (salvation). Both Purusha
and Prakrti are Sat (real). Purusha is Asanga (unattached). He is consciousness, all-pervading and
eternal. Prakrti is doer and enjoyer. Souls are countless
Samkhya is strongly Dvaita (द्धवै । dualist) based on the Upanishadic teaching of the Brahman
there are two types of descriptions about Brahman; Purusha (consciousness) and Prakrti (प्रकृ त
। matter).
7. On one hand, Brahman is described as Kutasta (unchangeable or immutable) as for example, in
Gita, Brahman is described as the eternal principle which the fire cannot burn, wind cannot dry
etc. On the other hand, Brahman is presented as changing principle and manifests into many
forms to become the world. Here the example of spider is presented; the spider spins its web
from its own resources, so also Brahman is the only reality and from him all things come forth. In
order to solve this contradiction, Samkhya proposes two Ultimate Principles, Purusha
(unchanging Self) and Prakrti (changing matter). Therefore, Samkhya is dualistic realism as it
considers that both matter and spirit are equally real. It is also pluralistic because of its teaching
that Purusha is not one but many.
8. तत्वानि || Fourfold Classification of the Twenty Five Tattvas
The Samkhya gives a description of categories based on their respective productive efficiency viz
प्रकृ त || Prakrti (Productive)
1.प्रकृ त -ववकृ त || Prakrti - Vikriti (Productive and Produced). These are seven in number.
2.ववकृ त || Vikriti (Productions). These are sixteen in number.
3.अनुभयरूपम्|| Anubhayarupa (Neither Productive nor Produced). This is Purusha.
This fourfold classification includes all the twenty-five principles or Tattvas.
9. •Prakrti or Nature or Pradhana (chief) is purely productive. It is the root of all. It is not a product.
It is a creative force, evolver, and producer.
•The Productive and Produced include the Seven principles —
• बुद्धधध (Buddhi, intellect), अहंकार (Ahankara, egoism) and the five न्मात्र Tanmatras (subtle essences
- the essence of sight, smell, taste, touch and sound).
• Buddhi is productive, as Ahankara is evolved out of it. It is produced also, as it itself is evolved out of
Prakrti . Egoism is a production, as it is derived from intellect. It is productive, as it gives origin to the
five Tanmatras. The subtle essences (Tanmatras) are derived from egoism. Hence they are
productions. They give origin to the five elements. Hence they are productive.
•The Productions include the sixteen principles, the ten organs, the mind and the five elements.
They are unproductive, because none of them can give birth to a substance essentially different
from itself.
•The Purusha or Spirit is neither a production, nor is it productive. It is without attributes.
10. प्रमाणािः || Pramanas
In order to prove the tattvas, different kinds of proof (means of right cognition) are to be described.
Samkhya philosophy is based on systematic enumeration and uses three of the six
pramanas (प्रमाणािः । pramanas or proofs) as the only reliable means of gaining
knowledge.[1][4] These include
दृष्टमनुमानमाप् वचनं च सववप्रमाणससद्धधमवा ् । त्रत्रववधं प्रमाणसमष्टं प्रमेयससद्धधध: प्रमाणाद्धधध ॥ ४ ॥
(Samk. Dars. 4)[5]
dr̥ṣṭamanumānamāptavacanaṁ ca sarvapramāṇasiddhatvāt । trividhaṁ pramāṇamiṣṭaṁ
prameyasiddhi: pramāṇāddhi ॥ 4 ॥ (Samk. Dars. 4)
प्रमयक्षप्रमाणािः || pratyaksha-pramana (perception)
अनुमानप्रमाणािः || anumana-pramana (inference)
आप् वचनम ् || aptavacana (word/testimony of reliable sources) Vachana being शब्दप्रमाणािः ।
sabda-pramana.
The Word Apta means fit or right. It is applied to the Vedas or inspired teachers. Nyaya
Darsana accepts four kinds of proofs: प्रमयक्ष, अनुमान , उपमान, शब्द. The Mimamsakas recognise
six kinds of proofs.
