2. Meaning of Research
Is the pursuit of truth with help of study, observations, comparison and
experiment.
Objectives of Research
Research comprises
Defining and redefining the problems
Formulating the hypotheses or suggested solutions.
Collecting, organizing and evaluating data.
Making deductions and reading conclusions
And at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypotheses
3. Motivation in Research
Desire to get research degree
Desire to face challenges in solving the
unsolved problems
Desire to get intellectual joy doing some
creative work
Desire to be of service to the society
Desire to get responsibility
4. TYPES OF RESEARCH
Descriptive Research:-Means description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present. Researcher only reports only
what has happened or what is happening
Applied Research:- Aims at finding solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industry/ business
organizations
Quantitative Research:-Based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. Applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.
Conceptual Research: - Related to some abstract ideas or
theory. Used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts or re-interpret existing ones.
5. Empirical Research: - Relies on experience or
observations alone, often without due regard for
system and theory.
Qualitative Research: - Concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e. phenomenon relating
to or involving quality or kind.
Fundamental Research: - Mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a
theory.
Analytical Research: - Researcher has to use facts
on information already available and analyze these
to make a critical evaluation of the material.
6. RESEARCH METHODS Vs.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Methods:- Refers to the methods/
techniques researchers use in performing
research operations.
Research Methodology:- It may be understood
as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically. In it we study the various steps
that are generally adopted by researcher in
studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them.
7. Difference between Methods and Techniques
TYPE METHODS TECHNIQUES
Library Research (i)Analysis of historical records Recording of notes, Contents analysis, Tape and listening
(ii)Analysis of documents and analysis.
Statistical compilation and manipulations, references and
abstract guides, contents analysis.
2. Field Research (i) Non-participant direct observation Observational behavioral scales, use of score cards,
(ii) participant observation etc.Interactional recording possible use of tape recorders,
(iii) Mass observation photo graphic techniques.Recording mass behaviour,
interview using independent observers in public
(iv) Mail questionnaire placesIdentification of social and economic background of
(v) Opinionnaire respondentsUse of attitude scales, projective techniques,
(vi) Personal interview use of sociometric scales.Interviewer uses a detailed
(vii) Focused interview schedule with open and closed questionsInterviewer
focuses attention upon a given experience and its
(ix) Telephone survey effectsUsed as a survey technique for information and for
(x) Case study and life history discerning opinion may also be used as a follow up of
questionnaireCross sectional collection of data for intensive
analysis, longitudinal collection of data of intensive
character
3. Laboratory Small groups study of random behavior, play Small groups study of random behavior, play and role
Research and role analysis analysis
8. DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN
Sample design is the heart of research work
Steps in Sample Design
Define the universe
Sampling unit
Source list or sampling frame
Size of sample
Sampling method or technique
Parameters of interest
Budgetary constraint
Select the sample
9. METHODS OF SAMPLING
Samples may be grouped into two broad
classes according to their method of
selection. Namely:
Random or Probability Sampling
Non- Random or Non-Probability
Sampling.
10. Random or Probability Sampling
Major random or probability samples are
Simple random sample
Systematic sample
Stratified random sample
Multi-stage random sample
Cluster sample or area sample
Sequential sample or sample in installments
Replicated or interpenetrating sample
11. Non –Random or Non-Probability
Sampling
Major Non-random or Non-probability
samples are:-
Purposive sample
Quota sample
Convenience sample
12. METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA
While deciding about the method of data
collection to be used for the study, the
researcher should keep in mind two types.
i.e.
Primary Data
Secondary Data
13. Collection of Primary Data
There are several methods of collecting primary
data. These are:-
Questionnaires
Observations
Interviews
Schedules
14. Collection of Secondary Data
Secondary data means data that is already available i.e. it may be either
published or unpublished.
Published data are available in:-
Various publications of the central, state or local governments
Various publications by foreign governments or international bodies and
their subsidiary organizations
Technical and trade journals
Books, magazines and newspapers
Reports and publications of various organizations connected with business
and industry, Banks, Stock exchanges etc.
Reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists etc in
different fields
Public records and statistics, historical documents and other sources of
published information
15. Sources of unpublished data are many and
they include:-
Diaries
Letters
Unpublished biographies and autobiographies
Data available with research scholars and
research workers, trade associations, labour
bureaus and other public/ private individuals
and organizations
16. PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
After collection of data it has to be processed
and analyzed.
Process of Analysis
Editing
Coding
Classification
Tabulation
17. Elements /Types of Analysis
Descriptive analysis
Correlation analysis
Multivariate analysis
Under multivariate we have the following analysis
Multiple regression analysis
Multiple discriminant analysis
Multivariate analysis of variance (or Multi-ANOVA)
Canonical analysis
• Inferential analysis
18. HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Hypothesis means a mere assumption or some supposition to be proved
or disapproved
Characteristics of Hypothesis
It should be clear and precise
Should be capable of being tested
It should state the relationship between variables
It should be limited by scope and be specific
It should be stated as far as possible with most simple terms so that the
same is easily understandable by all concerned
It should be consisted with most known facts
It should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time
Must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation
20. Testing of Hypothesis
Procedure of testing Hypothesis
Formulate a null or alternative Hypothesis
Choose the level of significance of the test
Choose the location of the critical region
Choose the appropriate test statistics
Compute from the sample observations for the observed
value of the chosen statistics using the relevant formula
Compare the sample value of the chosen statistics with the
theoretical (table) value that defines the critical region.
21. Methods of Testing Hypothesis
Parametric Tests or Standard tests of Hypothesis
The important parametric tests are:-
Z- Test
T-Test
X- Test and
F- Test
22. Non –Parametric tests or Distribution
free test of Hypothesis
A. One sample and Two sample tests
Binomial test
Chi- square test
McNemar test
A. K- sample tests ( K > 3)
Kruskal-Wallis test : H
Friedman test
Kendall`s coefficient of concordance: W
23. INTERPRETATION
Interpretation of data means the task of
drawing conclusions and of explaining their
significance after a careful analysis of data
24. Techniques of Interpretation
Interpretation requires a great skill on the part of the researcher. It is an art
that one learns through practice and experience
The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:-
Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he
has found
Extraneous information, if collected during the study must be considered
while interpreting the final result
Its advisable before embarking upon final interpretation to consult
someone having insight into the study
Researchers must accomplish the task of interpretation only after
considering all relevant factors affecting the problem.
25. PRESENTATION OF REPORT
A. Preliminary pages
Title page
Certificate of supervisor
Table of contents
Preface
Acknowledgement
Listing of tables
Listing of figures
Abbreviations
26. B. Main text
Introduction
Objectives
Methodology
Findings
Limitations
Conclusion and recommendations
27. C. End matter
Appendix
Bibliography
Alphabetical order
books reports journals
name of author ,title ,place publisher
volume ,page
number
Glossary