An Analytical Analysis on Weighted Average Cost of Capital

AN ANALYTICAL STUDY ON
“WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (WACC)”
OF
“YAAR CONSTRUCTION COMPANY”
A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE
SAVITRIBAI PHULE PUNE UNIVERSITY
BY
RAHMATULLAH PASHTOON
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
PROF. ASAD ZAFIR
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
MASTER OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
SEPTEMBER 2015
ALLANA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
AZAM CAMPUS, CAMP PUNE - 411001

CERTIFICATE
Certified that the Project Work entitled “AN ANALYTICAL
STUDY ON THE WEIGHTED AVERAGE COST OF
CAPITAL”, submitted by Mr. Rahmatullah Pashtoon for the
partial fulfillment of the M.B.A. Degree offered by the Savithribai
Phule Pune University during the academic year 2015-2016 is an
original work carried out by the student under my supervision, and
this work has not formed the basis for the award of any Degree,
Diploma or such other titles.
Date: Signature of the
Director
Name signature of the Guide: Prof. Asad Zafir
Institution: Allana Institute of Management Sciences
Address: Hidayatullah Road, Azam Campus, Pune - 411001

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a great pleasure to me in acknowledging my deep sense of gratitude to all
those who have helped me in completing this project successfully
I would like to thank Dr. (Prof) R. Ganesan for allotting me this project. I
would like to thank Dr. (Prof) Roshan Kazi Head of Department for his
guidance. I would like to acknowledge my gratitude towards my projects guide
Prof. Asad Zafir whose valuable guidance and encouragement at every phase
of the project has helped to prepare this project successfully.
I greatly appreciate the staff of the surveyed business unit, who responded
promptly and enthusiastically to my requests for frank comments despite their
congested schedules. I am indebted to all of them, who did their best to bring
improvements through their suggestions.
Special thanks to Mr. Mohibullah Kamawal for providing me an
opportunity to work with Yaar Construction Company, and providing me
necessary information about their company, their operations and providing
guidance in developing my project.
Finally, I would like to express my sincere thanks to my father
Habibullah Pashtoon, Chief Attorney of Kandahar province and my other
family members, all the faculties, office staff, and library staff of AIMS, Pune
and friends who helped me in some or other way in making this project.
NAME: RAHMATULLAH
PASHTOON
PLACE: PUNE
DATE:

DECLARATION
I, the undersigned, RAHMATULLAH PASHTOON student of
MBA II Year of Allana Institute of Management Sciences, Pune as
the author of this project thesis, hereby declare that the dissertation
is a result of my own Research work and the same has not been
previously submitted to any examination of SAVITHRIBAI PHULE
PUNE UNIVERSITY (SPPU), or any other University.
NAME: RAHMATULLAH
PASHTOON
PLACE: PUNE
DATE:

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
PROJECT TITLE: - “AN ANALYTICAL STUDY ON WEIGHTED
AVERAGE COST OF CAPITAL (WACC)”
COMPANY: - YAAR CONSTRUCTION COMPANY
Yaar Construction Company began as a general construction company
in 2008. Over the years, the group has undertaken many challenging projects
and accumulated skills, know-how and experiences in design and build
solutions, project management services, building trades and related engineering
works.
The study is taken on the weighted average cost of capital of Yaar
Construction Company. The company took the 40% loan out of total capital and
the remaining 60% was its own contribution. In this study the various estimation
other than the 40% loan for finding the WACC is undertaken. I took 20% of
loan, then 60% and eventually, 80% loan.
Precisely, this study is carried out as per the requirement of MBA
curriculum. This study has significance as it takes us to the root of the subject
and increases our knowledge related to business, finance and commerce.
The main objectives are
 To estimate the Weighted Average Cost of Capital of the Yaar
Construction Company.
 To understand how capital structure affects owner’s value
 To study the changes in the weighted average cost of capital on the
company’s financial status.
The thesis is conducted on the basis of both primary and secondary data.
The primary data is the financial statement presentations of the Yaar
Construction Company. Primary data collection begins when a researcher is not
able to find the data required for his research from secondary data, primary data
obtained by communication observation and personal interview and
questionnaire and it is collected for the first time to be original character. The
other information regarding the financial aspects of the project was collected
from YCC Accounts Manager Mr. Karimullah Totakhail.

Secondary data is taken by the researcher from secondary source internal
and external the researcher must thoroughly search secondary data sources
before commissioning any effort for collecting primary data. The secondary
data were collected from the bank websites, journals, various academic essays,
articles. Moreover, various internet media was also undertaken, viz. Internet
websites, e-magazines, Etc.
The Profits in the year 2010 was 6,245,703/-, the most profitable year. The least
was the year 2013 where only Rs. 1,807,115/- was the net profit. However, the
other years were quite good. The company’s own 60% contribution and 40%
loan was remarkable and the weighted average rate of return was 0.15024 (i.e.
15%). While finding out the weighted average rate of return we also found the
internal rate of return and the net present value of YCC Company. The NPV
@15% after finding was Rs. 9,739,653/- and the assumed NPV @70% was (Rs.
1,077,024/-).
The internal rate of return was 0.645 (i.e. 64.5%) which is very much
high and best for the company. The net profit ratio was very good. At the most
very profitable ratio was in the year 2011 (i.e. 0.447). In 2011 the net profit ratio
was slightly better than the previous year (i.e. 2010). A 0.002 or (0.2%)
difference was somehow not that much more, but still the profit has been
attained. Moreover, the company’s later years were quite shaking than the
previous as the economic and political scenario of Afghanistan brought up so
many devastative calamities. One of the essential was the declination rate of the
USAID projects and the bid rates. Indeed, the later years were of black days in
the matter of work, prosperity, profitability and gaining of income from various
kind of US constructive projects.
The year 2010 is by far better than the rest of the years by having the
GPR ratio 0.677. Later on, in the year 2011 and 2012 still did good profit and
the company was in a high rate of profitability. But as the situation became
worse this rate was also crashed with declination. The company gain a lot of
profit in the year 2010.
 Briefly, the total capital of Yaar Construction Company is Rs
98,000,000/- only. In that the total capital provided by the company to
me was in two proportions. 40% of the total capital is bank loan (i.e.
3,920,000), and remaining 60% of the total capita is own contribution
(i.e. 5,880,000).
 Weighted Average Cost of Capital after calculation was 15% (i.e. 0.15).
 NPV @15% was 9,739,653/- and as per the internal rate of return
formula requirement we need to increase this NPV percentage in order
to find out IRR. Due to that we took 70% assumption. Therefore, NPV
@70% was (-1,077,024/-).
 Now, as our analysis is about the weighted average cost of capital
(WACC), we did three assumptions of WACC respectively in order to

find out the most minimum rate of weighted average cost of capital
(WACC) among them. So, for that we took 20%, 60% and 80%.
In 20% loan the WACC was 16.5%, whereas, in 60% loan it was 13.5% and
in 80% loan it was 12%.
These are the illustrative tables for the aforementioned assumed rates for
finding the WACC:
The total equity is Rs. 9,800,000/-. We took 20%, 60% and 80% loan
estimation.
No. of Share having face value 10 each:
784,000 = 9,800,000*(100%-20%)/10
392,000 = 9,800,000*(100%-60%)/10
WACC for 20%, 60% and 80% we found was 16.5%, 13.5% and 12%. We
selected the minimum among them (i.e. 12%, which is for the 80% loan
estimation).
IRR for the 20%, 60% and 80% we found by applying the formula was
65.5%, 63.5% and 62.50%. In that we selected the maximum percentage due
to having the rule of internal rate of return. (I.e. the highest IRR is to be
considered).
Now, the Value per share is derived by dividing the Net Present Value upon
number of shares. The justification is that by taking 80% loan estimation the
value per share for the owner increases more than taking the other
estimations. In 20% it was 12.88 similarly, for 60% it was 25.29 and for
80% it was 48.85, which is the highest among them.
Therefore, the 80% loan estimation proposal is better for the company to
accept.

INDEX
Sr. No TOPIC Page No.
1.
Introduction
1.1. Background of the study……………………………………........
1.2. Objectives of the study………………………………………......
1.3. Significance of the study…………………………………..…….
1.4. Scope of the study……………………………………………….
1.5. Limitations of the study………………………………………….
1 - 4
2
3
3
3
4
2.
Company Profile
2.1. History and Philosophy………………………………………….
2.2. Company Information…………………………………………...
2.3. Principle Activities……………………………………….……...
2.4. Our Organization structure………………………………………
5 - 11
6
7
7
8
3.
Review of Literature
3.1. Introduction…………………………………………………......
3.2. Definition of WACC…………………………………….………
3.3. Meaning of Capital Structure……………….………………......
3.4. Guiding Principles of Capital Structure……..………………….
3.5. Factors Influencing Capital Structure Decision….……………..
3.6. Capital Structure Theories………………………………………
12 - 31
13
15
17
20
21
24
4.
Research Methodology
4.1. Research………………………………………………………...
4.2. Objective of research……………………………………………
4.3. Source of data…………………………………………………..
32 - 34
33
33
33
5.
Data Presentation, Analysis & Interpretation
5.1. Data analysis & interpretation…..………………………….
35 - 47
36
6. Findings 48
7. Conclusion 50
8. Suggestions 52
9. Managerial Implications and Scope of Future Study 54
Appendices
10. Bibliography 57
11. Annexure I (Foreign Exchange Rates and Their Charts) 58
12. Annexure II (Financial Ratios and their Interpretation) 59 - 94

