The slides mainly describes about man made disasters like fire, accidents, war etc.

1. Dr. Neeraj Yadav
Assistant Professor
School of Basic and Applied Science
K. R. Mangalam University
Gurugram

2. MAN MADE DISASTER (ANTHROPOGENIC DISASTER/ HAZARD):
 Anthropogenic hazards are hazards caused by human action or inaction.
 They are contrasted with natural hazards.
 Anthropogenic hazards may adversely affect humans,
other organisms, biomes, and ecosystems.
Some common examples are:
 Industrial Pollution,
 Nuclear Disaster,
 Biological Disasters,
 Accidents (Air, Sea, Rail & Road),
 Structural failures (Building and Bridge),
 War & Terrorism etc.

3. 1. FIRE:
 Fires may be natural or man-made, depending on what originally caused the disaster.
 Fire is a good servant but a very bad master.
 As long as it is under our control, it serves a lot of useful purposes for us but once it goes out of control, it can create a
lot of destruction.
 Because of the useful purposes that it serves, peoples keep sources of fire in/ around their houses/ workplace.
These sources could sometime results in undesired fire.
 Lightning may cause a natural fire, but leaked gas or faulty
mechanical equipment is considered a man-made cause.
 Man has depended on it for centuries for things from cooking
and heating to a major source of lighting.
 And yet, thousands of people die each year as a result of
either house fires or wildfires, with direct property loss
estimated at $8.6 billion annually.

4. Major Causes of House Fires:
i. Electrical accidents or neglect - misuse of wiring and electrical appliances, leaving a curling iron on, or an electric
blanket, shorting out of small appliances such as lamps, toasters and even baby monitors.
ii. Smoking – a dropped cigarette or children playing with matches and lighters, inadequate ashtray.
iii. Kitchen accidents – unattended pots on the stove or the burner being left on accidentally.
iv. Heating equipment – space heaters, gas heaters, wood stoves, and fireplaces, mainly in winter months. Portable
heaters can be knocked over or placed too close to flammable materials, or they are inadequately guarded. All
heaters could overheat if obstructed.
v. Burning refuse/rubbish – accumulating in work or storage areas.
vi. Hazardous goods – materials such as paints, adhesives or other chemicals.

5. vii. Arson – by mischievous children and adults, facilitated by ineffectively secured buildings.
viii. Specific hazards – machinery in dusty environments, heated equipment (e.g. soldering irons), lamps, cutting and
welding equipment, flammable liquids.
Basic Characteristics of Fires:
 It spreads quickly; there is no time to gather valuables or make a phone call.
 In just two minutes, it can become life-threatening.
 In five minutes, a residence can be engulfed in flames.
 The heat and smoke can be more dangerous than the flames.
 Inhaling the super-hot air can sear your lungs.
 Fire produces poisonous gases that make you disoriented and drowsy.
 Instead of being awakened by a fire, you may fall into a deeper sleep.

6. Types of Fires:
There are four different classes of fires based on the kind of material that is burning.
•Class A fires are those that include paper, wood, cloth, other textiles and even rubber.
•Class B fires are those that include gasoline, propane, paint thinner and kitchen grease.
•Class C fires are those that include electricity, such as computers, panel boxes, car motors and electrical wiring. If the
electricity is stopped and the fire continues, the class changes to Class A or Class B.
•Class D fires are those that include exotic metals such as magnesium and titanium.

7. INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION:
 Any form of pollution that can trace its immediate source to industrial practices is known as industrial pollution.
 Most of the pollution on the planet can be traced back to industries of some kind.
 Industrial pollution takes on many faces such as it contaminates
several sources of drinking water, releases unwanted toxins into the air
and reduces the quality of soil all over the world.
 Major environmental disasters have been caused due to
industrial mishaps, which have yet to be brought under
control.

8. Causes of Industrial Pollution
1. Lack of Policies to Control Pollution
 Lack of effective policies and poor enforcement drive allowed many industries to bypass laws made by the pollution
control board, which resulted in mass-scale pollution that affected the lives of many people.
2. Unplanned Industrial Growth
 In most industrial townships, unplanned growth took place wherein those companies flouted rules and norms
and polluted the environment with both air and water pollution.
3. Use of Outdated Technologies
 Most industries still rely on old technologies to produce products that generate a large amount of waste. To avoid
high cost and expenditure, many companies still make use of traditional technologies to produce high-end products.

9. 4. Presence of a Large Number of Small Scale Industries
 Many small scale industries and factories that don’t have enough capital and rely on government grants to run their
day-to-day businesses often escape environment regulations and release a large number of toxic gases in the
atmosphere.
5. Inefficient Waste Disposal
 Water pollution and soil pollution are often caused directly due to inefficiency in the disposal of waste.
 Long term exposure to polluted air and water causes chronic health problems, making the issue of industrial pollution
into a severe one.
 It also lowers the air quality in surrounding areas, which causes many respiratory disorders.
6. Leaching of Resources From Our Natural World
 Industries do require a large amount of raw material to make them into finished products.
 This requires the extraction of minerals from beneath the earth.
 The extracted minerals can cause soil pollution when spilled on the earth. Leaks from vessels can cause oil spills that
may prove harmful to marine life.

10. 7. Natural Resource Use
 Raw material is a must for industries, which often requires them even pulling out underground elements. One of the
most common forms of leaching from natural resources is fracking for oil.
 When industries extract minerals, the process causes soil pollution and also causes oil leaks and spills that are harmful
and even deadly to people and animals.
Effects of Industrial Pollution on Our Environment
1. Water Pollution
 The effects of industrial pollution are far-reaching and liable to affect the ecosystem for many years to come. Most
industries require large amounts of water for their work.
 When involved in a series of processes, the water comes into contact with heavy metals, harmful chemicals, radioactive
waste, and even organic sludge.
 These are either dumped into open oceans or rivers.
 As a result, many of our water sources have a high amount of industrial waste in them, which seriously impacts the
health of our ecosystem.
 The same water is then used by farmers for irrigation purposes, which affects the quality of food that is produced.

