San Mao Advertising and Marketing Dissertation

Child Friendly? : The Change of
Attitude towards the Exploitation of
Children in Advertisement

2
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Hager Weslati
for her guidance and constant support throughout this process. Without her
enthusiasm and encouragement this dissertation would not have been
possible. Your mentorship is a wonderful privilege.

3
Contents
Introduction………….……………………………………….………….…………4
Chapter 2: Advertising in Disguise……………….……………………………...7
Chapter 3: Social Awareness or Social Exploitation……………….....………16
Chapter 4: The Child As a Celebrity Brand.……………………….….……….23
Conclusion……………………………………………….…………….……….…31

4
CHAPTER I: Introduction
(1) General introduction
Children have been defined and placed in particular categories by society and
generations. Traditional views on children are they are represented to be
innocent, passive and vulnerable whom need to be protected by adults; though
in recent years’ children are growing up to contradict these categories “The
majority of the world’s children today do not live according to ‘our’ conception
of childhood” (Buckingham, 2000, p. 10). Public discourse and the ideologies
of children and childhood have created a sense of moral panic and invoked a
notion of ‘crisis’ for the public. By exploring how children are represented in the
past and the present will argue that contemporary meanings of childhood are
shaped in today’s 21st century era.
Children have become an increasingly important market as a consumer.
Children are growing up today in a marketing and consuming industry as the
children’s market is one of the biggest and generate the most money which is
why debates show that commercial targeting of kids is quantitatively and
qualitatively different than the past (Schor, 2004). It is reasonable to say young
children, lack the skills and maturity to understand advertising or the strategies
marketers are trying to sell to them therefore are easy targets.
In recent debates the figure of the child consumer has been the focus in
which marketers claim that children are being empowered by the new
commercial environment where on the other hand few claim that their entry into
the marketplace has had a wide range of negative consequences for their
wellbeing (Buckingham, 2013).
Companies are using a range of new tactics, which you can argue could raise
important ethical concerns. Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI,
2003) discusses food marketing to children and uses Disney channel as an
example of how times have changed. He states, “when it was launched in the
early 1980s, the Disney channel did not accept any outside advertising. In

5
2002 that changed, and Disney began to air commercials for McDonalds”
(CSPI, 2003). There has been a long history of marketing children; it is not a
new phenomenon although we have seen a significant change in how
marketing and advertising strategize the ideology of children. Pestering parent
journal portrays how marketing to children have been a huge success but with
ethical and moral issues. “Food manufacturers and chain restaurants use
aggressive and sophisticated marketing techniques to attract children’s
attention, manipulate their food choices, and prompt them to pester their
parents to purchase products” (CSPI, 2003). However now we are seeing a
gradual change in how marketers now use children in branding and adverts to
entice the parents and adults in to buying into products.
(2) Research question:
This dissertation does not focus on children as marketing targets, but
rather on the use of children in branding and advertisement. The aims are to
explore children’s relationship with the media and how the evolvement of media
platforms such as advertising and marketing have changed our perspectives
on the ideology of children and childhood from previous times. What has
caused this drastic change in attitude towards seeing children in branding and
marketing and is the change for the better of children?
(3) Concepts, theoretical framework and methodology:
The methodological approach this dissertation will use would be
analysing adverts and social awareness campaigns in order to gain an
understanding of how children are being featured in adverts and how they take
an active role as the face of the brand.
Buckingham (2000, 2013) discusses the changing social constructions
of childhood in the twenty first century, he claims childhood has been lost. He
states “Historically, media education has largely been characterized by forms
of defensiveness; it has been motivated by the desire to protect children from
what are seen to be the moral, cultural or political shortcomings of the media”
(Buckingham, 2000, p. 205) though as the media and technology grows in the
21st century so does the ideology of children and childhood.