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CHAPTER ONE
Introduction of the Study

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1.1. Background of the study
The CIMA defines the weighted average cost of capital (WACC) “as the
average cost of the company’s finance (equity, debentures, long-term fund loans
and retained earnings) weighted according to the proportion each element bears
to the total pool of capital, which is usually based on market valuations, current
yields and costs after tax.” The term weighted average cost of capital is the
combined cost of the specific costs associated with specific source of financing.
The cost of different source of financing represents the components of the
combined cost. The use of weighted average and not the simple average is
warranted by the fact that the proportions of various sources of funds in the
capital structure of a firm are different.
The study is taken on the weighted average cost of capital of Yaar
Construction Company. The company took 40% loan out of total capital and the
remaining 60% was its own contribution. In this study the various estimation of
loan is taken for finding out the lesser WACC. The loan estimation is taken on
20%, 60% and 80% respectively.
Moreover, the EMI and the income statement is also calculated based on
the company’s relevant financial data.
This study is carried out as per the requirement of MBA curriculum. This
study has significance as it takes us to the root of the subject and increases our
knowledge related to business, finance and commerce.
I intend to undertake this project which lies towards enhancing ones knowledge
in the field of estimation for the weighted average cost of capital of Yaar
Construction Company. This project is entitled to be applied as a practical and
symbolic feature for understanding the criteria of how to project the future
scenario; this is widely recommended subject for the management students.
The study revolves around the core subject matter, “analytical study on
weighted average cost of capital WACC for Yaar Construction Company” that
comes under the broad area of Finance, but the researcher is making this project
on the basis of the financial data that is being provide by the company
accordingly which is profoundly talking about the usage of financial techniques
in order to overcome the concerned study.

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1.2. Objectives of the Study
 To find the Weighted Average Cost of Capital of the Yaar Construction
Company.
 To understand how capital structure affects owner’s value
 To study the changes in the weighted average cost of capital on the
company’s financial status.
1.3. Significance of the Study
 Helps people how to start a business
 Helps how to pay the most minimum cost of debt.
 Helps people how to profit by taking loans from the financial
institutions.
 Helps people how to achieve the satisfactions of customer.
1.4. Scope of the Study
 Investment Decisions by Company: WACC is widely used for making
investment decisions in the corporate by evaluating their projects. Let
us categorize the investments in projects in the following 2 ways:
o Evaluate of Projects with same risk
o Evaluations of Projects with different risk
 Discount Rate in the Net Present Value Calculation
 Valuation of Company
 Important Inferences from WACC:
o Effect of leverage: Considering the Net Income Approach (NOI)
by Durand, the effect of leverage is reflected in WACC. So, the
WACC can be optimized by adjusting the debt component of the
capital structure. Lower the WACC, higher will be the valuations
of the company. Lower WACC also widens the scope of the
company by allowing it to accept low return projects and still
create value.

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o Optimal capital budgets: The increase in the magnitude of capital
tends to increase the WACC as well. With the help of WACC
schedule and project schedule, an optimal capital budget can be
worked out for the company.
WACC is an important metric used for various purposes but it has to be used
very carefully. The weights of the capital components should be expressed in
market value terms. The market values should be determined carefully and
accurately. Faulty calculations of WACC will result in faulty investment
decisions as well. There are issues such as no consideration given to floatation
cost which are not worth ignoring. The complications increase if the capital
consists of callable, puttable or convertible instruments, warrants etc.
1.5. Limitations of the study
 As this project stands on the basis of both primary data and secondary
data, so the collection of data is too tough
 Making notes and getting perfect idea is a complicate duty.
 Shortage of time period.
 In the absence of sufficient data personal judgement and
reasonable assumptions come into play.
 The duration of the project work is insufficient to understand
the complete mechanism of analysis of weighted average cost
of capital in the concerned company.

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CHAPTER TWO
Company Profile

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2.1. History and Philosophy
Yaar Construction Company began as a general works contractor in
2008. Over the years, the group has undertaken many challenging projects
and accumulated skills, know-how and experiences in design and build
solutions, project management services, building trades and related
engineering works.
Today, Yaar Construction Company takes on the role of main contractor
for small to medium size projects and performs project management services
to coordinates specialist trades for industrial/commercial projects. We also
provide design inputs and engineering solutions as value add services to our
client
Our objective is to provide our clients with an “I am assured” experience
when we are chosen to execute their projects. Our emphasis on clear
communication and follow through procedures ensures that client’s
objectives are top priority in the planning and execution of all our processes.
Our project management and execution philosophy is:
• create detail schedule and resources plan to meet client’s project
objective,
• communicate clearly with all project stakeholders,
• track project progress and fine tune deviations,
• supervise closely on quality of work done,
• Complete and commission the project on time.
We take pride in our delivery, thus our clients can always be assured that
only the most experienced and qualified people are serving them, all the time.
Vision:
To be a respectable building contractor delivering beyond expectation,
always.
Mission:
To deliver high-quality, cost-effective projects on time within budget by
employing and supporting motivated, flexible, and focused teams. We will
strive to implement a long term relationship with our clients, based on safety,
quality, timely service and an anticipation of their needs. To help fulfill this
mission, we will treat all employees fairly and involve them in the quality
improvement process to insure responsiveness and cost effective work
execution.

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We value the importance of our relationships and will continue to remain
fair and true in our dealings with all employees, clients, vendors, and partners.
Our clients count on our dependability, our drive, and our integrity. We take
great pride in our accomplishments and build on them every day.
Our reputation as a premier Afghan Contractor has been built as a result of
outstanding client relationships, supported by an experienced team of managers
and subcontractors.
2.2. Company Information
Name: Yaar Construction Company (YCC)
Address: Behind Naderia High School, Kart – e – Parwan, Kabul, Afghanistan
Email ID: yaarconstructions@gmail.com
Mobile No: +93 – 700606088
Telephone No: +93 – (0) 202210036
Registration No: 200804413R
Incorporation Date: 05/03/2008
2.3. PRINCIPLE ACTIVITIES
35212 GENERAL CONSTRACTORS (Building Construction
including Major Upgrading Works)
BCA REGISTERED CONTRACTORS
Work head Description Tendering Limit
DE01 General Building F1
HJ2 Civil Engineering F2
OL06 Interior Decoration K4
LICENSED BUILDERS
Licensing Code Description
GB1 General Building Works (Class 1)
Director
Ahmad Yaar Kamawal
2.4. Organization Structure

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Management Team:
The business is driven by our 4 working directors, collectively they
accumulated more than 15 years of work experience in the building industry.
They are involved in the business development, procurement, project
management and administration of the company.
The management team proactively gathers feedback, identifies
changes in business environment, reviews work processes and communicates
key learning points and company policy to all staff at regular meetings.
People:
Our people are crucial in the delivery of our services and solution to
our clients. In order to ensure that everyone is equipped with the right skill,
knowledge and attitude, a comprehensive training programme is put in place
to constantly upgrade our people in technical and management skills.
We believe firmly in providing the right training, accredited
certification and practical knowledge for our people, in order for them to
execute their duties and responsibilities confidently. Our aim is to stay
relevant to the ever-changing market place and client’s requirement.
Management team
Commercial/Procureme
nt Team
Project Management
Team
Planning/Design Field Operations
Admin/Finance

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2.5. Areas of Expertise:
Road, Bridge, and Culverts
Designs
Be it civil-, architectural-, structural-, mechanical-, HVAC- or electrical
design, our team of sophisticated architects and engineers masters any
challenges - our clients may face - and transcribe them into plans and schedules,
fit for realization and according to international standards.
Next to the elaboration of specialized solutions in the different areas of
design, HARIROD provides a holistic approach, applying contemporary
design- and management-software. Ranging from the elaboration of the proper
solution to a successful implementation including timely delivery on site, the
process is monitored and kept transparent. Our experience, gained in a large
number of realized projects and our client´s sustainable trust, form the base for
our corporate future.
Complex construction projects require a high level of synchronization.
Partnering our clients through all project-phases, our experience on the private-

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and public sector has shown, that next to good and innovative ideas a solid and
competent implementation is the key to success
Living Complexes and Barracks
Warehouse and Storage Facilities
Water, Irrigation, and Sanitation Facilities

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Services
YCC has the in-depth expertise to navigate any project to success - from simple
structures to more complex. Starting its history as a contracting firm, YCC today
is an organized industry that offers the best in
 Main Contracting
 Design-Build Services
 Construction Project Management
Main Contracting
YCC is a Main Constructor undertaking all scopes of work required by the client
and coordination of any elements the client may wish to undertake directly. We
have the capability to construct any type of building be it residential,
commercial, mixed use; high rise, low rise or horizontal in nature.
Design-Build Services
Design & Build is not new, but the YCC approach is what makes the difference
and delivers results we believe to give optimum value to the client. YCC has
the capability to provide all technical design services either in-house, or
depending on the nature of the project, our relationships with external
consultants enables us to draw upon specialist design expertise if needed.
Construction Project Management
YCC assists the client in the whole construction process regardless of what
juncture we are introduced into the project organization. We have proven that
early involvement can influence and increase substantially the success of the
project. Huge value added and be gained by clients who involve us at the
beginning where design input, both from the perspective of Build ability and
Value Engineering can still be influenced.
When this is combined with the expertise of the design team and client team,
then real synergy is the result. Our integrated Project Management System sets
the path for the projects whether it is large or small to meet their goals faster,
more efficiently and with higher-quality results. We have the skill, focus and
discipline to ensure the projects are not only completed on time and within
budget but fully achieve their intended purpose.