11. 2. Soil Pollution
 Soil pollution is creating problems in agriculture and destroying local vegetation. It also causes chronic health issues to
the people that come in contact with such soil on a daily basis.
3. Air Pollution
 Air pollution has led to a steep increase in various illnesses, and it continues to affect us on a daily basis.
 With so many small, mid and large scale industries coming up, air pollution has taken a toll on the health of the people
and the environment.
4. Wildlife Extinction
 By and large, the issue of industrial pollution shows us that it causes natural rhythms and patterns to fail, meaning that
the wildlife is getting affected in a severe manner. Habitats are being lost, species are becoming extinct, and it is harder
for the environment to recover from each natural disaster.
 Major industrial accidents like oil spills, fires, the leakage of radioactive materials and damage to property are harder
to clean-up as they have a higher impact in a shorter timeframe.

12. 5. Global Warming
 With the rise in industrial pollution, global warming has been increasing at a steady pace. Smoke and greenhouse gases
are being released by industries into the air, which causes an increase in global warming.
 Melting of glaciers, extinction of polar bears, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes are few of the effects of global warming.
6. Biodiversity Loss
 Industrial pollution continues to cause significant damage to the earth and all of its inhabitants due to chemical wastes,
pesticides, radioactive materials etc.
 It affects wildlife and ecosystems and disrupts natural habitats. Animals are becoming extinct, and habitats are being
destroyed.
 The increasing liquid, solid and hazardous wastes undermine ecosystem health and impact on food, water and health
security.
 Industrial pollution disasters, including oil spills and radioactive leakage, take years to decades to clean up.

13. 7. Atmospheric Deposition
 Cadmium enrichment of soil can also be associated with industrial pollution. Topsoils contaminated by mine spoil
showed a wide range of Cd concentrations.
 Industrial effluents are commonly discharged to surface water drainage systems after clarification in tailing ponds.
 Recent investigations have disclosed very high concentrations of Cd in the overbank and bottom sediments of the
rivers.
Ways to Control or Reduce Industrial Pollution
The issue of industrial pollution is critical to every nation on the planet. With the increase of the harmful effects of
industrial pollution, there are many agencies and individuals who are working to reduce carbon footprints and live and
work in an eco-friendly way.
1. Source Control
 Adopting new technology, efficient training of employees for safe use and development of better technology
for disposal of waste, and being more conscientious about the use of raw materials can help control industrial
pollution at the source.

14. 2. Recycling
 Recycling as much polluted water in the industries as possible by increased recycling efforts to reduce industrial
pollution.
3. Cleaning of Resources
 Organic methods should be adopted to clean the water and soil, such as using microbes that use heavy metals and
waste as feed naturally.
 Cooling rooms or bins need to be developed that allow industries to recycle the water they need instead of pushing it
back into the natural water source it came from.
4. Industry Site Selection
 Consideration of location of the sites and the potential impact on the surrounding environment can help reduce
harmful consequences.
5. Proper Treatment of Industrial Waste
 By developing and implementing adequate treatment facilities for handling industrial waste and proper habits can
reduce pollution.

15. 6. Rebuilding Habitats and Afforestation
 Rebuilding habitats by planting more trees and plants can help give wildlife back their homes, and the trees can
help purify the air with enough oxygen, and act as a buffer against the environment.
7. Stricter Laws and Enforcement
 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) works to correct the damage from industrial pollution.
 There should be more stringent rules to take action against the companies who do not follow proper protocol and
more significant rewards for the companies who operate properly.
 It requires creating policies that prevent misuse of land.
8. Regular Environmental Impact Assessments
 Being a responsible company or industry should require regular environmental impact assessments that are
reported for evaluation.
 If there are harmful impacts discovered during the review, necessary actions to correct the negative consequences
should be developed and enforced.

16. NUCLEAR DISASTER
 is known for its high destructive power as evidenced from nuclear weapons.
 A nuclear and radiation accidents is defined as “an event tat has led to significant consequences to the people,
environment or the facility as per International Atomic Energy Agency.
 E g. Lethal effect to individuals, large radioactivity release into the environment or reactor core melt.
 A nuclear disaster could take several forms.
 One that is most obvious is meltdown at nuclear reactor plant. Where release of massive amount of radioactive
materials and radiation into the environment and would take hundred years to decay to anything near safe level.

17. NUCLEAR DISASTER
 Known for its high destructive power in form of energy and radioactive elements like Uranium, Thorium as evidenced
from nuclear weapons.
 Nuclear energy can be generated by two types of reactions:
(I) NUCLEAR FISSION: It is the nuclear change in which nucleus of certain isotopes with large mass numbers are
split into lighter nuclei on bombardment by neutrons and a large amount of energy is released through a chain
reaction.
92U235 + 0n1 ------------ 36Kr92 + 56Ba141 + 3 0n1 + Energy
Nuclear reactors make use of nuclear chain reaction. In order to control the rate of fission, only 1 neutron released is
allowed to strike for splitting another nucleus. Uranium-235 nuclei are most commonly used in nuclear reactors.
(II) NUCLEAR FUSION: Here two isotopes of a light element are forced together at extremely high temperatures
(1 billion ºC) until they fuse to form a heavier nucleus releasing enormous energy in the process. It is difficult to initiate the
process but it releases more energy than nuclear fission

18. Two hydrogen-2 (Deuterium) atoms may fuse to form the nucleus of Helium at 1 billion ºC and release a huge
amount of energy. Nuclear fusion reaction can also take place between one Hydrogen-2 (Deuterium) and one
Hydrogen-3 (Tritium) nucleus at 100 million ºC forming Helium-4 nucleus, one neutron and a huge amount of
energy.
The nuclear power plants are located at
 Tarapur (Maharashtra),
 Rana Pratap Sagar near Kota (Rajasthan),
 Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (U.P.),
 Kakrapar (Gujarat),
 Kaiga (Karnataka),
 Rawatbhata (Rajasthan) and
 Kudankulum (Tamil Nadu).