6
Marketers play on the dreams of children and exploit their vulnerabilities
(Mayo and Nairn, 2009). Overall they explore how like never before
corporations are targeting children in order to sell them dreams through
exploiting their vulnerabilities. By also re-selling images of youth back to adults
is a marketing strategy that allows for adults and parents to stay young through
children.
Sharon Beder (Beder, Varney, and Gosden, 2009) discusses the way
that corporations are targeting younger children with a barrage of advertising
and marketing designed to turn them into hyper consumers who define
themselves by what they have rather then what they are. The chapter on
celebrity lifestyles explores how celebrity culture has created and allowed for
children to become hyper consumers which have led to it being a norm in
today’s society.
This generation has seen the development of media from the creation of
the interactive world where being online is as comfortable as being offline;
(Lindström, 2004) the evolution of living in an interactive world has created a
whole new way of seeing and this dramatic change have created new attitudes
in how important factors in society are being represented. The change of
ideology in children have allowed for new ways in which children are
represented. It is debatable to argue children have an advantage in this new
generation.
(4) Chapter outline
In chapter one and two I will explore how the drastic change in marketers
attitude is portrayed when children are featured in adverts. Chapter one will
explore how children featured in commercial adverts are portrayed and
represented by how they take an active role in the adverts itself. The examples
I will explore portray how children are not necessarily the main marketing
targets but it’s their parents and adults who are displaced in the position of the
child. Chapter two reviews how children are used as a tool in social awareness
campaigns and how the campaigns are created to invoke fear on audiences in

7
order to gain awareness whilst targeting audiences’ emotional triggers. Chapter
three, the child as a celebrity brand explores celebrity’s lifestyle and discusses
how the new modern era of the 21st century has changed the attitudes of how
we see children. By exploring their lifestyle gives us a different perspective on
how the use of children in adverts became acceptable.

8
CHAPTER 2: Advertising in Disguise
The aims of adverts are to sell or create an awareness of a product or issue.
Although advertising may influence consumers in different ways, “the primary
goal of any campaign is to increase the probability that consumers exposed to
a particular campaign will recall, think, feel, or behave in a particular way about
a specific brand”. (Belch and Belch, 2002). This chapter aims to explore the
drastic change in attitude when children are featured in adverts through the
body expressions of a child.
Stuart Hall cites Steve Neal’s article on genre and examines the idea of
‘Verisimilitude’. Neal argues it refers “not to what may or may not actually be
the case, but rather to what the dominant culture believes to be the case, what
is generally accepted as credible” (Hall, 1997, p. 360). He then distinguishes
between cultural and generic verisimilitude to show how adverts use the play
of fantasy while reinforcing social norms when featuring children in adverts.
Using children in adverts as the face of a brand or as its story-teller
remains a controversial form of marketing both from a moral and legal
standpoint; though there is no doubt that this is now becoming a sub-genre in
its own right. “Companies use advertising and marketing to sell more product
(by switching children to their brand or increasing the overall sales of the
category) and increase profits. (CSPI, 2003, p. 35) There are different
regulations and ethical issues when regulating children’s adverts. They are
constantly regulated and maintained in order for advertisers to not cross the
ethical issue line. Schor discusses how in the past twenty-five years, the
willingness of the federal government to regulate children’s advertising and
media has eroded significantly. (Schor, 2000)
John Lewis are a global brand and is known to market to a wide
audience. Their Christmas advert has now become an established seasonal
tradition that consumers (are led to believe) that they should look forward to
with as much anticipation as the switching on of the Christmas streetlights. This
year their ‘man on the moon’ advert features both a young child and an elderly

9
man. The contrast between these two characters portrays the company’s
versatility.
The ‘man on the moon’ advert put a charitable spin on its campaign this
year to raise awareness for Age UK. The advert plays on the heartstring of the
viewer’s by telling a story of a young girl who spots an old man living in a hut
on the moon through a telescope. After failing to attract his attention, she sends
up a Christmas parcel containing another telescope, and a tear trickles down
his cheek when he finds her waving at him.
The message of the young girl, named Lily, sending the old man a parcel
was to show someone is thinking about him. The ad’s strapline is: “Show
someone they’re loved this Christmas”, which echoes Age UK’s own campaign:
“No one should have no one at Christmas”. The young child allows for the
character to play on the emotions; girls are stereotypically portrayed to be
known for being emotional which creates an emotional effect on the consumers.
By creating an emotional connection between the characters and consumers
allows for the audience to connect with the brand. Children play an important
role as influencers on parents and as this advert is aimed at adults the imagery
of the young child you can argue will invoked empathy for the child which all in
all connects the ideology of the emotion with the brand.
Figure 1 and 1.1 are screen grabs from the John Lewis (2015) advert in which
the image of the child’s eye in contrast with the elderly man’s eye is used to
invoke emotional fear.