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CHAPTER THREE
Literature Review

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3.1. Introduction
The term “business” relates to the state of being busy either as an individual or
society as a whole, doing commercially viable and profitable work. This term
has at least three usages, depending on the scope; one is to mean a particular
company or corporation, the generalized usage to refer to a particular market
sector or the broadest meaning to include all activity by the community of
suppliers of goods and services.
Business is an economic activity as it is concerned with earning money and
acquiring wealth through the production and distribution of goods and services.
Businesses are predominant in capitalist economies, most being privately
owned and formed to earn profit that will increase the wealth of its owners and
grow the business itself. The main objective of any business owner or operator
is to generate a financial return in exchange for work and acceptance of risk.
There are several common forms of business ownership like sole proprietorship,
partnership, corporation and cooperative. In order to generate a financial output,
a financial input is most important. This financial input is termed as capital in
business.
In economics, capital or capital goods or real capital refers to factors of
production used to create goods or services that are not themselves significantly
consumed in the production process. Capital goods may be acquired with money
or financial capital. In finance and accounting, capital generally refers to
financial wealth especially that used to start or maintain a business.
Financial capital represents obligation, and is liquidated as money for trade, and
owned by legal entities. It is in the form of capital assets, traded in financial
markets. Its market value is not based on the historical accumulation of money
invested but on the perception by the market of its expected revenues and of the
risk entailed.
Financial capital can refer to money used by entrepreneurs and businesses to
buy what they need to make their products or provide their services to that sector
of the economy based on its operation, i.e. retail, corporate, investment banking,

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etc.
Financial capital refers to the funds provided by lenders (and investors) to
business to purchase real capital equipment for producing goods/services. Real
capital comprises physical goods that assist in the production of other goods
and services.
The financial capital which is required by entrepreneurs can be obtained through
various sources. There are long term sources like share capital, debenture
capital, venture capital, mortgage, retained profit, etc. Financial capital can also
be obtained through medium term sources like term loans, leasing, etc. and
through short term sources like bank overdraft, trade credit, factoring, etc.
Capital contributed by the owner or entrepreneur of a business, and obtained by
means of saving or inheritance, is known as own capital or equity. This capital
that owners of business provide can be in the form of
• Preference shares/hybrid source of finance Ordinary preference shares
Cumulative preference shares Participating preference shares
• Ordinary shares
• Bonus shares
• Founder’s shares
That capital which is granted by another person or institution is called borrowed
capital, and this must usually be paid back with interest. This capital which the
business borrows from institutions or people includes debentures:
• Redeemable debentures
• Irredeemable debentures
• Debentures to bearer
• Ordinary debentures
Thus, the sources of financing will, generically, comprise some combination of
debt and equity. Financing a project through debt, results in a liability that must
be serviced and hence there are cash flow implications regardless of the
project’s success. Equity financing is less risky in the sense of cash flow

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commitments, but results in a dilution of ownership and earnings. Deciding
which source of capital should be tapped so that the entrepreneur gets a fair
return, is a type of financial decision and a part of financial management. It is a
very important component of corporate finance.
3.2. Definition of WACC
A calculation of a company's cost of capital in which every source of capital is
weighted in proportion to how much capital it contributes to the company. For
example, if 75% of a company's capital comes from stock and 25% comes from
debt, measuring the cost of capital weights these accordingly. A high WACC
indicates that a company is spending a comparatively large amount of money in
order to raise capital, which means that the company may be risky. On the other
hand, a low WACC indicates that the company acquires capital cheaply.
Approaches to estimating cost of equity
There are a number of alternatives for estimating the cost of equity capital.
These include the following approaches:
Capital Asset Pricing Model International Capital Asset Pricing Model
Dividend Discount Model Arbitrage Pricing Theory Model
Although there are alternatives available in principle, regulators in Australia,
including ORAR in previous decisions, have consistently decided that the
Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) is the preferred approach.
We continue to be of the opinion that the CAPM is the best available approach.
Therefore, we have estimated the cost of equity capital using a domestic version
of the CAPM. Under the CAPM the required return on equity is expressed as a
premium over the risk free return as follows:
E(Re) = Rf + β * [E(Rm) - Rf]
Where,
Re = cost of equity capital;
Rf = risk free rate of return;
Rm = market rate of return;
E(.) = indicates the variable is an expectation; and
β = systematic risk parameter ("equity beta").
The CAPM assumes that returns are normally distributed around the mean.
Where this assumption is violated then estimating the required return on equity
using the CAPM may either over- or under-estimate the required return on
equity. Most specifically where the business is subject to regulatory or market
arrangements that limit the distribution of returns above the mean then investors
will require compensation for holding such assets.
We believe that the CAPM provides a more robust basis for estimating the cost

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of equity capital than other available approaches. Given the well-established
support for the domestic version of the CAPM we believe there is a need to
demonstrate that alternative models have significantly improved empirical
properties before shifting from the CAPM. There have been suggestions that
an international version of the CAPM would be more consistent with the
existing conditions in Australian securities markets. We address this issue in
the following section.
Potential use of International CAPM
The most cited alternative to the CAPM is its international version (ICAPM).
ICAPM models aim to reflect the integrated nature of the world economies by
measuring the appropriate return on equity capital against the world market.
These models generally require estimation of an international market risk
premium and risk free rate, plus estimation of the systematic risk of the security
in question to the world market.
ICAPM models fail to provide benefits over the CAPM for a number of reasons:
ICAPM models fail to provide additional explanatory power over the CAPM.
For example, a recent empirical test by Koedijk, Kool, Schotman and van
Dijk15 investigates to what extent international and domestic asset pricing
models lead to different estimates of the cost of capital for an individual firm.
They find that “even though the ICAPM is theoretically preferable to the
domestic CAPM, a firm’s beta calculated using the domestic CAPM does not
necessarily provide a worse estimate of the cost of capital.” They conclude:
“the marginal contribution of all global factors is very limited, which indicates
strong country factors.” More broadly, and consistent with the above findings,
there is extensive documentation of “home bias”. Thus, although there is
opportunity for investors to hold portfolios that are fully diversified
internationally, it does not seem that investors actually hold such portfolios; the
majority of Australian listed companies have overseas operations and have
revenues and expenses that are significantly influenced by world prices.
Therefore, an investor in Australian equities will achieve a significant degree of
international diversification. This is likely to be at least a partial explanation of
the home bias mentioned above; in the single-factor ICAPM there is a need to
reliably estimate the world MRP. However, at the most we have 20 to 25 years
of data for this purpose – a period that is well accepted as being too short period
for an acceptable estimate of MRP; and to achieve a significant improvement it
is necessary to apply an ICAPM that incorporates exchange rate risk. To
achieve this we must estimate a firm’s sensitivity to exchange rate risk across
all countries in the world economy. We are far from having a reasonable basis
for this estimation.
Market risk premium
The market risk premium (MRP) is the amount an investor expects to earn from

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an investment in the market above the return earned on a risk-free investment.
The MRP in the CAPM is the term [E(Rm) – Rf]. The key difficulty in
estimating the MRP arises from it being an expectation and therefore not being
directly observable. As a result the choice of an appropriate rate is inevitably
ad hoc. Generally a range of plausible values is identified and the MRP is chosen
within the range, most commonly at the midpoint. It is important to recognize
however that in all likelihood the MRP varies over time – the difficulty is that
we have no robust means of identifying or quantifying these shifts. We believe
that this uncertainty is a material consideration in the assessment of the MRP.
In determining the appropriate MRP to apply, we consider: use of historical
data to generate a range; and the assessment of an appropriate point in that
range.
Appropriate point within the range
In considering the appropriate point for the MRP within this historical range,
we will consider the following issues: recent (short term) estimates of the MRP;
benchmarking approaches to MRP; forward-looking estimations of the MRP;
and the relevance of surveys of MRP at the present time.
3.3. MEANING OF CAPITAL STRUCTURE
The term “Financial Management” connotes that fund flows are directed
according to some plan. It connotes responsibility for obtaining and effectively
utilizing funds necessary for the efficient operation of an enterprise.
A formal definition of financial management would be the determination,
acquisition, allocation and utilization of financial resources, usually with the
aim of achieving some specific goals. To be more specific financial
management is about analyzing financial situations, making financial decisions,
setting financial objectives, formulating financial plans to attain those
objectives, and providing effective systems of financial control to ensure plans
progress towards the set objectives.
Financial decision-making includes strategic investment decisions, such as
investing in new production facilities or the acquisition of another company,
and strategic financing decisions, like the decision to raise additional long-term
loans.
Thus, a financial manager is primarily concerned with two main types of
interrelated decisions, i.e. investment decisions and financing decisions.
Investment decision includes:

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• Strategic investment decision
• Tactical/operational investment decisions
Similarly financing decision also includes:
• Strategic financing decision
• Tactical/operational financing decisions.
The strategic financing decision typically involves deciding the most
appropriate mix of equity and long-term debt finance in the firm’s capital
structure, also called as the capital structure decision. The tactical financing
decision is related with ways to finance the firm’s investment in its medium and
short-term assets respectively.
Capital structure refers to the combination of debt and equity capital which a
firm uses to finance its long-term operations. Capital in this context refers to the
permanent or long-term financing arrangements of the firm. Capital is the
aggregation of the items appearing on the left hand side of the balance sheet
minus current liabilities.
Corporate finance is an area of finance dealing with the financial decisions
corporations make and the tools and analysis used to make these decisions. The
primary goal of corporate finance is to maximize corporate value while
managing the firm’s financial risks.
The main concepts in the study of corporate finance are applicable to the
financial problems of all kinds of firms. The discipline can be divided into long-
term and short-term decisions and techniques. Capital investment decisions are
long-term choices about which projects receive investments, whether to finance
that investment with equity or debt, and when or whether to pay dividends to
shareholders. On the other hand, the short term decisions can be grouped under
the heading “Working capital management”.
Capital investment decisions are long-term corporate finance decisions relating
to fixed assets and capital structure. Decisions are based on several inter-related
criteria. Corporate management seeks to maximize the value of the firm by
investing in projects which yield a positive net present value when valued using

