Abstract. The aspects of the de jure or overt language policy attract many researchers, which is reasonable given the importance of legislation in nation-building. Scholars also pay attention to the de facto and covert language policies, which include informal and non-written aspects of language policy that can shed light on practical problems on the grassroots level. In the selected context, relying upon only one aspect would lead to an incomplete understanding of the subject since there is usually a gap between Kyrgyzstan's de jure and de facto language policies. Therefore, this thesis approached the topic considering both aspects. Such an inclusive study produces thick material for analysis and increases the validity of conclusions by triangulating data from different sources. This study aimed to answer the following research questions: 1. What LP has been implemented in Kyrgyzstan? 2. How has LP affected the target group? 3. What language attitudes and beliefs currently prevail in the target group? The first research question was assessed using Tollefson's historical-structural approach based on analyzing legislative documents, historical materials, university websites, and dissertation catalogs. These methods helped identify the reasons that significantly contributed to the failure of constructing the Soviet identity in Kyrgyzstan. The reasons included covert, implicit, and vague policies, which have driven the de jure and de facto language policies in different directions. Hopefully, the findings of this thesis will shed some light in these directions by raising awareness among leaders and people about the sources of the problem. The second and third questions required in-depth interviews and surveys since many answers to these questions are only sometimes available online. They can only be studied through direct access to primary sources. Data from 850 participants, including 82 in the pilot study and ten expert interviews, show that previous language policies have created many problems that participants must overcome. These problems lie in the participants' divergent perceptions of their identities and mutually exclusive beliefs in decisive aspects of nation-building, often resulting in discrimination based on their demographic characteristics. Further research on the effect of faculties' international experience and students' English skills on forming language beliefs would provide a leap forward. Meanwhile, the findings and results of this study, which have been identified based on a broad spectrum of theories and methodologies in previous publications in English, Russian, Kyrgyz, and other languages of the researcher, can serve as a source of information for researchers, curriculum developers, and language managers. Full text: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370444301_Language_Policies_Attitudes_and_Beliefs_in_Kyrgyzstan

1. University of Pannonia
Multilingualism Doctoral School
Candidate: Askarbek Mambetaliev
Supervisor: Prof. István Csernicskó
Chair: Prof. Judit Navracsics
Opponents: Dr. Sándor Czeglédi, Dr. Erzsébet Bárány
Committee members: Dr. Viktòria Ferenc, Dr. Szilvia Bátyi, Dr. Andrea Parapatics
Secretary: Dr. Szilárd Szentgyörgyi
PhD defense, May 8, 2023
Title: Language Policies, Attitudes, and Beliefs in Kyrgyzstan
1

2. Dissertation Structure
Chapter 1. Introduction Chapter 4. Results
Chapter 2. Literature Chapter 5. Discussion
Chapter 3. Methodology Chapter 6. Conclusion
2

3. Significance and Rationale
The rationale for the study also stems from the following issues:
1. No study on LP among university students in Kyrgyzstan
2. The study of LP is understudied in the region (Stavans & Jessner-Schmid, 2022)
3. The field needs knowledge from local researchers (Ehlert, 2008)
Significance:
1. The LP is a cause or pretext for conflicts or wars in many countries.
2. Discussing the pitfalls of LP is better than letting a violence to occur.
3

4. Aims and Questions
Research Aims:
1. The LP models and methods implemented in Kyrgyzstan.
2. The impact of the LP on the post-Soviet generation.
3. The interaction of the LP’s demographic and sociopsychological components.
Research Questions:
RQ1. What LP has been implemented in Kyrgyzstan?
RQ2. How has the LP affected the post-Soviet undergraduate students?
RQ3. What language attitudes and beliefs currently prevail among the students?
4

5. Top-Down
Overt
Covert
Language Behavior
Attitudes & Beliefs
Linguistic Identity
Bottom-Up
Demographic
Factors
Conceptual Framework
Methodology
Written,
De
Jure
Non-written,
De
Facto
5

6. Recorded interviews.
Collection of relevant
texts and artifacts.
Results of
statistical
analyses.
Discussion,
Conclusion
Data Analysis
Data Collection
Pilot Phase
Quantitative
Qualitative
Instrument
Products Products Products
Dataset
of cross-sectional
survey
(N = 758)
Ideas,
opinions
Dataset
of online
survey
(N = 82)
Coded
transcript,
themes.
Research Design
Methodology
Data Cleaning
Updated
Data
Products
6