10
In figure 1 the image of the child’s eyes denotes the sign of innocence
in a child in comparison to the image of the elderly man’s eyes in figure 1.1.
The viewers/ consumers are invited to perceive the world (of John Lewis)
through the eyes of a child. Stereotypes are commonly found in adverts and
children are thought to be imaginative and wonderers and by portraying this
image is telling the audience to see the hopefulness of John Lewis. The wonder
of believing what we see and creating an imaginary exciting hopeful world
reflects how John Lewis would like its brand to be perceived.
The connection between Christmas and the figure or the idea of
childhood is crucial for this advert. The image of the sad young girl is used to
follow through as John Lewis retreats from the profane and subversive of a
Christmas ad and plays upon the ideologists of gender stereotypes by not
taking an interest with her brothers’ game console but on the idea of a fairy tale
which girls are commonly stereotypically known more for. This seems to be a
commodification of loneliness. Think about it, when was the last time you were
truly alone? No phone, social media, contact with human existence. As a
society, we have come to greatly fear this prospect. The use of the child to
portray this sadness is reaching out to the audience to create a sympathetic
connection with how the story will turn out. By creating this effect keeps the
viewer interested in wanting to see how the story plays out.
Interestingly, the story of Lily and ‘the man on the moon’ does not end
with the TV advert. It continues outside, in the real world across other media
texts. For instance, the advert designers created a special app; that users can
point at the moon in the John Lewis ad posters and shopping bags, to receive
updates and facts on the countdown to the full moon on Christmas Day, or play
a game on their smart phones.

11
The “Man on the Moon” TV advert is,
therefore, a gateway to an endless world of play and fantasy that continues in
the form of a smart-phone app, or a video game, children animation or an
illustrated children e-book. This is another form of marketing strategy to entice
the ‘nag factor’ amongst parents in which brings up debates on whether it is an
ethical concern or not. However, if advertising executives have any doubts
these seems to centre only on whether it’s effective, not whether it’s ethical
(Linn, 2004, p. 33).
The representation of children is always linked with the idea that they
are the face of the future and The Windows 10 advert plays upon the idea in
their ‘The future starts now’ advert. It draws on both cultural and generic
verisimilitude in this case, the advertised product or brand Microsoft is not a
tangible object. The images of smiling children from different countries around
the world (see figure 4 and 4.1), give a shape and form to the intangible and
elusive notion of software. The crawling toddlers, their clumsy tactile gestures,
and the incomprehensible sounds they lead the viewer into a world of wonders
and fascination. The advert exudes joy and happiness and using babies and
toddlers to create this effect on audiences allows for a distraction from what the
basic message the marketers are portraying which is selling software although
Figure 2 (John Lewis, 2016) Figure 3 (Bolton, 2015)

12
you can argue by leading them into a world of wonders make the product more
exciting than it is.
It is clear this advert is not marketed to chilren however Microsoft are
displacing the parents in the position of the child by inviting them into their
world. When the narrator asks the viewer to imagine, and begins listing what
children do, we are made aware that Windows 10 is simple, but capable of
many things. Security, flexibility of user interface and social media integration
are all mentioned as we watch children play, tear apart newspapers and even
share food with each other. The commercial draws to an end by reminding the
viewer that as the children get older and better at what they do, so will the
technology. This commercial cleverly uses children being children to show that
Microsoft are powerful yet simple.
The strapline “the future starts now” focuses on what Microsoft is
implicitly referring to as its future users. As we saw earlier with the John Lewis
“Man on the Moon” advert that associates the brand with a charity (Age UK),
Microsoft has also aligned its products and brand image with children charities.
Bill Gates famously pledged to make his products available to every child on
the planet.
The commercial ends with a simple, "Windows 10: The more human way
to do." By doing so creates a connection of using children in their adverts in
connection with technology. The purpose of this advert is to sell to people into
buying and upgrading to Windows 10 because it is what their kids will need and
want. The idea of making it seem as though this product is what your children
Figure 4. (Windows, 2015) Figure 4.1 (Windows, 2015)