19. WORST NUCLEAR DISASTER HAPPENED
1. Chernobyl (April 26, 1986).
 Chernobyl plant was one of the largest and oldest nuclear power plants in the world.
 The explosion and subsequent meltdown that occurred there in April 1986 would claim thousands of lives, cause
countless birth defects and unleash a thyroid cancer epidemic on the region
 The accident started during a safety test on an RBMK-type nuclear reactor, which was commonly used throughout the
Soviet Union.
 The test was a simulation of an electrical power outage to aid the development of a safety procedure for maintaining
reactor cooling water circulation until the back-up electrical generators could provide power.
 This gap was about one minute and had been identified as a potential safety problem that could cause the nuclear
reactor core to overheat.
 Three such tests had been conducted since 1982, but they had failed to provide a solution.
 On this fourth attempt, an unexpected 10-hour delay meant that an unprepared operating shift was on duty.

21.  A large amount of energy was suddenly released, vaporising superheated cooling water and rupturing the reactor core
in a highly destructive steam explosion.
 The graphite (about a quarter of the 1200 tonnes of it was estimated to have been ejected) and fuel became incandescent
and started a number of fires, causing the main release of radioactivity into the environment.
 This was immediately followed by an open-air reactor core fire that released considerable airborne radioactive
contamination for about nine days that precipitated onto parts of the USSR and western Europe, before being finally
contained on 4 May 1986.
 As a result of rising ambient radiation levels off-site, a 10-kilometre (6.2 mi) radius exclusion zone was created 36 hours
after the accident.
 About 49,000 people were evacuated from the area, primarily from Pripyat.
 The exclusion zone was later increased to 30 kilometres (19 mi) radius when a further 68,000 people were evacuated
from the wider area

22. 2. Fukushima Disaster (March 2011):
 Fukushima accident, also called Fukushima nuclear accident or Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident, accident in 2011
at the Fukushima Daiichi (“Number One”) plant in northern Japan, the second worst nuclear accident in the history
of nuclear power generation.
 At the time of the accident, only reactors 1–3 were operational, and reactor 4 served as temporary storage for spent
fuel rods.
 Tokyo Electric and Power Company (TEPCO) officials reported that tsunami waves generated by the main shock of
the Japan earthquake on March 11, 2011, damaged the backup generators at the Fukushima Daiichi plant.
 Although all three of the reactors that were operating were successfully shut down, the loss of power caused cooling
systems to fail in each of them within the first few days of the disaster.
 Rising residual heat within each reactor’s core caused the fuel rods in reactors 1, 2, and 3 to overheat and partially
melt down, leading at times to the release of radiation.
 Melted material fell to the bottom of the containment vessels in reactors 1 and 2 and bored sizable holes in the floor
of each vessel—a fact that emerged in late May. Those holes partially exposed the nuclear material in the cores.

23.  In the days that followed, some 47,000 residents left their homes,
 Many people in areas adjacent to the 20-km evacuation warning zone also prepared to leave, and
 Workers at the plant made several attempts to cool the reactors using truck-mounted water cannons and water
dropped from helicopters.
 Those efforts met with some success, which temporarily slowed the release of radiation; however, they were
suspended several times after rising steam or smoke signaled an increased risk of radiation exposure.

24. 3. Three mile island nuclear disaster:
 Three Mile Island accident, accident in 1979 at the Three Mile Island nuclear power station that was the most serious
in the history of the American nuclear power industry.
 At 4:00 AM on March 28, an automatically operated valve in the Unit 2 reactor mistakenly closed, shutting off
the water supply to the main feedwater system (the system that transfers heat from the water actually circulating in
the reactor core).
 This caused the reactor core to shut down automatically, but a series of equipment and instrument malfunctions,
human errors in operating procedures, and mistaken decisions in the ensuing hours led to a serious loss of water
coolant from the reactor core.
 As a result, the core was partially exposed, and the zirconium cladding of its fuel reacted with the
surrounding superheated steam to form a large accumulation of hydrogen gas, some of which escaped from the core
into the containment vessel of the reactor building.
 Very little of this and other radioactive gases actually escaped into the atmosphere, and they did not constitute a threat
to the health of the surrounding population. In the following days adequate coolant water circulation in the core was
restored.

25.  It resulted in the immediate (though temporary) closing of seven operating reactors like those at Three Mile Island.
 No new reactors were ordered by utility companies in the United States from 1979 through the mid-1980s.
 The accident increased public fears about the safety of nuclear reactors and strengthened public opposition to the
construction of new plants.
 The unharmed Unit 1 reactor at Three Mile Island did not resume operation until 1985.
 The cleanup of Unit 2 continued until 1990;
damage to the unit was so severe, however
(52 percent of the core melted down), that it remained unusable.

26. NUCLEAR DISASTER IN INDIA:
1987 Kalpakkam accident
 Kalpakkam atomic power station is located in Tamil Nadu.
 It is nuclear power generating station with capacity of 440MW and is run by Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited
 The accident occurred on 4th May, 1987.
 The accident occurred while refuelling process was going on for fast breeder test reactor which greatly damaged the react
This led to the shutting down of the nuclear reactor for two years. As per 2006 monetary value, the loss incurred was 300 mil
1989 Tarapur accident
 Tarapur power plant is the highest nuclear energy producer with total capacity of 1400MW in India.
 It is located in Maharashtra.
 The accident occurred on 10th September, 1989.
 The leakage of radioactive iodine was the reason of this accident.
 It took one year for repairing which had cost around 78 million dollar according to 2006 value.

27. 1992 Tarapur accident
 Tarapur nuclear reactor tube released radioactivity due to its malfunctioning on 13th May, 1992.
There is no untoward incident reported.
1993 Narora fire accident
 Narora atomic power station is situated in Uttar Pradesh.
 Fire at turbine blades was the reason for accident.
 All important cables were burnt by this incident incurring 220 million dollar loss.
Even though there is fire accident, there is no damage to reactor.
1995 RAPS leakage incident
 Rajasthan atomic power station at Kota leaked helium.
 The heavy water was mixed with water of Rana Pratap Sagar river.
 The power station was closed for two years for repairs.
 The loss was estimated at 280 million dollars as per 2006 monetary value.

