1. Minggu 10
1. Mengaplikasikan Analisis cara
taksiran formatif mengajar 4
untuk
mengenalpasti Penilaian
pencapaian hasil •Pemulihan/
pembelajaran pembetulan dan
2. Mengenalpasti pengukuhan/
teknik pengayaan
pengajaran dan
pembelajaran
yang sesuai

2. Monitoring Student Learning in the
Classroom
• Redirection and probing (often researched together) are
positively related to achievement when they are explicitly
focused, e.g., on the clarity, accuracy, plausibility, etc. of
student responses.
• Redirection and probing are unrelated to achievement when
they are vague or critical, e.g., “That’s not right; try again”;
“Where did you get an idea like that? I’m sure Suzanne has
through more carefully and can help us.”
• Acknowledging correct responses as such is positively related
to achievement.
• Praise is positively related to achievement when it is used
sparingly, is directly related to the student’s response, and is
sincere and credible.

3. Student Attitudes
• The cognitive level of questions posed is
unrelated to students’ attitudes toward the
subject matter.
• *Those students who prefer lower cognitive
questions perform better in recitations and on
tests where lower cognitive questions are posed.
• *Those students who prefer higher cognitive
questions perform equally well with higher or
lower cognitive questions in recitations and on
tests.

4. • What happens when teachers participate
• In training designed to help them improve their
questioning skills? Research indicates that :
• * Training teachers in asking higher cognitive
questions is positively related to the achievement of
students above the primary grades.
• * Training teachers in increased wait-time is
positively related to student achievement.
• * Training teacher to vary their questioning
behaviors and to use approaches other than
questioning during classroom discussions
(e.g.,silence, making statements) are positively
related to student achievement.

5. Guidelines for Classroom Questioning
• Incorporate questioning into classroom teaching/learning
practices.
• Ask questions which focus on the salient elements in the
lesson; avoid questioning students about extraneous matters.
• When teaching students factual material, keep up a brisk
instructional pace, frequently posing lower cognitive
questions.
• With older ang higher ability students, ask questions before
(as well as after) material is read and studied.
• Question younger and lower ability students only after
material has been read and studied.
• Ask a majority of lower cognitive questions when instructing
younger ang lower ability students. Structure these questions
so that most of them will elicit corret responses.

6. Guidelines for Classroom Questioning
• Ask a majority of higher cognitive questions when instructing older and
higher ability students.
• In settings where higher cognitive questions are appropriate, teach
students strategies for drawing inferences.
• Keep wait-time to about three seconds when conducting recitations
involving a majority of lower cognitive questions.
• Increase wait-time beyond three seconds when asking higher cognitive
questions.
• Be particularly careful to allow generous amounts of wait-time to students
perceived as lower ability.
• Use redirections and probing as part of classroom questioning and keep
these focused on salient elements of students’ responses.
• Avoid vague or critical responses to student answers during recitations.
• During recitations, use praise sparingly and make certain it is sincere,
credible, and directly connected to students’ responses.

7. • Detailed instructions for teaching students to draw inferences
is outside the scope of this paper.
• However, the model offered by Pearson (1985) does provide
some basic steps which can help students make connections
between what they know and what they are seeking to learn.
Pearson suggests that teachers complete all the steps in this
process by way of demonstration, then gradually shift
responsibility for all but the first step to the students.
3. Ask the inference question.
4. Answer it.
5. Find clues in the text to support the inference.
6. Tell how to get from the clues to the answer (i.e., give a line
of reasoning).

8. Generating Good Discussions

9. • Is discussion the right pedagogy?
• What makes discussions effective?
• Setting rules of engagement
• How to grade discussions
• Designing a discussion

10. Summary : is it the right pedagogy?
• Fits your learning outcomes
• Goals of the pedagogy fit
• Instructor owns a board range of skills
(“ people management” )
• Instructor comfort with unpredictability
• Physical space/online skills

11. Learning outcomes
• Cognitive goals :
- Exploring and brainstorming
- Defending a position
- Considering multiple perspective
- Evaluating evidence
- Problem-solving
• Social/ emotional goals :
- Democratic and collaboration skills
- Crossing cultural boundaries

12. Discussion Goals
• Reaches all three levels of interaction- student-
content, student-instructor, student-student
• Higher level of reflective thinking and creative
problem solving
• Higher retention
• Students often prefer active engagement with
content

13. Skills instructor may need
• Addressing views diverdent from your own
• Challenging factual errors
• Drawing in students
• Managing emotions
• Dealing with disruptive, belliegerent, or domineering
students

14. Discussion may not be best when :
• Question has only one correct answer and one right
way to get there
• Convey or clarify information
• Insufficient time, space, technological skills
• Path exists that you don’t want to take
• Disruptive students are problem
• No time to design

15. • WHAT MAKES DISCUSSIONS
EFFECTIVE?

16. Obstacles to Effective Discussion
• Students do not know enough about the subject
• Students do not know the purpose of the discussion (e.g.,
learn from one another vs. demonstrate their knowledge)
• Students do not know how they are expected to interact
(e.g.,answer a question, ask questions, build on others’
comments, challenge other, etc)
• Inequitable participation (student who talks too much, or not
at all; only 4 out of 50 students talk)
• Students are inhibited; e.g. fear of being evaluated, fear of
looking foolish, not able to keep up with the discussion, fear
of conflict, uneasy talking about topic with strangers, etc.