13
would want plays on the needs of parents and their desire to give their children
everything they want.
The McDonalds ‘Good Times - Fun’ TV advert tells the story of a little
boy whose quest for fun is thwarted at every turn. Signs and meanings shown
in the McDonalds advert drew heavily on cultural verisimilitude. The images of
the young boy doing everyday activities are portraying the norms of what a
regular young boy would do. This is signifying to the audience that McDonalds
are for ‘normal’ everyday people; this continues to portray the image of a ‘good
time’ You can argue this is signifying the message that McDonalds is for
everyone and everyone can have a ‘good time’ even parents.
We have a set of meanings and symbols associate with the face of
children. In this case the child in the McDonalds advert is portraying the vibe of
curiosity, innocence and playfulness. The image of the sad child’s face shown
in figure 5.1 and throughout the advert is what parents would try to prevent so
the ideology of McDonalds possibly being the answer of a ‘good time’ for
children creates the idea that McDonalds is a good place for children however
in contrast McDonalds is deemed as not the healthiest place for children. The
effect this has on the audience you can argue would be manipulation of
believing an idea is something different then what it is. You can argue the
imagery of the mother, father and child is what society deems as the standard
family ratio; this creates the imagery of togetherness and as everyone is happy
towards the end of the advert when they go into McDonalds this creates the
Figure 5 (adsoftheworldvideos,
2015)
Figure 5.1 (adsoftheworldvideos,
2015)

14
idea that McDonalds brings people together. The role of the child in this advert
creates a link between sad and happiness and the idea of being lonely to the
environment of being together.
Although all three adverts represent different brands, they all follow the
same pattern when featuring children in adverts; they use children as a tool to
emotionally manipulating the consumer. It is not clear whether the primary
marketing target is the child or the parents.
The three adverts have many similarities in how they portray children to
create different effects. The idea of future is mentioned or portrayed in some
way as they are presenting the idea that children are the future and investing
in the product/ brand they are selling to you will be an investment as to how
children are to their parents and to the world. The uses of gender roles in
adverts are shown to be effective for all three adverts also. For example, the
John Lewis advert uses a girl as the lead role for the child to play with
audiences’ emotions in order to gain and create an emotional connection. This
is important during the Christmas period, as during Christmas people tend to
go with companies they are more familiar and comfortable with. In comparison
to the McDonalds advert the lead character is a boy and the effects of using a
male role allows for the advert to portray a rougher and realistic approach
however McDonalds and John Lewis advert differs as one uses a girl to portray
a fantasy and the other portrays a realistic image. Hall states “genres produce
fictional worlds which function according to a structuring set of rules or
conventions, thereby ensuring recognition through their conformity to generic
verisimilitude” (Hall, 1997, p. 364)
All three adverts are using children in a subtle way to sell or enhance the
product they are selling. For example, you can argue McDonalds are known to
be unhealthy and not that great for children however by placing them in the
advert entitled ‘Good Times’ is portraying and enhancing the idea that
McDonalds is good for children. John Lewis is portraying the idea that the
product they are selling is going to enhance someone’s life however in this case
they are doing it more so by selling the imagery of the innocent child and elderly

15
old man to pull on heart strings. Similarly, the Windows 10 advert uses children
to enhance the brands image of a multi functioning and universal brand.
Barthes discusses the signs and meanings of a wrestler in which he
discusses their physiques; He argues that “the public wants the image of
passion, not passion itself” (Barthes, 1972, pp,16 -18). Similarly, the children in
adverts are images of the ideal child society wants, rather than the actual child.
Again, to paraphrase Barthes, we can say that the child portrayed in the
selected examples of adverts is a constructed and staged image of the child.
This image is emptied of any cultural, ethnic or social references and reduced
to a simple polarity that separates the world of adults from the world of
childhood.
Overall these adverts have shown us possible emerging trends in
advertising by incorporating children into adverts to create various effects on
audiences; from emotional to manipulation. Although adverts are very good at
creating effects to persuade audiences into buying or believing a product /
brand Judith Williamson states, “the advertising myth in our society is not a
naïve one, nor is it an ideological brain-washing forced upon us from above.
[…] Whatever effect advertising has on people; it is true their ‘conscious’
attitude to it will usually be sceptical”. (Williamson, 1994, p. 174) But this
sceptical attitude will be very difficult to sustain when a brand wears the face of
a child, or when it looks at us with the eyes of a child.