28. 2002 Kalpakkam accident
 Kalpakkam fast breeder reactor leaked the radioactive sodium which damaged the valves and systems led to the
accident.
 This caused 30 million dollar loss.
2010 Mayapuri incident
 Mayapuri is a place in Delhi.
 Negligence is the prime reason for this accident.
 Delhi University used an irradiator.
 But, it decided to sell it to scrap dealer as it was not in use for a longer time without observing the things in it.
 The workers of scrap shop went on cutting it unknowingly.
 They came into contact with radioactive cobalt substance which led to severe health problems and death of a person.

29. FACTS ABOUT NUCLEAR DISASTER:
 Nuclear explosion can release high level of radiations, an energy that remove electrons.
 Nuclear radiations can damage DNA.
 While areas around a nuclear explosion are immediately exposed, radiation can also remain in the atmosphere for
decade, traveling great distances before it settles to the ground-level air or Earth's surface
 Disposing of one’s outer clothing can remove up to 90% of radioactive material after a nuclear disaster.

30. BIOLOGICAL DISASTER:
Biological disasters are causative of process or phenomenon of organic origin or conveyed by biological vectors, including
exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms,
 toxins and bioactive substances that may cause loss of life,
 injury,
 illness or other health impacts,
 property damage,
 loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic
disruption,
 or environmental damage.
Examples of biological disasters include outbreaks of
epidemic diseases, plant or animal contagion, insect or
other animal plagues and infestation.

31. Biological disasters may be in the form of:-
1. Epidemic
Epidemic affecting a disproportionately large number of individuals within a population, community, or region at the
same time, examples being Cholera, Plague, Japanese Encephalitis (JE)/Acute Encephalitis Syndrome (AES);
2. Pandemic
Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that is, a continent, or even worldwide of existing, emerging
or reemerging diseases and pestilences, example being Influenza H1N1 (Swine Flu).
The United States Center for Disease Control (CDC) categories biological hazards that could potentially cause a
biological disaster, into four bio-safety levels or BSL 1-4.
1. BSL-1: Bacteria and Viruses including Bacillus subtilis, canine hepatitis, some cell cultures and non-infections
bacteria. Protection is minimal at this level involving gloves and facial protection.
2. BSL-2: Bacteria and viruses that cause only mild disease to humans, or are difficult to contract via aerosol in lab
setting such as hepatitis A, B, C, mumps, measles, HIV etc. Precaution is little extreme with use of autoclaves for
sterilizing and biological safety cabinets.

32. 3. BSL-3: Bacteria and viruses that can cause severe to fatal disease in humans such as anthrax, west Nile Virus, MERS
coronavirus. Precaution is much more stringent safety protocols including the use of respirators to prevent airborne
infection.
4. BSL-4: Viruses that are potentially fatal to humans for which there is no known treatment or vaccine such as Marburg
virus, Ebola virus, Lassa fever virus etc. Protective measures include the use of a positive pressure personnel suit, with a
segregated air supply.
BIOLOGICAL DISASTER – LEGISLATIONS:
The following legislations have been enacted in India for the prevention of biohazards and implementation of protective,
eradicative and containing measures when there is an outbreak:
 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
 The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
 The Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986 and the Rules (1986)
 Disaster Management Act 2005, This provides for the institutional and operational framework for disaster prevention,
mitigation, response, preparedness and recovery at all levels.

33. Detection and Containment of Outbreaks:
This consists of four steps as given under:
1. Recognizing and diagnosing by primary healthcare practitioners.
2. Communicating surveillance information to public health authorities.
3. Epidemiological analysis of surveillance data
4. Public health measures and delivering proper medical treatment.
5. Biosafety and Biosecurity - There must be a system for inventory control in the laboratories dealing with bacteria,
viruses or toxins which can be a source of potential causative agents for biological disasters.
6. Buildings and Offices Protection of important buildings against biological agents wherever deemed necessary, can be
done by preventing and restricting entry to authorised personnel only by proper screening. Installing HEPA filters in
the ventilation systems of the air conditioning facilities will prevent infectious microbes from entering the air
circulating inside critical buildings. The post-exposure approach will include effective decontamination and safety
procedures.

34. MAN MADE ACCIDENTS:
1. ROAD ACCIDENTS:
 Road accidents are common in India due to reckless driving, untrained drivers and poor maintenance of roads and
vehicles.
 According to Lifeline Foundation, the Ahmedabad based organization working for road safety, India accounts for 13
per cent of road accident fatalities worldwide.
 With 130,000 deaths in 2007, India tops in the number of people killed in road accidents, surpassing China’s 90,000.
Most of these deaths occurred due to bad road designs and lack of proper traffic management systems to separate
different streams of traffic.

35.  In June 2009, the World Health Organisation launched the global status report on road safety which reaffirmed that
injuries due to road traffic crashes are a significant and major global health and development problem.
 Globally road crashes kill over 1.2 million people, and 30-50 million others are seriously injured or become disabled as
a result of crashes.
 Road traffic injuries are the eighth leading cause of death globally and the leading cause of deaths to young people
between the ages of 15 and 29.
 The current trends indicated that by 2030, road traffic deaths will be the fifth leading cause of deaths worldwide.
Causes of Road Accidents
1. Over Speeding –
 Increase in speed multiplies the risk of accident and severity of injury during accident.
 Faster vehicles are more prone to accident than the slower one and the severity of accident will also be more in case of
faster the severity of accident will also be more in case of faster vehicles.
 Higher the speed, greater the risk. At high speed the vehicle needs greater distance to stop i.e. braking distance.