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an appropriate discount rate. These projects must also be financed appropriately.
If no such opportunities exist, maximizing shareholder value dictates that
management returns excess cash to shareholders. Capital investment decisions
thus comprise an investment decision, a financing decision, and a dividend
decision.
Achieving the goals of corporate finance requires that any corporate investment
be financed appropriately.
The ratio between debt and equity is named leverage. It has to be optimized as
high leverage can bring a higher profit but create solvency risk. As above, since
both hurdle rate and cash flows (and hence the riskiness of the firm) will be
affected, the financing mix can impact the valuation. Management must
therefore identify the “optimal mix” of financing – the capital structure that
results in maximum value.
The optimum capital structure has been expressed by Ezra Solomon in the
following words:
“Optimum leverage can be defined as that mix of debt and equity
which will maximize the value of a company, i.e., the aggregate
value of the claims and ownership interests represented on the
credit side of the balance sheet.”
Capital structure policy involves a choice between risk and expected return. The
optimal capital structure strikes a balance between these risks and returns and
thus examines the price of the stock.
The pattern of capital structure of a firm has to be planned in such a way that
the owner’s interest is maximized. There may be three fundamental patterns of
capital structure in a firm:
1. Financing exclusively by equity stock.
2. Financing by equity and preferred stock.
3. Financing by equity, preferred stock and bonds.

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3.4. GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF CAPITAL STRUCTURE
Which of the above patterns would be most suited to the company can be
decided in the light of the fundamental principles. The guiding principles of
capital structure decision are:
1. Cost principle: According to this principle ideal pattern of capital
structure is one that tends to minimize cost of financing and maximize the
earnings per share. Cost of capital is subject to interest rate at which
payments have to be made to suppliers of funds and tax status of such
payments.
2. Risk principle: This principle suggests that such a pattern should be
devised so that the company does not run the risk of brining on a
receivership with all its difficulties and losses. Risk principle places
relatively greater reliance on common stock for financing capital
requirements of the corporation and forbids as far as possible the use of
fixed income bearing securities.
Control principle: While deciding appropriate capital structure the
financial manager should also keep in mind that controlling position of
residual owners remains undisturbed. The use of preferred stock and also
bonds offers a means of raising capital without jeopardizing control.
4. Flexibility principle: According to this principle, the management should
strive towards achieving such combinations of securities that the
management finds it easier to maneuver sources of funds in response to
major changes in needs for funds. Not only several alternatives are open
for assembling required funds but also bargaining position of the
corporation is strengthened while dealing with the supplier of funds.
5. Timing principle: Timing is always important in financing and more
particularly in a growing concern. Maneuverability principle is sought to be
adhered to in choosing the types of funds so as to enable the company to seize
market opportunities and minimize cost of raising capital and obtain substantial

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savings. Depending on business cycles, demand of different types of securities
oscillates. In times of boom when there is all-round business expansion and
economic prosperity and investors have strong desire to invest, it is easier to sell
equity shares. But in periods of depression bonds should be issued to attract
money because investors are afraid to risk their money in stocks which are more
or less speculative.
3.5.FACTORS INFLUENCING CAPITAL STRUCTURE DECISION
A number of factors influence the capital structure decision of a firm. These
factors can be categorized in to three categories, i.e., as per characteristics of
the economy, characteristics of the industry and characteristics of the company.
Characteristic of the Economy
1. Tempo of the business activity: If the economy is to recover from
current depression and the level of business activity is expected to
expand, the management should assign greater weightage to
maneuverability so that the company may several alternative sources
available to procure additional funds to meet its growth needs and
accordingly equity stock should be given more emphasis in financing
programmes and avoid issuing bonds with restrictive covenants.
2. State of capital market: Study of the trends of capital market should be
undertaken in depth since cost and availability of different types of funds
is essentially governed by them. If stock market is going to be plunged
in bearish state and interest rates are expected to decline, the
management may provide greater weightage to maneuverability factor
in order to take advantage of cheaper debt later on.
3. Taxation: The existing tax provision makes debt more advantageous in
relation to stock. Although it is too difficult to forecast future changes
in tax rates, there is no doubt that the tax rates will not be adjusted
downwards.
4. State regulation: Decision as to the make-up of capitalization is subject
to state control. For e.g. Control of Capital Issues Act in India has

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preferred 4:1 ratio between debt and equity and 3:1 between equity and
preferred stock.
5. Policy of Term-Financing Institutions: If financial institutions adopt
harsh lending policy and prescribe highly restrictive terms, the
management must give more significance to maneuverability principle
and abstain from borrowing from those institutions so as to preserve the
company’s flexibility in capital funds.
Characteristics of the Industry
1. Cyclical variations: There are industries whose products are subject to
wider variations in sales in response to national income, whereas some
products have low income elasticity and their sales do not change in
proportion in variation in national income. The management should attach
more significance to flexibility and risk principle in choosing suitable
sources of funds in an industry dealing in products whose sales fluctuate
very markedly over a business cycle so that the company may have
freedom to expand or contract the resources used in accordance with
business requirements.
2. Degree of competition: Public utility concerns are generally free from
intra-industry competition. In such concerns the management may wish
to provide greater weightage to cost principle. But in industry which faces
neck to neck competition, risk principle should be given more
consideration.
3. Stage in life cycle: In infant industry risk principle should be the sub-
guide line in selecting sources of funds since in such industry the rate of
failure is very high. During the period of growth flexibility factor should
be given special consideration so as to leave room open for easy and rapid
expansion of funds used.
Characteristics of the Company

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1. Size of the business: Smaller companies confront tremendous problem in
assembling funds because of poor credit worthiness. In this case, special
attention should be paid to flexibility principle so as to assure that as the
company grows in size it is able to obtain funds when needed and under
acceptable terms. This is why common stock represents major portion of
the capital in smaller concerns. However, the management should also
give special consideration to the factor of control. Larger concerns have
to employ different types of securities to procure desired amount of funds
at reasonable cost. To ensure availability of large funds for financing
future expansion larger concerns may insist on flexibility principle. On the
contrary, in medium sized companies who are in a position to obtain the
entire capital from a single source, leverage principle should be given
greater consideration so as to minimize cost of capital.
2. Form of Business Organization: Control principle should be given
higher weightage in private limited companies where ownership is closely
held in a few hands. In case of public limited companies maneuverability
looms large because in view of its characteristics it finds easier to acquire
equity as well as debt capital. In proprietorship or partnership form control
is an important consideration because it is concentrated in a few hands.
3. Stability of earnings: With greater stability in sales and earnings a
company can insist on leverage principle and accordingly it can undertake
the fixed obligation debt with low risk. But a company with irregular
earnings will not choose to burden itself with fixed charges. Such
company should pay greater attention to risk principle.
Age of company: Younger companies find themselves in difficult
situation to raise capital in the initial years. It is therefore worthwhile to
give more weightage to flexibility principle so as to have as many
alternatives open as possible in future to meet the growth requirement.
Established companies should insist on cost principle.
5. Asset structure of company: A company which have invested major

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portion of funds in long lived fixed assets and demand of whose products
is assured should pay greater attention to leverage principle to take
advantage of cheaper source of fund. But risk principle is more important
in company whose assets are mostly receivables and inventory.
6. Credit standing: A company with high credit standing has greater ability
to adjust sources of funds. In such a case, the management should pay
greater attention too flexibility principle.
7. Attitude of management: Attitude of persons who are at the helm of
affairs of the company should also be analyzed in depth while assigning
weights to different factors affecting the pattern of capitalization. Where
the management has strong desire for exclusive control, preference will
have to be given to borrowing for raising capital in order to be assured of
continued control. If the principal objective of the management is to stay
in office, they would insist more on risk principle. But members of the
Board of Directors who have been in office for pretty long time feel
relatively assured and they would prefer to insist on cost principle.
3.6.CAPITAL STRUCTURE THEORIES
There are different viewpoints on the impact of the debt-equity mix on the
shareholder’s wealth. There is a viewpoint that strongly supports the argument
that the financing decision has major impact on the shareholder’s wealth, while
according to others, the decision about the financial decision is irrelevant as
regards maximization of shareholder’s wealth.
A great deal of controversy has developed over whether the capital structure of
a firm as determined by its financing decision affects its cost of capital.
Traditionalists argue that the firm can lower its cost of capital and increase the
market value per share by the judicious use of leverage. Modigliani & Miller,
on the other hand, argue that in the absence of taxes and other market
imperfections, the total value of the firm and its cost of capital are independent
of capital structure.