16
CHAPTER 3: Social Awareness or Social Exploitation
The media play a central role in reflecting social and cultural issues for the
public but also play a role in producing them and one way of doing so is through
social awareness campaigns. Social awareness campaigns can be defined as
advertising to inform the public about a social issue or to influence their
behaviour. The purpose of awareness campaigns against smoking, drugs and
abuse is to educate the masses with hard-hitting messages. As advertising is
a form of mass communication it can be suggested to have some social
responsibilities to what effects the adverts give off to the public. This chapter
aims to explore how featuring children in social awareness campaigns effects
the audience’s perception and views when the ideology and figure of the child
is invoked.
Buckingham states social movements ranges from the broadly
progressive to the distinctly reactionary (2000) in which social awareness
campaigns aims to create. However, the ideology of children’s vulnerability
should be taken into account when invoking such imagery when creating
adverts for example Buckingham discusses what counts as ‘appropriate to the
age of the child’ or ‘injurious to his or her well-being’ let alone as a form of
‘exploitation’ (Buckingham, 2000, p. 200)
Commercial advertisements and social awareness campaigns are both
similar in the fact that they are used to create awareness of an issue or product
but the advert must also appeal to the viewer’s emotions. Commercial adverts
are created in order to sell a product or brand whereas social awareness
advertising promotes ideas in a more strategic way. More often social
awareness adverts use emotional manipulation to create effect on audiences
and you can argue children are powerful tools to enforce a response. Many
studies have indicated that emotion can have a powerful effect on memory
formation, ensuring that memories with emotion will last longer than those
without. (Kensinger, 2009)

17
Figure 6, (DeMilked, 2010)
A continuing factor found when using children in adverts and marketing
is they are portrayed as the face of the future as also seen in the John Lewis
advert. The ideology of an innocent harmless child is effective in social
awareness campaigns such as smoking or domestic abuse are effective
strategies as the child is not in control of the situation that is harming them but
the situation caused by the people who the campaigns are targeted at have all
the control. David Buckingham (2013) notes, “In a climate of growing
uncertainty, invoking fears about children provides a powerful means of
commanding public attention and support” This portrays how the ideology of
children are changing in the fact that in order for social awareness campaigns
to be effective the strategy to invoke fear through imagery of children allows for
higher levels of attention.
Atkin states, “Most campaigns present persuasion appeals emphasizing
reasons why the audience should adopt the advocated action or avoid the
proscribed behaviour.” The persuasion appeal shown in the advert in figure 6
would be the young innocent girl. Dafna Lemish discusses Chris Greer (2007)
argument that “children are often presented as “ideal victims” as they are
portrayed as “vulnerable, defenceless, innocent and worthy of sympathy and
compassion […] perpetuating the sacralisation of childhood” (Lemish, 2015, p.
26). The child’s innocent facial expression is the focal point of the advert as it
portrays them as the victim and the public as the culprit in the advert (seen in

18
figure 6, 7, 8) the culprit would be the parents. The tagline reads ‘Children of
parents who smoke, get to heaven earlier’ the image of the blonde hair blue
eyed girl adds to the effect of the tagline as you can argue it is known that
angels are described to have these features. The audience for this advert is
aimed at parents and it can be seen as the image of the child is a reflection of
their own child. The effects of these ads are created to generate moral panic
so the idea of death incorporated into the advert will create a moral panic within
parents as parents biggest fear would be the death of their child.
Belo Horizonte Child Abuse advert (seen in figure 7) portrays an image
of a young girl being abused in her home. The child is used in concern to portray
the vulnerability of children and how adults are the culprits of the abuse. Atkin
discusses the message sources in social awareness campaigns and he states
“The messenger is the presenter who appears in the message […] messengers
help enhance each qualitative factor by being engaging (attractiveness,
likability)” (Atkin, 1989, p. 10). You can suggest the reasons why children are
Figure 7 is brzilian advert entitled
“Speak for her” (Paulo, 2012). This
advert portrays how children are not in
control of the harm.