36. 2. Drunk Driving –
 When you drink, you lose the ability to focus and function properly and its very dangerous when operating a vehicle.
 Driving under the influence of alcohol causes car accidents every day, even when they are one the top causes that can
be avoided.
3. Distraction to Driver –
 Distractions could be outside or inside the vehicle.
 The major distraction now days are talking on mobile phone while driving.
• Act of talking on phone occupies major portion of brain and the smaller part handles the driving skills.
• This division of brain hampers reaction time and ability of judgment.
• This becomes one of the reasons of crashes.
 Some of the distractions on road are Adjusting mirrors while driving, Stereo/Radio in vehicle, Animals on the road,
Banners and billboards.

37. 4. Running Red Lights –
 When you’re driving your car, red light means stop and not doing so usually leads to car accidents.
 Drivers that run red lights, run the risk of causing wrongful death because they often cause side-impact collisions at
high speeds.
5. Teenage Drivers –
 Youth is wasted on the young, but careful driving is never wasted on young drivers.
 Unfortunately, teenagers aren’t often known for their carefulness.
 When teen drivers hit the roads they don’t always know what to do and that lack of experience ends up causing car
accidents.
6. Over loading- many people are doing over loading and doing many accidents.

38. Effects of Road Accidents
• Poor road condition amount for high percentage of road traffic, accidents each year including death.
• Innocent people are dead in road accident.
• Many people are handicap in road accident.
• Thousands people losing their and families losing their love ones.
• This not leaves impact on humans but also affects the country’s gross domestic product.
• Some people cannot continue get back to their daily lives.
Safety tips from Road Accidents
• On the bike always wear a helmet.
• Keep your eyes on road when you are driving.
• Never used cell phones while you are driving.
• Never, ever drink and drive.
• Follow speed limits on road.
• Follow the rules of the road.
• Always put the seat belt in the car.

39. AIR/ AVIATION ACCIDENT
An aviation accident is defined by the Convention on International Civil Aviation Annex 13 as an occurrence associated
with the operation of an aircraft, which takes place from the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of
flight until all such persons have disembarked, and in which
a) a person is fatally or seriously injured,
b) the aircraft sustains significant damage or structural failure, or
c) the aircraft goes missing or becomes completely inaccessible

40. Causes of air accidents:
1. Pilot error
 The most common cause of aviation accidents is pilot error, which accounts for approximately half of all plane crashes.
Flying a plane is among the most complex and difficult jobs available, despite modern innovations that automate many
features of air travel.
 A pilot must monitor dozens of readouts and gauges throughout the flight, many of which seem downright mystic to
non-pilots.
 Any miscalculation or misreading can result in a deadly crash. However, pilots should not be blamed for every
accident.
2. Mechanical defects
 Planes are massive feats of engineering, and are made up of hundreds of separate systems.
 A defect or failure in any one of these systems can lead to a dangerous situation.
 These can include manufacturing defects, inadequate repairs or equipment replacements and old or worn out parts.

41. 3. Weather problems
 Just as driving becomes more dangerous in bad weather, so does flying.
 Heavy rainstorms, fog and snow can make it more difficult for airplanes to maneuver and can lead to deadly accidents.
Visibility issues, high winds and skidding during takeoff and landing are the most dangerous weather-related threats
to aircraft.
4. Air traffic controller error
 Pilots rely on information and support from air traffic controllers while they are in the air.
 Air traffic controllers must coordinate with many different planes at once, and often must take factors such as weather
and fuel into consideration when scheduling takeoffs and landings.
 Any error made by an air traffic controller has the potential to result in an aviation accident, possibly involving more
than one aircraft.
Other causes.
 There are many other factors that can contribute to a plane crash, including sabotage and poor runway maintenance.
One of the most surprisingly common factors in aviation accidents is birds.
 If a large bird collides with a windscreen or an engine, it can cause damage that may contribute to a plane crash

42. Major Air accident:
1. September 11 terrorist attacks
 The deadliest aviation-related disaster of any kind, considering fatalities on both the aircraft and the ground.
 The destruction of the World Trade Center in New York City on September 11, 2001.
 On that morning, four commercial aircraft traveling on transcontinental flights from East Coast airports to California
were hijacked after takeoff.
 The four hijacked aircraft were subsequently crashed in four separate suicide attacks against major American
landmarks, by 19 Islamic terrorists affiliated with Al Qaeda.
 American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175 were intentionally crashed into the North and South Towers
respectively of the World Trade Center, destroying both buildings in less than two hours.
 The World Trade Center crashes killed 2,753, the vast majority of fatalities being occupants of the World Trade Center
towers or emergency personnel responding to the disaster.
 In addition, 184 were killed by American Airlines Flight 77, which crashed into The Pentagon (causing severe damage
and partial destruction to the building's west side).

43. 2. Tenerife disaster
 The Tenerife airport disaster occurred on March 27, 1977,
 583 people died when a KLM Boeing 747 attempted to take off without flight clearance, and collided with a
taxiing Pan Am 747 at Los Rodeos Airport on the Canary Island of Tenerife, Spain.
 There were no survivors from the KLM aircraft and only 61 of the 396 passengers and crew on the Pan Am aircraft
survived.
 Pilot error was the primary cause, as the KLM captain began his takeoff run without obtaining air traffic control
clearance.
 Other contributing factors were a terrorist incident at Gran Canaria Airport that had caused many flights to be
diverted to Los Rodeos, a small airport not well equipped to handle aircraft of such size, and dense fog.
 The KLM flight crew could not see the Pan Am aircraft on the runway until immediately before the collision.
 The accident had a lasting influence on the industry, particularly in the area of communication.

44. SEA DISASTER/ ACCIDENTS
 The ocean is an unconquerable domain.
 Even as man has made it possible to traverse through its boundaries, the ocean has not come under the submission of
mankind.
 Throughout centuries, there have occurred several maritime accidents which make one realise the strength and the
might of the ocean along with our vulnerability at its height.

45. 1. MV Dona Paz
 The disaster of Dona Paz is supposed to be known as the deadliest one in maritime history.
 The Dona Paz tragedy occurred in the Filipino waters in the year 1987.
 The tragedy was a result of a colliding accident between the Dona Paz and an oil tanker MT Vector.
 Since the latter was carrying gasoline, the impact of the collision caused both the ships to explode with the gasoline
acting as an additional catalyst.
 The tragedy caused deaths of over 4,300 people.
 Only twenty six survived the deadly accident.