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There are four major theories explaining the relationship between capital
structure, cost of capital and value of the firm:
1. Net Income Approach
2. Net Operating Income Approach
3. Traditional Approach
4. Modigliani-Miller Approach
There are certain underlying assumptions made in order to present the theories
in a simple manner. The assumptions are as follows:
1. The firm employs only two types of capital- debt and equity.
2. There are no corporate taxes. This assumption is removed later.
3. The firm pays 100% of its earnings as dividend.
4. The firm’s total assets are given and they do not change, i.e. the
investment decisions are assumed to be constant.
5. The firm’s total financing remains constant.
6. The operating earnings are not expected to grow.
7. The business risk remains constant and is independent of capital
structure and financial risk.
8. All investors have the same subjective probability distribution of the
future expected operating earnings for a given firm.
9. The firm has a perpetual life.
Net Income Approach
The approach has been suggested by David Durand. According to this approach,
the capital structure decision is relevant to the valuation of the firm, i.e., a
change in the capital structure will lead to a corresponding change in the overall
cost of capital as well as the total value of the firm. If the ratio of debt to equity
is increased the weighted average cost of capital will decline, while the value of
the firm as well as the market price of ordinary shares will increase. Conversely,
a decrease in the leverage will cause an increase in cost of capital and a decline
in the value of the firm as well as the market price of equity shares.
The Net Income Approach is based on three assumptions:

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1. There are no taxes.
2. The cost of debt is less than the equity-capitalization rate or cost of
equity.
3. The use of debt does not change the risk perception of the investors.
The implication of the above assumptions is that as the degree of leverage
increases, the proportion of an inexpensive source of funds, i.e., debt in the
capital structure increases. As a result the weighted average cost of capital tends
to decline, leading to an increase in the total value of the firm. Thus, the cost of
debt and cost being constant, the increased use of debt will magnify the
shareholder’s earnings and thereby the market value of the ordinary shares.
With a judicious mixture of debt and equity, a firm can evolve an optimum
capital structure will be the one at which value of the firm is the highest and the
overall cost of capital is the lowest. At that structure the market price per share
would be maximum. If the firm uses no debt the overall cost of capital will be
equal to the equity-capitalization rate. The weighted average cost of capital will
decline and will approach the cost of debt as the degree of leverage reaches one.
We can graph the relationship between the various factors with the degree of
leverage. The degree of leverage is plotted along the X-axis while the
percentage rates for cost of debt, equity and overall cost are on the Y-axis. Due
to the assumption that cost of debt and equity are constant as the degree of
leverage changes, we find that both the curves are parallel to the X-axis. But as
the degree of leverage increases, the overall cost decreases and approaches the
cost of debt where leverage is one. At this point the firm’s overall cost of capital
would be the minimum. The significant conclusion is that the firm can employ
almost 100% debt to maximize its value.
Net Operating Income Approach
This approach is also suggested by David Durand. It is diametrically opposite
to the Net Income Approach. The essence of this approach is that the capital
structure decision of the firm is irrelevant. Any change in leverage will not lead

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to any change in the total value of the firm and the market price of shares, as the
overall cost of capital is independent of the degree of the leverage.
The Net Operating Income Approach is based on the following propositions:
1. Overall cost of capital is constant: The overall cost of capital remains
constant
for all degrees of leverage. The value of the firm, given the level of EBIT
is determined by V = EBIT/ko.
2. Residual value of equity: The value of equity is residual which is
determined by deducting the total value of debt from the total value of
the firm.
3. Changes in cost of equity capital: The cost of equity increases with the
degree of leverage. With the increase in the proportion of debt the
financial risk of the shareholders will increase. To compensate for the
increased risk, the shareholders would expect a higher rate or return.
4. Cost of debt: The cost of debt has two parts: explicit and implicit cost.
The explicit cost is represented by the rate of interest. Irrespective of the
degree of leverage the firm is assumed to be able to borrow at a given
rate of interest. This implies that the increasing proportion of debt in the
financial structure does not affect the financial risk of the lenders and
they do not penalize the firm by charging higher interest. Increase in the
degree of leverage causes an increase in the cost of equity. This increase
in cost of equity being attributable to the increase in debt is implicit part
of cost of debt. Thus the advantage associated with the use of debt
supposed to be a cheaper source of funds in terms of the explicit cost is
exactly neutralized by the implicit cost represented by the increase in
cost of equity. As a result the real cost of debt and the real cost of equity
according to Net Operating Income are the same and equal to overall
cost.
No matter what the degree of leverage is, the total value of the firm will remain
constant. The market price of shares will also not change with the change in the
debt-equity ratio. There is nothing such as an optimum capital structure. Any

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capital structure is optimum according to Net Operating Income Approach.
Traditional Approach
The Traditional Approach or the Intermediate Approach is a mid-way approach
between the Net Income and Net Operating Income approach. It partly contains
features of both the approaches.
The traditional approach accepts that the capital structure of the firm affects the
cost of capital and its valuation. However, it does not subscribe to the Net
Income approach that the value of the firm will necessarily increase with all
degrees of leverages.
It subscribes to the Net Operating Income approach that beyond a certain degree
of leverage, the overall cost of capital increases resulting in decrease in the total
value of the firm. However, it differs from Net Operating Income approach in
the sense that the overall cost of capital will not remain constant for all the
degree of leverages.
The essence of the traditional approach lies in the fact that a firm through
judicious use of debt-equity mix can increase its total value and thereby reduce
its overall cost of capital. According to this approach, up to a point, the content
of debt in the capital structure will favorably affect the value of the firm.
However, beyond that point, the use of debt will adversely affect the value of
the firm. At this level of debt-equity mix the capital structure will be optimum.7
The Modigliani-Miller theorem, proposed by Franco Modigliani and Merton
Miller, forms the basis for modern thinking on capital structure, though it is
generally viewed as a purely theoretical result since it assumes away many
important factors in the capital structure decision. The theorem states that, in a
perfect market, the value of a firm is irrelevant to how that firm is financed. This
result provides the base with which to examine real world reasons why capital
structure is relevant, that is, a company’s value is affected by the capital
structure it employs.
If capital structure is irrelevant in a prefect market, then imperfections which
exist in the real world must be the cause of its relevance. The theories below try

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to address some of the imperfections, by relaxing assumptions made in the
M&M model.
One of the main theories of how firms make their financing decisions is the
Pecking Order Theory, which suggests that firms avoid external financing while
they have internal financing available and avoid new equity financing while
they can engage in new debt financing at reasonably low interest rates. The
pecking order theory is based on the assertion that managers have more
information about their firms than investors. This disparity of information is
referred to as asymmetric information. Other things being equal, because of
asymmetric information, managers will issue debt when they are positive about
their firms’ future prospects and will issue equity when they are unsure. Another
major theory is the Trade-Off Theory in which firms are assumed to trade-off
the tax benefits of debt with the bankruptcy costs of debt when making their
decisions. An emerging area in finance theory is right-financing whereby
investment banks and corporations can enhance investment return and company
value over time by determining the right investment objectives policy
framework, institutional structure, source of financing (debt or equity) and
expenditure framework within a given economy and under given market
conditions. One last theory about this decision is the Market timing hypothesis
which states that firms look for the cheaper type of financing regardless of their
current levels of internal resources, debt and equity.
Trade-off theory allows the bankruptcy cost to exist. It states that there is an
advantage to financing with debt (namely, the tax benefit of debts) and that there
is a cost of financing with debt (the bankruptcy costs of debt). The marginal
benefit of further increases in debt declines as debt increase, while the marginal
cost increases, so that a firm that is optimizing its overall value will focus on
this trade-off when choosing how much debt and equity to use for financing.
Empirically, this theory may explain differences in D/E ratios between
industries, but it doesn’t explain differences within the same industry.12
This theory maintains that businesses adhere to a hierarchy of financing sources
and prefer internal financing when available, and debt is preferred over equity
if external financing is required. Thus, the form of debt a firm chooses can act

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as a signal of its need for external finance. The pecking order theory is
popularized by Myers(1984) when he argues that equity is a less preferred
means to raise capital because when managers (who are assumed to know better
about true condition of the firm than investors) issue new equity, investors
believe that managers think that the firm is overvalued and managers are taking
advantage of this over-valuation. As a result, investors will place a lower value
to the new equity issuance.
The determination of capital structure in practice involves considerations in
addition to the concerns about earning per share, value and cash flow. A firm
may have enough debt servicing ability but it may not have assets to offer as
collateral. Attitudes of firms with regard to financing decisions may also be
quite often influenced by their desire of not losing control, maintaining
operating flexibility and have convenient timing and cheaper means of raising
of funds.
According to Ezra Solomon and John Pringle, financial leverage affects both
the magnitude and the variability of earnings per share and return on equity. For
any given level of EBIT, the effect of increase in leverage is favorable if the
percentage rate of operating return on assets is greater than the interest on debt
and it is unfavorable if it is less. When EBIT varies over time, financial leverage
magnifies the variation in earnings per share and return on equity.13
A great deal of controversy has developed over whether the capital of a firm as
determined by its financing decision, affects its cost of capital. Traditionalists
argue that the firm can lower its cost of capital and increase market value per
share by the judicious use of leverage. Modigliani and Miller, on the other hand,
argue that in the absence of taxes and other market imperfections, the total value
of the firm and its cost of capital are independent of capital structure. This
position is based on the notion that there is a conservation of investment value.
No matter how you divide the pie between debt and equity claims, the total
investment value of the firm stays the same. Therefore, leverage is said to be
irrelevant.14
Hence, the proposed study makes a critical study of the capital structure of

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various companies over a period of a time. There are various industries like
cement, pharmaceuticals, sugar, steel, petroleum, fertilizer, automobile etc.
From among these, the proposed research shall study few companies in the
pharmaceutical and engineering industry.