Unlike few other schools, Samkhya did not consider the following three pramanas as epistemically
proper: उपमान || Upamana (comparison and analogy), अर्ावपवि || Arthaapatti (postulation,
deriving from circumstances) or अनुपलत्ब्द || Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive
proof).
11. प्रकृ त िः || Prakrti the Cause
Prakrti means that which is primary, that which precedes what is made. It comes from 'Pra' (before) and
`Kri' (to make). It resembles Vedantic concept of Maya. Thus, the sense of unity is seen in the single source
of origin of the world or material manifestation. It is called the Root and is described as the Pradhana, that
in which all things are contained, and as Prakrti, the mother of all things. Prakrti is eternal, all pervading,
immovable. It is one. It has no cause, but is the cause of all effects. Prakrti is independent and uncaused,
while the products are caused and dependent. Prakrti depends only on the activity of its own constituent
Gunas (metaphysical properties).
One pure Prakrti is made of the three Gunas namely Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. The three Gunas with
different permutations and combinations give rise to the varied substances. Accordingly, evolution cannot
be consumed from Prakṛti alone or from Puruṣa alone
Proof for Existence of Prakrti
Samkhya gives five proofs for the existence of Prakrti
a) Bhedanam parimanat: (effects are limited and many) All particular objects of the world, from Buddhi to
Panchabhutas, are limited and dependent on one another. The finite and limited principle cannot be the
cause of the Universe. So there is an unlimited and independent cause for their existence. It is the Prakrti
which is infinite, unlimited, independent and all-pervading source of the universe.
b) Samanvayat: (harmony) All worldly things possess certain common characteristics due to which
pleasure, pain and indifference are produced. Therefore,they must have a common cause which is
composed of these three gunas and that is Prakrti .
12. c) Karyatah pravrttescha: (effect is produced due to action) All effects proceed from the activity of some
cause which contains their potentiality within it. The world of objects which are effects must be implicitly
contained in some world-cause. And that is Prakrti .
d) Karanakaryavibhagat: (cause and effects are separate/different) The effect is the explicit and cause is
the implicit state of the same process. The effect, therefore points to a world-cause where they are
potentially contained. And that is Prakrti .
e) Avibhagat vaishvarupyasya: (unity) In the universe everything has a purpose and thus the whole
universe is a unified whole. Therefore the unity of the universe points to a single cause and that cause is
called Prakrti . One should not imagine a cause of this ultimate cause, for that will land us in the fallacy of
infinite regress.
Transformation of Prakrti
This creation, from the intellect down to the elements is brought about by the transformation of Prakrti .
Having observed the effects, the cause (Prakrti ) is inferred. Prakrti is imperceptible from its subtlety. It
must therefore be inferred from its effects.
Egoism is a form of intellect. it is the matter from which the senses and the rudimental elements are
formed. The gross elements are forms of the rudimental elements. Intellect, egoism and the five subtle
rudiments or Tanmatras are the effects of Prakrti . Prakrti is the basis of all objective existence. Prakrti
creates only when it comes into union with Purusha
13. गुणिः || Gunas
Samkhya is known for its theory of gunas (गुणिः। quality, innate tendencies). Guna, it states, are of three types: Satva,
Rajas and Tamas.
•सत्त्वगुणिः || Sattva being harmony, illuminating, positive, pure.
•रजोगुणिः || Rajas is one of activity, motion, chaotic, passion, potentially good or bad action.
• मोगुणिः || Tamas being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative
Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three gunas, but in different
proportions.
Prakrti is composed of three Gunas of forces, called Sattva (purity, light, harmony), Rajas (passion, activity, motion) and
Tamas (inertia, darkness, inertness, inactivity). It is to be noted that these Gunas are not the Nyaya-Vaiseshika Gunas.
They are the actual substances or ingredients, of which Prakrti is constituted. They make up the whole world evolved
out of Prakrti. They are not conjoined in equal quantities, but in varying proportions, one or the other being in excess.
Just as Sat-Chit-Ananda is the Vedantic triad, so also the Gunas are the Samkhyan triad. However the Guṇa is not the
quality of Prakrti; on the contrary they are constituents of one pure Prakṛti.