46. 2. MS Le Joola
 The capsizing of MS Le Joola is considered second deadliest maritime accident of the maritime world. A total of 1,863
people lost their lives.
 Most of the ships that have met with accidents encountered harsh weather conditions.
 In the year 2002, the MS Joola turned turtle near the coastal waters of the African nation Senegal.
 Apart from the weather, another cause for the huge loss of life is said to be because of the vessel’s over-packed
capacitance.
 The vessel which was build to accommodate 500 voyagers carried four times that number at the time of its capsizing.

47. 3. Titanic
Titanic is the most well-known maritime accident recorded in history books.
Titanic sank during her first voyage in the Atlantic Ocean on the 14th April 1912 after crashing against an ice berg. The
sinking resulted in the death of 1,517 people.
The incident shook the maritime world to the core, and is still remembered for its high loss of lives and changes it brought
to the maritime world.

48. RAILACCIDENTS/ TRIAN CRASH:
 A train wreck or train crash is a type of disaster involving one or more trains.
 Train wrecks often occur as a result of miscommunication, as when a moving train meets another train on the same
track; or an accident, such as when a train wheel jumps off a track in a derailment; or when a boiler
explosion occurs.
1. Queen of The Sea, Sri Lanka
 The Queen of The Sea train crash in Sri Lanka, caused by the Indian Ocean Tsunami which struck in December
2004,
 Worst train disaster in railroad history after it caused the death of over 1,700 people.
 The overloaded passenger train, Queen of the Sea Line, was flooded on the south-western coastal railway line of Sri
Lanka, at Peraliya near Telwatta.
 The train was drowned and destroyed by two waves causing death of passengers who were packed in eight carriages.
 The train was approaching its destination on the way from Colombo to the southern city of Galle at the time of the
tragedy.

49. 2. Bihar derailment, India
 A train accident in the state of Bihar, India, which resulted in the death of approximately 800 people, occurred in June
1981 when a passenger train crossing a bridge over the Bagmati river near the city of Mansi was hit by a cyclone.
The train was derailed from the track and then plunged into the river causing the deaths of hundreds of people.
 The train was carrying approximately 1,000 passengers in nine cars between Mansi and Saharsa at the time of the
accident.
 The train also believed to have suffered brake failure during the disaster.

50. 3. Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne, France
 The Saint-Michel-de-Maurienne derailment in France caused death of more than 700 people and remains the greatest
rail disaster in French history.
 The accident occurred in December 1917 when a heavily loaded 350m long train derailed after suffering brake failure
 The train caught fire while descending into a valley after departing from Modane station.
 Approximately 1,000 French troops from the Italian front were returning home in two trains, coupled to form a single
train powered by one engine due to shortage of locomotives, to the Chambéry station on the Culoz-Modane railway
line.

51. STRUCTURAL FAILURES (BUILDING AND BRIDGE):
 The design of structures should satisfy three fundamental requirements:
• Stability: The structure should be stable under the action of loads.
• Strength: The structure should resist safely stresses induced by the loads.
• Serviceability: The structure should perform satisfactorily under service loads.
 Structural Integrity (Fatigue) and Structural Failure are the two key points of construction workers use when
creating structures such as house or bridges.
 Structural integrity is the ability of an item—either a structural component or a structure consisting of many
components—to hold together under a load, including its own weight, without breaking or deforming excessively.
 Structural failure refers to the loss of structural integrity, or the loss of load-carrying capacity in either a structural
component or the structure itself. Structural failure is initiated when a material is stressed beyond its strength limit,
causing fracture or excessive deformations; one limit state that must be accounted for in structural design is ultimate
failure strength.

52. Types of Structural failure:
1. The first is that the structure is not strong and tough enough to support the load, due to either its size, shape, or choice
of material.
 If the structure or component is not strong enough, catastrophic failure can occur when the structure is stressed
beyond its critical stress level.
2. The second type of failure is from fatigue or corrosion, caused by instability in the structure’s geometry, design or
material properties.
 These failures usually begin when cracks form at stress points, such as squared corners or bolt holes too close to the
material's edge.
 These cracks grow as the material is repeatedly stressed and unloaded (cyclic loading), eventually reaching a critical
length and causing the structure to suddenly fail under normal loading conditions.

53. 3. The third type of failure is caused by manufacturing errors, including improper selection of materials, incorrect
sizing, improper heat treating, failing to adhere to the design, or shoddy workmanship. This type of failure can occur at
any time and is usually unpredictable.
4. The fourth type of failure is from the use of defective materials. This type of failure is also unpredictable, since the
material may have been improperly manufactured or damaged from prior use.
5. The fifth cause of failure is from lack of consideration of unexpected problems. This type of failure can be caused by
events such as vandalism, sabotage, or natural disasters. It can also occur if those who use and maintain the construction
are not properly trained and overstress the structure

54. THE ST. FRANCIS DAM FAILURE, 1928: Los Angeles, California
 In the 1920s, the St. Francis Dam served as a water reservoir for the city of Los Angeles, California.
 The dam was gigantic; it stood at 205 feet tall and held 12.5 billion gallons of water - enough water to serve the entire
city for a year!
 Around midnight on March 12, 1928, dozens of nearby dam workers awoke to a loud cracking noise echoing through
the canyon.
 The dam had burst. A massive 120-foot wave of floodwater swept down and took the lives of 431 people nearby.
 In 70 minutes, the multi-billion-gallon reservoir had virtually emptied.
 To help local residents heal after the shocking disaster, the dam was dynamited. Experts say the dam’s failure was due
to poor engineering and geological misreading.