17. Effective design
• Set ground rules to govern interactions
• Clarify your expectations
• Establish the purpose
• Prepare the groundwork
• Group students to fit goals
• Ask discussable questions
• Give student time to think
• Involve students equitably

18. Develop student skills
• Part of the grondwork
• Identify the necessary skills
- Reading in a discipline
- Evaluation
- Collaboration
• Consider using a student self-evaluation (see
handout)

19. SETTING DISCUSSION GROUND
RULES

20. Why set ground rules?
• Your actions seem less arbitrary
• Can deal with disruptive students
• Helps class stay on task
• Teach students democratic and collaboration skills
(self-policing, consensus-building, civility)
• Safety (not the same as comfort)

21. • GRADING DISCUSSIONS

22. Set clear expectations
• Not an attendance grade
• Do you need to grade everything?
• Be clear about what you are grading
- What constitutes “class participation”?
- Why are you grading on “class participation”?
• Individual or whole-group, or both?
- Tie this decision to your goals
- Include a divorce clause for long-term groups
• Consider grading product, not discussion

23. DESINGING A DISCUSSION

24. Planning a discussion
• Identify the learning outcomes
• Identify your pedagogical goals
• What set students up to discuss?
-Out of class
-In class
• Draft your questions :

25. Purposeful Discussion Activity Ideas
• Analyze a specific problem
• Start with controversy
• Show video clip, slide, current event, etc.for focus
• Assign sides/role-play
• Collectively create a chart or resource
• Compare and contrast
• Give new ideas and examples
• Explain opinions backed by research
• Share research findings and reactions
• Give questions ahead of time
• Break a large issue into smaller parts

26. Types of question that don’t work
• “Guess what I’m thinking” (you have a spesific
answer in mind; results in guessing)
• Yes/No and Leading questions (one response, at
best)
• Info retrieval (look up the answer; one response at
best)
• Rhetorical (own your beliefs; if you believe based on
evidence, back your argument)

27. Asking good questions
• Beyond factual recall
• Open-ended
• Use question prompts
• Types of questions –Factual, Convergent,
Divergent, Evaluative, and Combination

28. Tips for success
• Learn student names
• 10-second rule (“wait time”)
• Seat students facing one another
• Avoid jargon
• Be able to say “ I don’t know”
• Promote students helping students
• Deal with “over-talkers”
• Summarize, summarize, summarize

29. Learning Framework
…but have you answered the questions all learners
need to know?
• Where do I need to go?
• Why should I go there?
• How will I get there?
• How will I know when I’ve arrived?

30. Common Test Types And Characteristics
Type Advantages Disadvantages Best Utilized
True – False • Easy to construct • Can be ambigeous • To measure recall and
Yes - No •Can reinforce comprehension of facts
incorrect
information
Enables guessing
Multiple Choice • Easy to score and • Difficult to construct • To measure comprehension
statistically analyse • Enables students to answer • To measure higher
• Can be constructed to by process of unintentionally cognitive skills
measure analyse and hidden clues
synthesis of information
Matching •Popular with students • Difficult to construct • To measure comprehension
•Can be constructed to • Enables students to answer by comparing information
include broad range of by process of
information
Short Answer Open- Ended •Easy to construct •Difficult to score as more •To measure to recall of facts
•Adaptable to specific than one answer may be and specific knowledge
subject content correct
Fill in The Blank •Can be more focused and •Diffuclt to score when more •To measure recall of facts
easily scored than one answer may be and specific knowledge
correct
Essay •Easy to construct •Scoring is quite time •To measure application and
•Enables students to consuming higher cognitive skills
demonstrate a broad
knowledge base

31. Written Tests
Selected- response test Short-answer test Essay test
Characteristics Objective; Choose Objective; Ask to Ask to discuss one or
among alternatives; supply into from more related ideas
Assess foundational memory; Assess according to certain
knowledge foundational criteria
knowledge
Advantages Efficiency Relatively easy to Assess higher-level
write; Allow for abilities
breadth
Disadvantages Focus on verbatim Focus on verbatim Lack of consistency of
memorization memorization grading

32. Way to Measure Student Learning
• Written test
- Selected-response tests
- Short- answer tests
- Essay tests
• Performance tests
- Direct writing assessments
- Portfolios
- Exhibitions
- Demonstrations

33. Conceptions of learning ( Saljo 1979 )
2. Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge. Learning is
acquiring information or “ knowing a lot”
3. Learning as memorising . Learning is storing information that
can be reproduced.
4. Learning as acquiring facts, skills and method that can be
retained and used as necessary.
5. Learning as making sense or abstracting meaning. Learning
involves relating parts of the subject matter to each other
and to the real world.
6. Learning as interpreting and understanding reality in a
different way. Learning involves comprehending the world
by re-interpreting knowledge.

34. (7) Increases in the amount and quality of evidence
students offer to support their inferences
(8) Increases in contributions by students who do not
participate much when wait-time is under three seconds
(9) Expansion of the variety of responses offered by
students
(10) Decreases in student interruptions
(11) Increases in student-student interactions
(12) Increases in the number of questions posed by
students

35. Analytic Framework : Broad Conceptions
of Teaching
Type CCategory DeDescription
I Teacher- A Teaching as transmitting concepts of syllabus
Focused
B Teacher as transmitting teacher’s knowledge
II Student C Teacher as helping students acquire concepts of syllabus
Focused
D Teacher as helping students acquire teacher’s knowledge

36. Results : Type I Conception
( Teacher- Focused)
“ [ Teaching ] is a transfer of knowledge from
somebody who accumulates certain amount
of knowledge to people who are recipient[s]
of the knowledge” (Professor of Medicine)
* Focus on transfer of information
* Students’ prior knowledge not considered
* Students are passive recipients