Interaction Between the Gunas
Interaction between the three Gunas, Sattva, Rajas and Tamas leads to Evolution. The three Gunas are never separate.
They support one another. They intermingle with one another. They form the very substance of Prakrti . All objects are
composed of the three Gunas. The Gunas act on one another. Then there is evolution or manifestation. The Gunas are
the objects.]
14. The process through which Purusha attains the discriminatory knowledge involves the interaction of
Purusha with Buddhi and other constituents.
अ्यवसायो बुद्धधधधवमो ज्ञानं ववराग ऐश्वयवम ्। सात्त्त्वकमे द्रूपं ामसमस्माद्धववपयवस् म्॥ २३ ॥ (Samk. 23)
adhyavasāyo buddhirdharmo jñānaṁ virāga aiśvaryam । sāttvikametadrūpaṁ tāmasamasmādviparyastam
॥ 23 ॥ (Samk. 23)
Mahat or Buddhi
The intellect is an instrument which receives the ideas and images conveyed through the organs of sense,
and the mind, constructs them into a conclusive idea, and presents this idea to the Self. The function of
the intellect is determination (Nischaya or Will). Before one engages in any matter, one first observes and
considers, then one reflects and then determines. Then one proceeds to act. This ascertainment: "Such
act is to be done by me" is the determination of the intellect (Adhyavasaya).
Thus, Buddhi is defined as the determining Principle; Virtue, Wisdom, Dispassion and Power constitute its
form (when affected by Sattva) and the reverse of these when affected by Tamas. The determination of
the duty is the characteristic property of Buddhi - which appears as if endued with intelligence by contact
with the intelligence of Purusha.[8]
15. The Intellect and its Functions
Tile intellect or the Buddhi is the most important of all the products of Prakrti . The senses present their objects to the intellect. The intellect
exhibits them to the purusha. The intellect discriminates the difference between purusha and Prakrti .
The intellect is the instrument or organ which is the medium between the other organs and the Self. All ideas derived from sensation, reflection,
or consciousness are deposited in the chief or great instrument, intellect, before they can be made known to the Self. They convey impressions or
ideas with the properties or effects of pleasure, pain and indifference, accordingly as they are influenced by the qualities of Sattva (purity), Rajas
(passion) or Tamas (darkness).
The intellect appears to be intelligent on account of the reflection of Purusha which is very near to it, though by itself, it is really non-intelligent.
Ahankara
असभमानोऽहंकार: स्माद्धववववध: प्रव व े सगव: । एकादशकश्च गणस् न्मात्रपञ्चकश्चैव ॥ २४ ॥ (Samk. 24)[
abhimāno'haṁkāra: tasmādvividha: pravartate sarga: । ekādaśakaśca gaṇastanmātrapañcakaścaiva ॥ 24 ॥ (Samk. 24)
Self-assertion is Ahamkara. From it proceeds the twofold evolution only; the elevenfold set and also the fivefold Tanmatras.
All that is considered (alochita) and reasoned (mata) refers to me, in this I am competent, all those objects of sense are for my sake only, this does
not concern any one else but me, hence I am - such Abhimana, self assertion or consciousness by reference to oneself, from its having an
uncommon or unique operation of its own, is called Ahamkara, by working upon which Buddhi determines that "this is to be done by me”
Agency belongs to egoism—the Ahankara or the I-maker—which is itself a product of Prakrti , but not to the Purusha or Self who is always a silent
witness.
16. Manas
The Mind or Manas is both an organ of sensation and action. The Indriyas or senses receive simple impressions from without.
The mind cooperates with the senses, and the impressions are perceived.
उभयाममकमत्र मन: सङ्खकल्पसमत्न्द्रयं च साधर्मयाव ्। गुणपररणामववशेषान्नानामवं बाह्यभेदाश्च ॥ २७ ॥ (Samk. 27)[5]
ubhayātmakamatra mana: saṅkalpamindriyaṁ ca sādharmyāt । guṇapariṇāmaviśeṣānnānātvaṁ bāhyabhedāśca ॥ 27 ॥ (Samk.