55. THE COLLAPSE OF “GALLOPING GERTIE”, 1940: Pierce County, Washington
 The Tacoma Narrows Bridge, also known as “Galloping Gertie,” was a 2,800 foot long bridge that opened in 1940.
 The bridge was famous for the way it swayed, twisted and dipped during heavy winds.
 On November 7, 1940, the wind blew at 42 miles per hour.
 The bridge, which had begun to twist violently, was deemed unsafe by the bridge’s toll keeper.
 The last motorist to cross the bridge reportedly lost control of his car when he was nearly halfway across the tipping
bridge.
 Afraid his vehicle might plummet off the bridge, the man exited his car and ran to safety.
 Shortly thereafter, the bridge broke and plunged 190 feet down to the water below.
 Today, experts still disagree on the exact cause of the bridge’s destruction.

56. THE HYATT REGENCY WALKWAY COLLAPSE, 1981: Kansas City, Missouri
 On July 17, 1981, around 1,600 people gathered at the Hyatt Regency Hotel for a Friday night tea dance.
 Party-goes gathered on the hotel’s suspended walkways, watching the party from overhead.
 Due to defective steel support rods, the bridges could barely support their own dead loads of 64,000
pounds each.
 With the added weight of so many people, the bridges could no longer hold. All of a sudden, the fourth-
floor bridge collapsed down onto the second-floor bridge, causing both structures to plunge to the
atrium’s floor.
 The devastating incident killed 114 people and injured 216.
 After the disaster, the lobby was reconstructed with only one walkway crossing the second floor.

57. Preventive measures:
1. Review documentation:
 This includes design and shop drawings, electrical and mechanical plans, calculations, any reports, etc.
 The structural engineer should identify any questionable design aspect, including whether any updates were made that
might affect the weight of the structure.
2. Verification of as-built construction:
 Often design modifications or deviations are made during construction.
 Engineers should conduct site assessments to verify as-built conditions.
 This might include removing finishes, nondestructive tests to detect conditions inside structural elements or invasive
excavations.

58. 3. Materials studies:
 The in-place properties of construction materials may vary from those specified in the design, creating the potential
for enhanced or diminished performance.
 It’s routine for the average strength of construction materials to exceed the minimum specified strength, and some
material properties can increase significantly over time or there can be deterioration due to environmental exposure.
The methods of evaluation can range from mildly destructive measures to less intrusive, but somewhat sophisticated,
nondestructive techniques for reinforced concrete members.
4. Evaluation of detailing:
 Detailing plays a fundamental role in the ductility and ultimate strength of structural members and connections.
Resistance to progressive collapse usually involves activation of the ultimate strength of structural components in
failure modes that aren’t associated with normal use.
 The engineer will need to evaluate the rotational and tensile capacity of connections that aren’t designed with this
behavior in mind.
 For existing buildings, engineers are constrained to addressing existing conditions.

59. 5. Assessment of existing capacity of structural systems:
 This entails determining the strength and ductility of the entire system.
 For this purpose, structural analyses of the estimated material properties, geometry and connection detailing are
carried out.
 These analyses can vary from approximate methods such as limit-state analysis (i.e. strength based) to more
sophisticated numerical modeling such as non-linear finite element analysis (i.e. strength and ductility evaluation).

60. WAR:
 A conflict between to large groups of population, which involves physical force, violence and the use of weapons.
 Sometimes war is identified by such terms as “armed conflict”, not only for populist reasons, but to avoid national and
international law concerning warfare.
 According to the Oxford English Dictionary, "war" is defined as
 A state of armed conflict between different countries or different groups within a country.
 A state of competition or hostility between different people or groups.
 A sustained campaign against an undesirable situation or activity.
 Wars have been a part of human history for thousands of years, and have become increasingly destructive as
industrialization and technology have advanced.

61. What Is the Cause of Conflict?
There is rarely one single, clear cause of conflict and, ultimately, war.
The causes of a war are usually numerous, and several reasons for a conflict can be intertwined in a complicated way.
Eight Main Causes of War
1.Economic Gain:
 Often wars are caused by one country's wish to take control of another country's wealth.
 In pre-industrial times, the gains desired by a warring country might be precious materials such as gold and silver,
or livestock such as cattle and horses.
 In modern times, the resources that are hoped to be gained from war take the form of things like oil, minerals, or
materials used in manufacturing.
 Some scientists believe that as the world’s population increases and basic resources become scarce, wars will be
fought more often over fundamental essentials, such as water and food.

62. Historical Examples of Wars Fought for Economic Gain
• Anglo-Indian Wars (1766-1849) – The Anglo-Indian wars were a series of wars fought between the British East
India Company and different Indian states. These wars led to the establishment of British colonial rule in India,
which gave Britain unrestricted access to exotic and valuable resources native to the Indian continent.
• Finnish-Soviet War or "The Winter War" (1939-1940) – Stalin and his Soviet Army wanted to mine Nickel and
Finland, but when the Finnish refused, the Soviet Union waged war on the country.
2. Territorial Gain
 A country might decide that it needs more land, either for living space, agricultural use, or other purposes.
 Territory can also be used as “buffer zones” between two hostile enemies.
 These are conflicts that are fought indirectly between opposing powers in a third country.
 Each power supports the side which best suits their logistical, military, and economic interests.
 Proxy wars were particularly common during the Cold War.

63. Historical Examples of Wars Fought for Territorial Gain
• Serbo-Bulgarian War (1885-1886) – Bulgaria and Serbia fought over a small border town after the river creating the
border between the countries moved.
• Arab-Israeli War or "Six Day War" (1967-1988) – Israeli forces took the territories of the West Bank, including East
Jerusalem, from Jordan.
3. Religion
 Religious conflicts often have very deep roots. They can lie dormant for decades, only to re-emerge in a flash at a later
date.
 Religious wars can often be tied to other reasons for conflict, such as nationalism or revenge for a perceived historical
slight in the past.
 While different religions fighting against each other can be a cause of war, different sects within a religion

64. Historical Examples of Wars Fought for Religion
• Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990) – The Lebanese Civil War was primarily sparked from conflicts between the Sunni
Muslim, Shiite Muslim and Christian Lebanese populations.
• Yugoslav Wars (1991-1995) – The Yugoslav wars consisted of the Croatian War and the Bosnian War. The wars
were fought between the orthodox Catholic and Muslim populations of former Yugoslavia.
• Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005) – This ethnoreligious war was caused by the Muslim central government's
choice to impose sharia law on non-muslim southerners.
4. Nationalism
Nationalism in this context essentially means attempting to prove that your country is superior to another by violent
subjugation. This often takes the form of an invasion.