7. Top-Down Component: Analysis of Overt and Covert Aspects
Overt
Official,
Written
Covert
Actions,
Outcomes
Languages in newspapers
Laws and Regulations of the USSR
1926-1990
Languages on websites Interviews
Languages on banknotes Languages of theses
Laws and Regulations of Kyrgyzstan
1929-2021
7

8. Bottom-Up Component: IDs, Practices, Attitudes and Beliefs
Demographic factors (DF), LinID and code-switching Crosstab, Pearson's 2
Language discrimination (LD) Mean (SD)
Language attitudes and beliefs (LAB) Mean (SD)
The effect of DF on LD and LAB Pearson’s 2 and 
The effect of DF on the beliefs MANOVA, PERMANOVA
DF, Language use, HEIs and LinID GLM
Association btw DF and LAB MLR
Difference btw students and others Visualization
Significance p-value, max, min
Reliability of key items in the tool Cronbach Alpha
Methodology
8

9. Reliability & Validity
“Triangulation enhances the internal validity" (Meijer et al., 2002).
Responses in the pilot and main studies to identical questions in the
questionnaires were closely related, confirming the reliability of the instrument.
Data collection procedures were standardized, and the same research
instrument was used across groups.
After creating the database, a basic exploratory factor analysis was performed to
eliminate unreliable variables.
The internal consistency of the tool was checked using cronbach.alpha.
Variables that reduced the Alpha from 0.7 were removed.
Methodology
9

10. In
Declarations
In
Practice
Discussion of Findings: The LP of the USSR
1. No mention of status planning in the
constitutions of the USSR.
2. Equality of all citizens, freedom to
use their native language in private and
public, and education and court.
1. Introduction of the Cyrillic script
in the 1930s.
2. Strengthening the Russian language
in the education domain in the 1930s
and 1950s.
RQ1:
What
LP
has
been
implemented?
10

11. Discussion of Findings: An illustration of LP
Free Mountains, 1924
The Red Kirgizstan, 1927
Soviet Kyrgyzstan, 1956
Kyrgyz Flag, 1993
RQ1:
What
LP
has
been
implemented?
11

12. Discussion of Findings: L. use in HEI and scholars
 Most top universities (16 out of 20) did not have information in the Kyrgyz
language on the landing page to the same extent as in Russian.
 The number of dissertations in Russian was 5-6 times greater than the
number of dissertations in Kyrgyz.
RQ1:
What
LP
has
been
implemented?
12

13. Discussion of Findings: LP Models enacted in Kyrgyzstan
2010-2021 – Vague LP
1993-2010 – Overt BiP
1978-1993 – Revitalization Policy
1936-1978 – Covert LP
1929-1936 – Overt BiP
A vague distinction between the roles and
statuses of the Kyrgyz and Russian languages
U-turn to bilingualism: Elevation of the
functions of the Russian language
Attempts to maintain the status and functions
of the Kyrgyz language through legislation
Removal of any mentions of status planning
from official documents
Overt assignment of the state language status
to the Kyrgyz and Russian languages
RQ1:
What
LP
has
been
implemented?
13

14. LP
of
USSR
LP
in
Kyrgyzstan Summary of findings for RQ1
Overt or De jure LP Covert and De facto LP
1993-2010 – Overt BiP
1978-1993 – Revitalization Policy
1929 – 1936 – Overt BiP
2010-2021 – Vague LP
1936-1978 – Covert LP
14
~ 50 years
~ 30 years

15. RQ2: How the LP affected the target group?
15

16. Discussion of Results: Perception of LinID
2 (1, 503) = 2.8, p = 0.099 2(2, 460) = 66, p = 5e-15
2(4, 419) = 66, p = 1.4e-13
Kyrgyz Speaker
Russian Speaker Other L. Speaker
2(2, 737)=129, p = 1e-28
Sex
HEI
RegID
EthID
RQ2:
How
the
LP
affected
the
TG?
16

17. Discussion of Results: Students' Language Behavior
FamL PubL = Kyrgyz PubL = Russian df 2 p N
Kyrgyz L .68 .33
1 81 *** 464
Russian L .10 .90
RQ2:
How
the
LP
affected
the
TG?
17

18. Discussion of Results: Language Discrimination
L. based discrimination: 2(2, 503) = 42, p = 7e-10
Sex & Discrimination (among students): 2(2, 503) = 1.4, p = .48
Nationality & Discrimination (students and others: 2(6,593)=9, p =.16.
Dialect based discrimination : 2(4, 334) = 20, p = 0.0006
RQ2:
How
the
LP
affected
the
TG?
18