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CHAPTER FOUR
Research Methodology

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4.1. RESEARCH:
 Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge; A
movement from the known to the unknown.
 Research is a method of studying, analyzing and
conceptualization social life in order to extent modify correct or verify
knowledge whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in
practice of an art.
 Frontiers of knowledge.
4.2. OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH
 To extent knowledge of human being.
 To bring out useful information.
 To analysis inter relationship between variables.
 To face a challenge.
 To solve a problem
 To get intellectual joy.
4.3. SOURCE OF DATA
Two types of Data
I. Primary data
II. Secondary data
PRIMARY DATA:-
Primary data collection begins when a researcher is not able to find the
data required for his research from secondary data, primary data obtained by
communication observation and personal interview and questionnaire and it is
collected for the first time to be original character.
In primary data collection, the information and data has been collected
through questions raised to staff members and executive personnel during the
online discussions sheering the questions about the loans taken from the

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commercial banks and moreover, some sort of questions were asked about the
targeted budgets for the current projects the company was having.
The other information regarding the financial aspects of the project was
collected from YCC Accounts Manager Mr. Karimullah Totakhail.
SECONDARY DATA:-
Secondary data is taken by the researcher from secondary source internal
and external the researcher must thoroughly search secondary data sources
before commissioning any effort for collecting primary data.
Internal data: collection of data from within the organization.
External data: collection of data from outside the organization.
The secondary data were collected from the bank websites, journals,
various academic essays, articles. Moreover, various internet media was also
undertaken, viz. Internet websites, e-magazines, Etc.

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CHAPTER FIVE
Data Analysis and Interpretation.

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5.1. Data Analysis & Interpretation:
Yaar Construction Company’s own capital is 3,920,000/- which is the 40%
stake of all the equity, and the loan contribution is 5,880,000/- (i.e. 60%). After
analyzing and calculating the essential financial ratios, WACC, NPV and IRR,
the cost of capital we found was 0.15 (i.e. 15%).
Our analysis is to assume the changes in percentage of loan in order to find out
the better rate of WACC.
The lesser WACC the more better for the company. Due to that, we will assume
and find out the WACC and other stuffs while taking 20%, 60% and 80% loan
respectively.
After finding in these three processes, the lesser will be recommended and
preferred for the Yaar Construction Company.
First we are going to assume 20% loan, and the remaining will be put on own
capital.
1. Finding of WACC by taking 20% loan:
The total amount of capital including loan is 9,800,000/- whereas loan from this
amount accounts 20% (i.e. 1,960,000/-) and the remaining is own contribution
(i.e. 7,840,000/-).
a. Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC)
‘
*kd = cost of debt
Kd = interest rate (1-tax rate)
Kd = 13.2% (1-20%)
Kd = 0.106
*ks = cost of equity
*Note: in Afghanistan there is no stock exchange market. Due to finding the
rate of cost of equity, we are going to apply the CAPM model [(i.e. Ki = Krf +
(KM – Krf) * betai)]

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The assumption is that Afghanistan is one of the SAARC member, and in that
mostly the construction field is resemble with that of India. Due to that the beta
of risk measurement will be taken from a similar Indian company and
accordingly are going to find the beta and the market free risk and KM.
We = weight of equity (i.e. 0.80 or 80% of the total capital)
Wd = weight of debt (i.e. 20% of the total capital)
Therefore, WdKd = 0.0211, and WeKs = 0.144. While multiplying these two
columns we get WACC which equals to 0.165 (i.e. 16.5%)
The assumption is that Afghanistan is one of the SAARC member, and in that
mostly the construction field is resemble with that of India. Due to that the beta
of risk will be taken from a similar Indian company and accordingly are going
to find the beta and the market free risk and KM. ‘Wd’ is the cost of debt (i.e. loan)
we took (i.e. 20% of the whole amount)
‘We’ is owner’s equity capital (i.e. 80% of the whole amount)
b. NPV by taking 0.165 (16.5%) and 0.70 (70%):
c. Internal Rate of Return (IRR):
Internal rate of return or IRR is the minimum discount rate that management
uses to identify what capital investments or future projects will yield an

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acceptable return and be worth pursuing. The IRR for a specific project is the
rate that equates the net present value of future cash flows from the project to
zero. In other words, if we computed the present value of future cash flows from
a potential project using the internal rate as the discount rate and subtracted out
the original investment, our net present value of the project would be zero.
This sounds a little confusing at first, but it’s pretty simple. Think of it in terms
of capital investing like the company’s management would. They want to
calculate what percentage return is required to break even on an investment
adjusted for the time value of money. You can think of the internal rate of return
as the interest percentage that company has to achieve in order to break even on
its investment in new capital. Since management wants to do better than break
even, they consider this the minimum acceptable return on an investment.
Remember, IRR is the rate at which the net present value of the costs of an
investment equals the net present value of the expected future revenues of the
investment. Management can use this return rate to compare other investments
and decide what capital projects should be funded and what ones should be
scrapped.
Going back to our machine shop example, assume Tom could purchase three
different pieces of machinery. Each would be used for a slightly different job
that brought in slightly different amounts of cash flow. Tom can calculate the
internal rate of return on each machine and compare them all. The one with the
highest IRR would be the best investment.
Since this is an investment calculation, the concept can also be applied to any
other investment. For instance, Tom can compare the return rates of investing
the company’s money in the stock market or new equipment. Now obviously
the expected future cash flows aren’t always equal to the actual cash received
in the future, but this represents a starting point for management to base their
purchase and investment decisions on.
2. Finding of WACC by taking loan of 60%:
As we are done with the 20% loan assumption, we found out weighted average
cost of capital which was 16.5%. Now, we are going to try or assume 60% loan
from the given capital (i.e. 9,800,000).

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a. Initial information:
According to 60% loan from the total capital it becomes 5,880,000/- and the
remaining 40% is assumed to be the company’s own capital (i.e. 3,920,000).
Now, by assuming 60% loan we will be going to find out the EMI and the
interest rate which is going to change the figures in the profitability statement
and the WACC along with Net Present Value and Internal Rate of Return.
b. Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC):
*kd = cost of debt
Kd = 13.2% (1-20%)
Kd = 0.106
The assumption is that Afghanistan is one of the SAARC countries members,
and in that mostly the construction field is resemble with that of India. Due to

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that the beta of risk will be taken from a similar Indian company and accordingly
are going to find the beta and the market free risk and KM.
Weighted average cost of capital is derived by multiplying weighted debt with
cost of debt plus weight of equity with cost of equity.
A calculation of a firm's cost of capital in which each category of capital is
proportionately weighted. All capital sources - common stock, preferred stock,
bonds and any other long-term debt - are included in a WACC calculation. All
else equal, the WACC of a firm increases as the beta and rate of return on equity
increases, as an increase in WACC notes a decrease in valuation and a higher
risk.
By assuming 60% loan the weighted average cost of capital became 0.135 (i.e.
13.5%). This rate is by far better than the previous assumption we did, which
was for the 20% loan.
The more this rate is going to ebb, the more the company is in the profit. By
WACC we means that The Weighted Cost of Capital (WACC) is used in finance
to measure a firm's cost of capital. Importantly, is not dictated by management.
Rather, it represents the minimum return that a company must earn on an
existing asset base to satisfy its creditors, owners, and other providers of capital,
or they will invest elsewhere.
c. Net Present Value (NPV):
First finding the Net Present Value @13.5% as the cost of capital was this much
we found before. Now applying the following procedure in the table in order to
find out NPV @13.5%.

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As we now found out NPV @13.5 by deducting project cost from the total
PVCIF it came a positive figure (i.e. 9,913,774). Now we in order to find out
internal rate of return (IRR) we are liable to find NPV with a negative figure.
For that we are taking NPV @70% assumption as we took this value for all the
remaining and upcoming analysis.
After applying the net present value of return at 70% we found the value in a
negative figure which is -1,828,866. It is now easy to find out Internal Rate of
Return.
d. Internal Rate of Return (IRR):

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By taking NPV at 70% assumption we got Internal Rate of Return 63.5%. This
rate is bigger and better than the previous assumption of 20% loan (i.e. 60%).
The 3.1% difference shows that the company be taking this much loan will put
in profit and the business will be in a good condition.
3. Finding of WACC by taking 80% loan:
1. Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC):
*kd = cost of debt*kd = cost of debt
Kd = 13.2% (1-20%)
Kd = 0.106
The assumption is that Afghanistan is one of the SAARC countries members,
and in that mostly the construction field is resemble with that of India. Due to
that the beta of risk will be taken from a similar Indian company and accordingly
are going to find the beta and the market free risk and KM.