65.  Racism can also be linked to nationalism, as can be seen in Hitler’s Germany.
 Adolf Hitler went to war with Russia partly because the Russians (and eastern Europeans in general) were seen as
Slavs, or a group of people who the Nazis believed to be an inferior race.
World War I (1914-1918) – Extreme loyalty and patriotism caused many countries to become involved in the first world
war.
• Many pre-war Europeans believed in the cultural, economic and military supremacy of their nation.
5. Revenge
Seeking to punish, redress a grievance, or simply strike back for a perceived slight can often be a factor in the waging of
war.
Revenge also relates to nationalism, as the people of a country which has been wronged are motivated to fight back by
pride and spirit.

66. Historical Examples of Wars Fought for Revenge
 World War II (1939-1945) – The rise of the Nazi Socialist Party and Germany's eventual domination of the European
continent were direct results of the Treaty of Versailles, which imposed strict punishments on Germany.
 War on Terror – The September 11th attacks on the World Trade Center in 2001 prompted President George W.
Bush to initiate a war on terror. This global war began with an invasion of Iraq and is ongoing.
6. Civil War
 These generally take place when there is sharp internal disagreement within a country.
 The disagreement can be about who rules, how the country should be run or the people's rights.
 These internal rifts often turn into chasms that result in violent conflict between two or more opposing groups.
 Civil wars can also be sparked by separatist groups who want to form their own, independent country, or, as in the
case of the American Civil War, states wanting to secede from a larger union.

67. Historical Examples of Civil Wars
• Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) – The Spanish Civil War was fought between the Republicans, who were loyal to the
left-leaning Second Spanish Republic, and the Nationalists, a largely aristocratic conservative group led by General
Francisco Franco.
• Korean War (1950-1953) – The Korean War was a war fought between North Korea, which was supported by China,
and South Korea, which was supported primarily by the United States.
7. Revolutionary War
 These occur when a large section of the population of a country revolts against the individual or group that rules the
country because they are dissatisfied with their leadership.
 Revolutions can begin for a variety of reasons, including economic hardship amongst certain sections of the
population or perceived injustices committed by the ruling group.

68. Historical Examples of Revolutionary Wars
• French Revolution (1789-1799) – The French Revolution was a battle that represented the rise of the bourgeoisie
and the downfall of the aristocracy in France.
• Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) – The Haitian Revolution was a successful slave rebellion that established Haiti as
the first free black republic.
8. Defensive War
 In the modern world, where military aggression is more widely questioned, countries will often argue that they are
fighting in a purely defensive capacity against an aggressor, or potential aggressor, and that their war is therefore a
“just” war.
 These defensive wars can be especially controversial when they are launched preemptively, the argument essentially
being that: “We are attacking them before they inevitably attack us.”

69. Historical Examples of Defensive Wars
• Iraqi Conflict (2003-Present) – An international coalition, led by the US, invaded Iraq on the grounds that the
country's leader, Saddam Hussein, was developing weapons of mass destruction, and therefore presented a threat to
surrounding countries and rest of the world.
• The war was controversial as the allegations made about the weapons of mass destruction made by the US and UK
were shown to lack substance.

70. TERRORISM:
 The calculated use of violence to create a general climate of fear in a population and thereby to bring about a
particular political objective.
 Terrorism has been practiced by political organizations with both rightist and leftist objectives, by nationalistic and
religious groups, by revolutionaries, and even by state institutions such as armies, intelligence services, and police.
 Terrorist acts are organized so as to attract large attention.
 Terrorists use acts of violence for frightening the group of peoples or pressuring the Government to do or not do
something.
 Many Countries give aid and dangerous weapons to the terrorist groups in order to weaken the other country.

71. Causes of terrorism:
1. Ethno-nationalism:
 The desire of group of persons in the society to separate from the existing government and to formation of their new
nation can cause the creation of terrorist organizations.
 It be controlled with peacefully and politically by listening and solving the grievances of terrorist groups
2. Terrorism due to Alienation or Discrimination:
 Many groups of peoples came from their home land to other countries for employment or education and ultimately
settled there.
 Many times, they face discrimination from the original citizens of the countries where they shifted.
 These groups may become jaded towards the society and feel excluded. Due to sentiments of discrimination and
isolation, these groups become more conservative and start terrorist acts against the original citizens and government.

72. 3. Religion:
 Religion is treated to be a significant cause of terrorism.
 Although, religion is not the major cause for terrorism but it plays an important role in terrorism, in entire world.
 The religious head entices the young people by saying that they would be reward, after death by God and make them
ready for suicide bombing which are harder to defend.
 In India also, religion is main reason of terrorism.
 The maximum number of terrorist incidents and deaths of innocent civilians have occurred due to religious terrorism.
 In Punjab, some Sikh groups chose terrorism to create an independent state called Khalistan based on Sikh religion.
 In J&K, Muslims belonging to different organisations chose to terrorism for creation of independent Muslim nation
and for this purpose, they attack on innocent public.

73. 4. Socio-Economic Status:
 Terrorism may also be caused due to difference of economic standards of different countries.
 Due to economic differences between the rich countries and poor countries lead to humiliations frustrations and
victimizations in groups of persons belonging to poor countries and they make comparison about their economic
conditions with the citizens of rich countries.
 The modern media and internet also play a vital role to create awareness about the opportunities and resources
available in other countries.
 For example, by comparing the economic differences between themselves and the Western countries, enraged the
Muslims youths of underdeveloped countries which increased tension and frustration.
 This permitted the terrorist organizations to get attention and entry to their countries and associate with them for the
purpose of terrorist activities.

74. 5. Political Grievances:
The grievances against a certain political policy or lack of political participation in states may be of reason to join or
form terrorist groups.
The Left and right wing terrorists are the example of this type of terrorism.