19. Factors that influence LinID (GLM Test Results)
Note. N = 355; ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05; Ref. category of DV: LinID = Russian.
Category Est. (Kyrgyz) SE z p Ref. Cat.
Sex Male -.14 .39 -.35 .73 Female
FamL Kyrgyz 1.75 .46 3.83 *** Russian
PubL Kyrgyz 2.20 .37 5.93 *** Russian
Region
Rural (North) .66 .40 1.66 .09
Bishkek
Rural (South) .96 .48 2.01 *
HEI
Arabaev Univ. .34 .63 .53 .59
National
University
Medical Academy -1.72 .49 -3.5 ***
Humanitarian Univ. -1.47 .57 -2.6 **
Technical University -.55 .63 -.87 .39
RQ2:
How
the
LP
affected
the
TG?
19

20. Discussion of Results: Language Attitudes and Beliefs (LAB)
RQ3.
What
LAB
prevail
among
students?
LinID M (SD) n df 2 p
Kyrgyz Speaker 2.74 (.45) 367
2 6.3 .04
Russian Speaker 2.58 (.56) 136
Students’ beliefs in the importance
of the SL for children
Students’ attitudes toward
minority languages
LinID M (SD) n df 2 p
Kyrgyz Speaker 1.92 (.92) 367
2 19 .00
Russian Speaker 2.32 (.88) 81
ID En Ru Ky Cn De Tk Ar
Ky Speaker .27 .26 .21 .11 .09 .04 .02
Ru Speaker .27 .22 .14 .18 .10 .03 .05
Bishkek .29 .24 .14 .14 .10 .04 .05
North .35 .35 .31 .16 .10 .05 .02
South .27 .26 .22 .03 .09 .04 .01
Hierarchy of languages
in students’ beliefs
Pearson’s correlation test results:
LinID on LB: (503)=.57, p = .43
RegID on LB: (340) = .73, p = .27
SexID on LB: (2, 511) = .99, p = .008 20

21. Discussion of Results: Differences of Students from Other Groups
RQ3.
What
LAB
prevail
among
students?
Language hierarchy
En Ru Ky Cn
Students (Ky, Mus) .27 .24 .18 .14
Turkic Groups .29 .26 .17 .14
Non-Turkic Gr. .28 .25 .16 .21*
Kyrgyz (Christian) .24 .24 .21* .11
Public Policy SL and Patriotism
EP LP No Yes
Students .57 .40 .42 .46
Others .69 .28 .72 .21
LP and sociolinguistic preferences
Beliefs in the importance of passing on the State Language to children
21

22. Factors that influence language beliefs (MLR test results)
RQ3.
What
LAB
prevail
among
students?
DV1: English DV2: Kyrgyz p Ref. Cat.
Male Student .39 (.34) .44 (.36) * Female Student
Russian Speaker 1.7 (.37) .11 (.52) Kyrgyz Speaker
Rural Student (North) .95 (.40) 3.9 (.48)
*
Urban Student
(Bishkek)
Rural Student (South) 1.1 (.46) 3.0 (.53)
Humanitarian University 7.3 (.71) 0 *
National
University
Medical Academy 1.9 (.47) 2.4 (.48) *
Arabaev University 1.2 (.50) 1.1 (.48) *
Technical University .71 (.57) .94 (.55) *
Note. N=478; *p < .05; McFadden=.22; DV3: Russian. 22

23. Suggestions for Implications
Conclusion
 The MLR test results showed encouraging students to use Kyrgyz on
campus, admitting more enrollees from peripheral regions
(especially from the South) rather than from Bishkek, and improving
LP in some universities would help the government increase the
number of Kyrgyz speakers.
 A focus on language behavior on campus would help reduce
language discrimination.
 Primary efforts in promoting the SL should be directed at ethnic
Kyrgyz. Other minorities should have broad rights to preserve their
native languages while not restricting their access to learning the SL.
23

24. Direction for Further Research
Conclusion
 More research is needed to determine why some groups do not see the need to learn the
SL. Some reasons may include (1) poor campus-level LP; (2) the need for qualified
teachers; (4) Culture or religion being imposed in schools and textbooks under the notion
of teaching the state language.
 Studying the linguistic landscape of universities can provide additional data on the LP of
universities.
 Besides Russian soft power policies, it would be an asset to investigate any evidence of
similar Anglo-American, Arab, and Chinese efforts to influence language attitudes.
24

25. 25
The full text of the dissertation can be downloaded:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360778986_Attitudes_Toward_Language_Policy_Models
https://www.academia.edu/101285154/Language_Policies_Attitudes_and_Beliefs_in_Kyrgyzstan
Thanks!