27)
Among the Indriyas, Manas possess the nature of both. It is deliberative and is as well an Indriya (सङ्खकल्पसमत्न्द्रयं च) as it is
homogeneous with the rest. Sankalpam is the the uncommon or distinctive function of the Manas. From the materials of the
senses, Manas creates percepts, which are transferred to Ahamkara. Ahamkara evaluates them either as concerning itself or
not concerning itself. Thus coloured with the personal equation, they are next taken up by Buddhi, which makes certain their
true nature and determines conduct accordingly.
The mind ponders, the intellect determines, and egoism becomes conscious. The functions of mind, intellect and egoism can
be instantaneous as well as gradual.
" Intellect, egoism, mind and the eye see a form at once, in one instant, and come immediately to a conclusion. ("This is a
jar."). The same three, with tongue, at once relish taste; with the nose smell; and so on with the ear and the skin. The function
is also occasionally gradual. A man going along a road sees an object at a distance. A doubt arises in his mind whether it is a
post or a man. He then sees a bird sitting on it. Then the doubt is removed. In above example the intellect makes a
determination that it is a post only. Then the ego says - I am certain that it is a post only. The intellect, the mind and egoism
are the door-keepers. The five senses of perception or Jnana-Indriyas are the gates. The intellect is the instrument or organ
which is the medium between the senses and the Self."
It is established that Buddhi is supreme among the Indriyas. It is the principal means of accomplishing the apparently
17. Summary of some important points
sånkhya (Sanskrit: "calculating, enumeration, analysis, categorization).
Modern science can be said to be a form of sånkhya because it attempts to
analyze and categorize matter into its constituent elements. Sånkhya also
refers to an ancient system of philosophy attributed to the sage Kapila. This
philosophy is so called because it enumerates or analyzes reality into a set
number of basic elements, similar to modern science.
18. thought represents a dualistic system in which the two distinct and formative principles of
purusha (spirit) and prakriti (matter) dominate.
Purusha is the conscious principle which constitutes the multiple individual selves that
inhabits and animates the bodies of every living thing. Being pure consciousness in and of
itself, it is eternal, incorruptible, self-illuminated and self-illuminating, unalterable, uncaused
and all-pervasive by nature. The individual conscious self transcends the limitations of the
body, mind, senses and intellect. Its present connection with the force known as prakriti is
one of temporary entrapment.
19. Prakriti is the very antithesis of spirit, being by nature limited, changable, enervating and
corrupting. Prakriti, calm, equipoised and unitary in its quiescent state, devolves from this
state of equilibrium to a reality of multiplicity and diversity as a result of contact with purusha.
The goal of life, according to the Samkhya School, is for purusha to regain his state of freedom
beyond the bondage of prakriti’s influence.
First systematized by the sage Kapila, Samkhya is possibly the most ancient of these six
schools.
20. Samkhya received its form and expression of the verses by the philosopher
Ishvarakrishna. The study of Samkhya assumes the existence of two bodies, a temporal
one and the other with the subtle matter that persists after death. When the temporal
body is perished, the subtle one migrates to the panther temporal body. The body of
subtle matter consists of consciousness, I-consciousness, mind as a coordinator of
impressions and breath. They are namely Buddhi, Ahamkara, Manas and Prana
simultaneously in Sanskrit.
Samkhya showcases the existence of an infinite number of purushas who are similar but
separate and are not really superior to one another.
21. Purusha and Prakriti are enough to explain the universe, however, the existence of God
is not hypnotized. The chain of revolution begins when Purusha lays his impact on
Prakriti. Purusha with pure consciousness without any object becomes focused on the
Prakriti and here comes buddhi in action. Next comes the ahamkara, the individualized
ego which imposes the understanding of the Purusha.
The ahamkara is further divided into five gross elements: space, air, fire, water and
earth. The five fine elements are Sound, touch, sight, taste and smell. The universe is
the result of the combination and permutation and thereby the various principles related
to its existence.
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