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2. Calculating NPV @12%:
*the Net present Value at 12% after calculation is Rs. 10,096,769/-
*For finding the assumed internal rate of return (IRR) we need to increase the
percentage level this is because the figure came positive; to find IRR we need
one positive NPV figure and one negative.
*now calculating NPV @70%.
3. Internal Rate of Return (IRR):
Before analyzing why we choose the minimum rate, we need to elaborate the
essentials of WACC in brief as follows:

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Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC):
The weighted average cost of capital (WACC) is the rate that a company is
expected to pay on average to all its security holders to finance its assets. The
WACC is commonly referred to as the firm’s cost of capital. Importantly, it is
not dictated by management. Rather, it represents the minimum return that a
company must earn on an existing asset base to satisfy its creditors, owners, and
other providers of capital, or they will invest elsewhere.
Companies raise money from a number of sources: common stock, preferred
stock, straight debt, convertible debt, exchangeable debt, warrants, options,
pension liabilities, executive stock options, governmental subsidies, and so on.
Different securities, which represent different sources of finance, are expected
to generate different returns. The WACC is calculated taking into account the
relative weights of each component of the capital structure. The more complex
the company's capital structure, the more laborious it is to calculate the WACC.
Companies can use WACC to see if the investment projects available to them
are worthwhile to undertake.
In general there are three sources of funding available to a company to fund its
operations: retained earnings, borrowed money (debt financing), and selling
equity (stocks and bonds). If the money to support a project is obtained via a
loan (debt financing), then the cost of that money is the interest paid to the loan
provider. If all of the money is obtained via a loan than the interest rate on the
loan is set when the money a company uses is obtained and the interest rate can
simply be used to modify future cash flows as in (1.4), however, this is rarely
the case. Usually companies are funded by and fund projects via a combination
of debt and equity capital the effective cost of money is not so simple to
determine. Most engineering economics texts refer to the rate paid for money
as simply the “interest rate” and many engineers will more generally call it the
“discount rate”. Both of these terms infer the source of the money – interest
rate infers debt financing, the discount rate is defined as the interest rate charged
to commercial banks and other depository institutions for loans received from
the Federal Reserve Bank’s discount window (or the rate used by pension plans
and insurance companies for discounting their liabilities). A more general term
is the “weighted Average cost of capital” or WACC, which attempts to capture
and combine the cost of all the sources of money. This appendix describes the
general calculation and use of the WACC. It also describes how the WACC can
change over time and issues with using the WACC in long (calendar) time
calculations.
B.1 the Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC)
A wide variety of methods can be used to determine the rate for cost of money,
but in many cases, these calculations resemble art more than science. One

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common strategy is to apply the concepts of the weighted average cost of capital
(WACC). The WACC is essentially a blend of the cost of equity and the after-
tax cost of debt.
B.1.1 Cost of Equity
Equity is a stock or any other security representing an ownership interest in a
company. Companies, weather public or private raise money by selling equity
in itself. Unlike debt, for which the company must pay at a set rate of interest,
equity does not have a set price that the company must pay. But this doesn't
mean that there is no cost of equity. Equity shareholders expect to obtain a
certain return on their equity investment in a company. From the company's
perspective, the equity holders' required rate of return is a cost, because if the
company does not deliver this expected return, shareholders may sell their
shares, causing the stock price to drop. The cost of equity is basically what it
costs the company to maintain a share price that is satisfactory (at least in
theory) to investors. The most commonly accepted method for calculating cost
of equity comes from the capital asset pricing model.
Cost of Debt
Debt is an amount of money borrowed by one party from another. Corporations
use debt as a method for making large purchases that they could not afford under
normal circumstances. A debt arrangement gives the borrowing party
permission to borrow money under the condition that it is to be paid back at a
later date, usually with interest. Compared to cost of equity, cost of debt is more
straightforward to calculate. The rate applied to determine the cost of debt (Rd)
should be the current market rate the company is paying on its debt. If the
company is not paying market rates, an appropriate market rate payable by the
company should be estimated. Since companies benefit from the tax deductions
available on interest paid on debt, the net cost of the debt is actually the interest
paid less the tax savings resulting from the tax-deductible interest payment.
Therefore, the after-tax cost of debt is Rd (1 - corporate tax rate).
Why we choose the minimum percentage of weighted average cost of
capital?
Weighted average cost of debt or simply WACC is the minimum rate the
company is going to pay to the debt owners. If the rate is high we are liable to
pay high amount from our PAT and inversely, if it is less we will pay less
amount to them. Due to that, the 80% loan where the WACC rate is 12% is quite
profitable for the company to accept and take this much loan and the remaining
of his own contribution.

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Evaluation of WACC, IRR and NPV and the decision table:
As we found out that 80% of loan estimation was a better decision for the
company to select because of the decrease in the value of weighted average cost
of capital (that was 12%). We also found out the Net present value and the
internal rate of return simultaneously. It is said that the proposal having the
highest percentage of internal rate of return which would be more than the cost
of capital, will be accepted. Looking to the IRR and Net Present Value the 20%
loan estimation is coming the correct proposal to be accepted. But, the matter
of fact, we analyzed according to the WACC therefore, we need to find out the
value of per share which is going to be given to the owner of the capital.
For that we are going to take some assumptions as follows:
1. The face value of the equity share is 10
Decision Table
Explanation:
The total equity is Rs. 9,800,000/-. We took 20%, 60% and 80% loan estimation.
No. of Share having face value 10 each:
784,000 = 9,800,000*(100%-20%)/10
392,000 = 9,800,000*(100%-60%)/10
WACC for 20%, 60% and 80% we found was 16.5%, 13.5% and 12%. We
selected the minimum among them (i.e. 12%, which is for the 80% loan
estimation).
IRR for the 20%, 60% and 80% we found by applying the formula was 65.5%,
63.5% and 62.50%. In that we selected the maximum percentage due to having
the rule of internal rate of return. (I.e. the highest IRR is to be considered).
Now, the Value per share is derived by dividing the Net Present Value upon
number of shares. The justification is that by taking 80% loan estimation the
value per share for the owner increases more than taking the other estimations.

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In 20% it was 12.88 similarly, for 60% it was 25.29 and for 80% it was 48.85,
which is the highest among them.
Therefore, the 80% loan estimation proposal is better for the company to accept.

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CHAPTER SIX
Findings

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 The company’s taken loan was 40% and their shareholders’ contribution
was 60% of total capital. WACC was 15%. Net Present Value was Rs.
9,739,653/- only. Which is a very high amount. Internal Rate of Return was
64.5%. This rate is very high, and the company’s financial position is good.
 After analyzing the financial data, we took first 20%, and the WACC came
16.5% and the NPV came Rs. 9,573,774/- only. Similarly, IRR we found
was 65.5%. Higher than the previous one.
 For 60%, WACC came 13.5%, NPV Rs. 9,913,774/- only, and IRR =
63.5%.
 For 80%, WACC came 12.0%, NPV Rs. 10,096,769/- only. Similarly, IRR
was 62.5%.
 The profit after tax in the year 2010 was 6,245,703/-, (the most profitable
year). The least among them was in the year 2013 where only Rs.
1,807,115/- was the net profit.
 The year 2010 is by far better than the rest of the years by having the Gross
profit ratio 0.677.
 These are the illustrative tables for the aforementioned assumed rates for
finding the WACC:
a. 20% loan:
b. 40% loan (the company’s taken rate for the business):
c. 60% loan:
d. 80% loan:

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CHAPTER SEVEN
Conclusion

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The WACC is the return that investors (equity and debt providers
combined) would require to invest in a particular project, given the risk
associated with the returns to a particular project relative to that of other
projects. A WACC is not something that can be estimated in isolation – rather,
the first step in estimating a WACC is to understand the project for which the
WACC is to be estimated. Normally when a WACC is estimated, the project
for which it is to be estimated is obvious. Weighted Average Cost of Capital
after calculation for YCC is 15% (i.e. 0.15). The rate of WACC decreases when
the debt level increases. Notwithstanding, it also effects on the net present
value and internal rate of return. Now, as our analysis is about the weighted
average cost of capital (WACC), we did three assumptions of WACC
respectively in order to find out the most minimum feasible WACC among
them. For that we took 20%, 60% and 80% loan estimation.
The most feasible and efficient proposal is 20% in which the WACC
was 0.12 only.

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CHAPTER EIGHT
Suggestions

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 The company’s overall business is very good. In order to make it better
and feasible, it needs to focus more not to keep cash with itself.
 To make more profit, YCC needs to apply the 80% loan proposal model.
Because the value per share per shareholder is far better than the other
proposals.
 The income statement of both shows the sign of positivity, but as the
loan is also going to be paid to the bank, the differentiation between the
previous percentage (i.e. 40% loan taken) and the later (80% loan taken)
has not that much difference in amount. The total net profit in the year
2010 as per the company’s original loan taken (i.e. 40%) is Rs.
6,245,703/- and for the 80% loan (assumed) came Rs. 5,858,286/- only.
The difference among them is Rs. 387,417/- only. This differentiation is
somehow variable but not in the side of loss or very much less. Indeed,
looking to the profitability ratios we found that 80% was a better choice
for the company to be tried.
 WACC for the 80% came 12.0%. Due to that, the lessor among them is
to be selected as efficient and feasible in spite of having the risk.

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CHAPTER NINE
Managerial Implications and
Scope of Future Study

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We would like to conclude the process of writing this thesis with one
work’ perspective. We consider that it is worth mention this word even though
you certainly are aware of it and its implications. It was our tutor Prof. Zafir
who brought this word to our attention in the classes and it affected our way of
thinking as it increased our awareness of the wide range of possible perspectives
there are to analyze a subject from when writing a thesis. Different individuals
will probably look at one company differently if you are for say an engineer,
economist or human resource person and it is thus important to decide what you
are to write about and what you want to analyze. We would say that it is extra
important today as a lot of information is available and it is easy to analyze the
data. It is therefore from a strategic point of view important of decide what you
want to measure and to assure yourself that what you have measured is what
you intended to measure.
My thesis has taken the different estimated rates of weighted average
cost of capitals of Yaar Construction Company for finding out the best and
suitable rate of WACC for the YCC Company. The original percentage of loan
taken by the company is 40% and for the analysis we brought some assumptions
and in that we analyzed the assumed 20%, 60% and 80% of loan taken by the
company, and ultimately found out the impact of it on the company’s total
profits and income statement.
There are a lot of different assumptions made in these theories and we
chose to take a macro perspective look, which relies on the assumption that there
is an efficient market. Different economists would certainly have taken different
perspectives in this case of study but we thought that is was interesting to
analyze the chosen methods applicability. We run into various interesting areas
as the writing of this thesis and suggestions that you are about to write your
master thesis in the subject of finance and that you therefore have acquired the
necessary skills for doing that.

