1. Running head: EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN 1
Effects of Divorce on Children as a Function of Age, Sex, and Parenting
Randi Hovey
Utah State University

2. EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN 2
Abstract
With rising divorce rates in recent decades, many research studies have been conducted
to determine the effects of family separation on children. Typical findings show increased
behavioral problems, decreased social abilities, and adjustment difficulties which
manifest in lower academic success, higher probability for criminal involvement, and risk
of mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression. However, when controlling for
intervening variables such as parental status, mental health, and parenting style,
differences are minimal between children from divorced and non-divorced parents.
Results suggest that the adverse effects of divorce may be minimalized when parents can
effectively cope with stress, get early help for depressive symptoms, allow children
regular time with both parents, and keep the child’s living conditions and environment as
stable as possible.

3. EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN 3
Effects of Divorce on Children as a Function of Age, Sex, and Parenting
Current statistics show that divorce rates have increased to 50% over recent
decades resulting in more than one million children a year suffering the structural,
economic, and emotional consequences of family upheaval (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005). The
possible negative effects of divorce on children have, therefore, become a focus of
concern in modern society. However, recent studies have found interaction effects
between children’s age, sex, social support, socioeconomic status, quality of parent-child
relationships, and elapsed time, with the severity of adjustment and behavior difficulties
children may face after divorce (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005). Data suggests that negative effects
are not experienced by all children in divorced families (Rodgers, 1996), and a meta-
analysis conducted by Amato and Keith (1991) found no difference in measures for 75%
of cases when comparing academic achievement, behavior, psychological and social
adjustment between children of divorced and nondivorced parents. Interpretation of
recent findings by Burns, Dunlop, and Taylor (1997) suggest that the tendency to focus
on strongly significant findings in research of divorced and intact families may lead to the
impression that the direct effects of divorce are more pervasive than is warranted by the
actual data. Research indicates that the risk of adverse consequences may be avoided, or
at least decreased, if parents can maintain stability in children’s living conditions,
effectively manage their own stress, engage in strong authoritative parenting styles, and
continue to allow children regular contact with both parents (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005).
Discussion
Age-RelatedEffects

4. EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN 4
Adolescent vs. pre-school findings. Studies by Hodges, Tierney, and Buchsbaum
(1984) found that children whose parents divorce in their pre-school years exhibit more
adjustment difficulties. These findings were confirmed in research by Howell, Portes, and
Brown (1997), along with an indication of decreased self-esteem among children age 15-
16 who experienced parental divorce during pre-school years. Further research on the
different effects of divorce for children in pre-school vs. adolescence show that young
children show more immediate negative effects while older children tend to exhibit
adverse consequences in later stages of life (Hetherington, Cox, & Cox, 1978).
Developmental implications in pre-school. According to Erikson’s theory of
psychological development, pre-school age children rely on play and enrichment
activities to develop necessary social skills and build a foundation for strong self-esteem.
A lack of parental support required to give young children these experiences, and
negative effects of stress and depression experienced by a parent during a divorce may
lead to adjustment problems for the children and could also explain the decrease in self-
esteem in later years. Parents who effectively cope with stress and get immediate help
with depressive symptoms would be more likely to have the mental health to support
their young children during this developmental period, and decrease the likelihood of
adjustment difficulties.
Developmental implications for adolescents. Additionally, adolescent’s quest
for autonomy may be overly-realized in the face of a parental separation, allowing
children increasingly more time without parental supervision. While this may downplay
the negative psychological effects experienced by adolescents, the decrease in parental
involvement due to stress, depression, or longer work hours to maintain financial stability

5. EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN 5
may lead to an increased probability of delinquent behavior and criminal activity
(Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005).
Sex-RelatedEffects
Girls vs. boys. Many studies show more severe behavioral and adjustment
problems are experienced by boys as a result of parental divorce. However, research
analyzed by Dilek Sirvanli-Ozen (2005), contends that the effects simply reveal
differences in the way divorce impacts male and female children. According to research,
boys display more external behavior problems, while girls exhibit more internal problems
in behavior (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005).
Effects on boys. Longitudinal studies have produced mixed results regarding the
long-term behavioral effects on male children. Studies presented by Dilek Sirvanli-Ozen
(2005), found at 2-year post-divorce follow up, boys continued to deteriorate in social
and emotional well-being while girls showed improvements over time. These studies
contend that divorce alone is not responsible for behavior problems in boys, but that
living in a single-mother household may lead to negative behaviors. Other research
presented found boys’ levels of anxiety was high immediately following divorce, but was
similar to boys with non-divorced families at 3 and 10 year follow ups (Burns, Dunlop, &
Taylor, 1997).
Effects on girls. Hagan, Simpson, and Gillis (1988), proposed that the difference
in behavioral effects on girls may be a result of the fact that they are more strictly
controlled in any family structure. Findings have indicated that children living with a
parent of the same sex is more likely to develop healthy social skills (Sirvanli-Ozen,
2005). With the most likely custodial parent being the mother, girls are more likely to

6. EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN 6
identify with their full-time parent as far a gender roles. This can, however, contribute
negatively to the internal behavior problems seen in research on girls as it has been found
that the risk of depression is dependent on the mother’s degree of depression (Sirvanli-
Ozen, 2005).
Parent and Social-Related Effects
Interaction effects. Research findings generally show children of divorced
couples display poorer parental attachment styles, decreased cognitive and social
abilities, and increased levels of negative behavior (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005). However,
when further interacting variables are considered (i.e., parental educational and stress
levels), differences decrease dramatically and may even disappear in some cases. Studies
on 9 to 11-year-old children suggest parental stress level is positively correlated with a
child’s happiness and further research shows when a mother’s level of education is
controlled for, no differences are observed between children of divorced and non-
divorced parents (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005).
Implications of interaction effects. Studies have shown that children of divorce
situations do show a risk of developing less secure attachment styles with their parents, a
point which further endorses the parent’s mental state as the determining factor in healthy
adjustment (Sirvanli-Ozen, 2005). According to a meta-analysis by Burns, Dunlop, and
Taylor (1997), “If judgments about risk status are to be made on the basis of mean
differences, (that data) indicates that females, children of fathers with lower occupational
status, and individuals with poor relations with their parents are more in need of support
than the children of divorce.” The important factor in the well-being of today’s children
may be reflected in the large socioeconomic gap, the epidemic of poor mental health of

7. EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN 7
our adult society, and not enough education on effective parenting styles, rather than the
increasing divorce rate plaguing modern society.
Conclusion
While divorce may cause many negative effects for children, data on
interpersonal, academic, and behavioral problems between children of divorced and non-
divorced families indicate adverse consequences may be a result of parent’s inability to
put children’s needs first in these situations rather than direct effects of family separation.
Parents who understand children’s developmental needs and take necessary action to
sustain their own mental well-being may avoid long-term adjustment and behavioral
problems for their children despite a divorce. Maintaining as much of the children’s
environment and economic stability as possible, along with encouraging a regular,
supportive relationship with both parents may result in shorter periods of adjustment, and
healthier self-image overall.

8. EFFECTS OF DIVORCE ON CHILDREN 8
References
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Hodges, W. F., Tierney, C. W., & Buchsbaum, H. K. (1984). The cumulative effect of
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