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Bibliography
References:
Harris, M, and Raviv, A 1991, ‘The Theory of capital Structure’, Journal of
Finance, 46, 1, pp.297-355, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 28
May 2015.
Hovakimian, A, and Titman, S 2002, ‘THE CAPITAL STRUCTURE CHOICE:
NEW EVIDENCE FOR A DYNAMIC TRADEOFF MODEL’, Journal Of
Applied Corporate Finance, 15, 1, p. 24, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost,
viewed 17 May 2015.
Modigliani, F and Miller, M1966, ‘SOME ESTIMATES OF THE COST OF
CAPITAL TO THE ELECTRIC UTILITY INDUSTRY, 1954-57’, American
Economic Review, 56, 3, p. 333, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed
15 July 2015.
Myers, SC 1977, Determinants of Corporate borrowing, Journal of Financial
Economics, Volume 5, Issue 2, November 1977, Pages 147-175
Myers, SC 2001, ‘Capital Structure’, Journal of Economic Perspective, 15, 2,
pp. 81-102, Business Source Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 4 July 2015.
Books:
Berk, Jonathan, DeMarzo, Peter, 2011, ‘Corporate Finance’ Second edition,
published by Pearson Education as Prentice Hall.
Danidarabm Aswatgm 2002, ‘Investment Valuation: Second Edition’ Published
by John and Sons, Inc. New York.
Eun, Cheol S., Resnick, Bruce G., 2009, ‘International Financial Management’
Fifth edition, published by McGraw Hill/Irwin
Watson, D., Head, A., 2013, ‘Corporate Finance – Principle and Practice’,
Sixth Edition, Published by Pearson Education.
Websites:
www.google.com
www.moneycontrol.com
www.investopedia.com

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Foreign Exchange rates and their charts:

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Yaar Construction Company’s financial data:
Yaar Construction Company starts working in the year 2008. Its pro-activeness
capability and well done performance absolutely touched its benchmark they
were having in the very beginning of the incorporation.
Below is the financial data of Yaar Construction Company. The five year
balance sheet, profitability statement, expenditure usage columns, and such
other relevant financial numerical data is presented.
1. This table is belonging to the initial information of YCC Company.

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2. This table belongs to the working capital of Yaar Construction
Company. All the salary and expenditures are of monthly-wise
calculated in the below table.
3. The investment cost of capital. The biggest amount is used on the vehicle
as the company really have so active parts with the usage of vehicles.

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4. Table for the percentage change in the total amount. All the increases in
the expenditures of calculated year-wise.
5. Amount change in the total expenditure year-wise accordingly.

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6. Revenue Statement for the last five years
7. EMI calculation Statement for each year respectively.
a. EMI for the year 2010:

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b. EMI for the year 2011:
c. EMI for the year 2012:

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d. EMI for the year 2013:
e. EMI for the year 2014:
8. Depreciation statement for all the fixed assets. The percentage of
deprecation for all the fixed assets are variable (i.e. Vehicle – 15%,
Furniture – 10%, Fixtures – 30%, Computers – 28%)

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a. Depreciation statement for vehicle:
b. Depreciation statement for Computers:
c. Depreciation Statement for Furniture:
d. Depreciation Statement for Fixtures:

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e. Depreciation Total with graph illustration:
9. Profitability Statement:

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10. Balance sheet for the year 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014:

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11. Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC):
Kd is derived by using the following formula: interest rate (1-tax)
Ks is 0.18 as I can’t give words on it because this rate was given as the company
applied it without mentioning the core cause of it.
The loan taken by Yaar Construction Company (YCC) is 40% (i.e. 3,920,000)
and the company’s own capital is 60% (i.e. 5,880,000).
Weighted Average Cost of Capital is derived by multiplying WDKD into
WEKS (i.e. WDKD (0.0422) * WEKS (0.108) = WACC (0.15024) or 15%)
As the cost of capital is 15%, we are now going to find the Profit after Tax (i.e.
PAT) that is by adding the income with depreciation.
PVIF @ 15 is found from the following formula:
1/1.15
After calculating we found out NPV @15 is 9,739,653. (Nine Million Seven
Lakh Thirty nine thousand Six hundred and Fifty Three only/-)

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Now, to find out the internal rate of return (IRR) we need to have an assumption
rate of NPV. For that we are taking NPV @70%. The following table is made
on the assumption of 70% Net profit value:
In order to make the IRR efficient, the assumed result must be in negative
numbers.
Internal Rate of Return (IRR):
The internal rate of return (IRR) or economic rate of return (ERR) is a rate
of return used in capital budgeting to measure and compare the profitability of
investments. It is also called the discounted cash flow rate of return (DCFROR).
In the context of savings and loans, the IRR is also called the effective interest
rate. The term internal refers to the fact that its calculation does not incorporate
environmental factors (e.g., the interest rate or inflation).
Uses of IRR:
IRR calculations are commonly used to evaluate the desirability of investments
or projects. The higher a project's IRR, the more desirable it is to undertake the
project. Assuming all projects require the same amount of up-front investment,
the project with the highest IRR would be considered the best and undertaken
first.
A firm (or individual) should, in theory, undertake all projects or investments
available with IRRs that exceed the cost of capital. Investment may be limited
by availability of funds to the firm and/or by the firm's capacity or ability to
manage numerous projects.
Because the internal rate of return is a rate quantity, it is an indicator of the
efficiency, quality, or yield of an investment. This is in contrast with the net
present value, which is an indicator of the value or magnitude of an investment.
An investment is considered acceptable if its internal rate of return is greater
than an established minimum acceptable rate of return or cost of capital. In a
scenario where an investment is considered by a firm that has shareholders, this
minimum rate is the cost of capital of the investment (which may be determined

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by the risk-adjusted cost of capital of alternative investments). This ensures that
the investment is supported by equity holders since, in general, an investment
whose IRR exceeds its cost of capital adds value for the company (i.e., it is
economically profitable).
One of the uses of IRR is by corporations that wish to compare capital projects.
For example, a corporation will evaluate an investment in a new plant versus an
extension of an existing plant based on the IRR of each project. In such a case,
each new capital project must produce an IRR that is higher than the company's
cost of capital. Once this hurdle is surpassed, the project with the highest IRR
would be the wiser investment, all other things being equal (including risk).
IRR is also useful for corporations in evaluating stock buyback programs.
Clearly, if a company allocates a substantial amount to a stock buyback, the
analysis must show that the company's own stock is a better investment (has a
higher IRR) than any other use of the funds for other capital projects, or than
any acquisition candidate at current market prices.
Decision criterion:
If the IRR is greater than the cost of capital, accept the projects.
If the IRR is less than the cost of capital, reject the projects.
Now the Internal Rate of Return formula is:
Implication:
As the cost of capital is 15% and the internal rate of return is 64.5%, there is a
huge difference in the rate. Due to the decision criterion of IRR, if the rate of
return is more than the cost of capital, we usually accept the project rather to
reject. Nevertheless, if it supposedly came lower than the cost of capital, the
company surely would reject the proposal. But as the profit is immense the
company is in a very good position. They accepted the proposals.
Finding of WACC by taking 20% loan:

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a. Initial information:
*The amount depreciation, expenditure changes amount is the same as it is
mention in the before pages. We don’t need to bring changes in the balance
sheet as our work is with the profitability statement. We mostly need the
Weighted Average Cost of Capital to show how much variation is there with
the company’s taken loan. The lesser will be selected.
a. EMI calculation for each year along with their graphs:

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a. Profitability Statement along with graph illustration

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1. Initial Information:
e. Calculation of EMI for each year on the basis of assumed value
(60%):
After using the EMI formula the per month interest amount was 134,539/- only.
1. EMI for the year 2010:

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f. Profitability Statement:
*The interest rate is changed because of the loan proportion. In the first year the
interest amount is 726,408. Moreover, the interest amount goes down year after
year.
*The tax rate is 20% as it was. No changes are added in this part.
The income statement, also called the profit and loss statement, is a report that
shows the income, expenses, and resulting profits or losses of a company during
a specific time period. The income statement is the first financial statement
typically prepared during the accounting cycle because the net income or loss
must be calculated and carried over to the statement of owner's equity before
other financial statements can be prepared.

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The income statement calculates the net income of a company by subtracting
total expenses from total income. This calculation shows investors and creditors
the overall profitability of the company as well as how efficiently the company
is at generating profits from total revenues.
The income and expense accounts can also be subdivided to calculate gross
profit and the income or loss from operations. These two calculations are best
shown on a multi-step income statement. Gross profit is calculated by
subtracting cost of goods sold from net sales. Operating income is calculated by
subtracting operating expenses from the gross profit.
Unlike the balance sheet, the income statement calculates net income or loss
over a range of time. For example annual statements use revenues and expenses
over a 12-month period, while quarterly statements focus on revenues and
expenses incurred during a 3-month period.

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2. EMI calculation for 80% loan:
a. EMI calculation for the year 2010:

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b. EMI calculation for the year 2011:
c. EMI calculation for the year 2012:
d. EMI calculation for the year 2013

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e. EMI calculation for the year 2014:
3. Profitability Statement:

An Analytical Analysis on Weighted Average Cost of Capital

An Analytical Analysis on Weighted Average Cost of Capital

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