19
effective in social awareness campaigns are due to their attractiveness and
likability. An image of a child automatically creates an effect to audiences of the
need to protect. The sad crying expression on her face is telling the audience
that the child is unable to communicate or address the issue itself, which puts
the blame on to the adults. This creates an effect of sympathy from the
audience
The child is seen as the helpless victim in this campaign. Buckingham
claims that “invoking fears about children provides a powerful means of
commanding public attention” (Buckingham, 2000, p. 11) This campaign is a
call to protect children which inflicts the notion of mobilizing support which is
what social campaigns main aim is to do. Using children in these campaigns,
by portraying them to be in danger is a smart way to create and gain public
attention, as the ideology of children in society first instinct is to protect them.
Figure 8, (Insider, 2009)

20
Atkin discusses “Traditionally, prevention campaigns present fear
appeals to focus attention on negative consequences of a detrimental practice
rather than promoting the desirability of a positive alternative” (Atkin, 1989, p.
8). The bleeding billboard is an example to atkins statement as the billboard is
portraying the effects of how rain can affect driving conditions and the image of
the child is shown to portray the outcome if care isn’t taken. Atkins discusses
what attributes can come from the message sources and the effect of using an
image of a child in this advert creates all the attributes Atkins discusses. For
example the image of the child attracts attention, which then heightens
emotional arousal of the audience and increases retention due to memorability
due to the gruesome effect of the blood. The image of the child used in this
advert is effective as the issue is on the topic of driving however children are
not associated to driving yet the harm will be conflicted on them. This approach
is found in many cultures in regards to folk tales of children where it is
suggested that ‘if you’re a bad child something bad will happen’. It is like a play
on children’s fairy tale of ‘good vs. evil’ in which it is displaying something good
against something harmful.
Hall discusses genre and states “they also draw on events and
discourses in the social world both as a source of topical story material and as
a means of commanding the recognition through their conformity to generic
verisimilitude” (Nixon, Hall, and Evans, 2013, p. 361) by using ideas and objects
that relate to children to target adults and parents is a means of commanding
public assent.

21
Buckingham
discusses how the media display
an ambivalent fascination with the idea of childhood. He argues “advertisement
display a similar ambivalence” (Buckingham, 2000, p. 4) he uses the Benetton
Ebony & Ivory advert as an example. This social awareness advert further
portrays how the media and audience’s notion on childhood is surrounded on
the idea of discomfort and uncertainty.
In reference to the ‘goodvs. evil’ representation the advert (seen in figure
9) is for United Colours of Benetton. This advert uses colour to portray the
contrasts of how colour effects how audiences perceive adverts. Although
lifestyle companies attempt to associate their products with progressive social
movements, Benneton’s adverts have become the embodiment of social
issues. For example in figure 9 the advert is entitled “Ebony & Ivory” and shows
a black and white child embracing one and other however the facial expression
portrayed through the white child is happy and angelic looking due to the blonde
hair blue eyes stereotype where as the black child has a blank facial expression
and her hair is shaped as devil horns. You can suggest this advert plays on the
idea of children’s fairy tale with the image of good vs. evil; featuring children in
adverts in reference to their image is used to create immediate attention due to
the controversy. The message this advert set out to portray is the uniting effect
of two races coming together as the title ‘Ebony & Ivory” suggests however falls
short due to the separating of colours through facial expression and image play.
The play on children’s fairy tale idea could also be used as this advert is
portraying the good vs. the evil this may create the effect of stereotypical
connotations in which the audience may perceive as white being deemed as
good and black deemed as evil.
Overall social advertising campaigns are often successful in raising
awareness’s however merit states, “they are often used in far too indiscriminate
a fashion to truly offer any sustained benefit” (Merritt, 2009, p. 24). Although we
have set views on the ideologies of children and how society portrays childhood
you can argue social awareness campaigns regard children as merely
Figure 9, Ebony & Ivory Bennoton of
United Colours advert (Blickwink,
2012)

22
incompetent victims of exploitation. The focus on children provides
campaigners the power to use ideologies of children and play on the
representations through hard-hitting campaigns. By featuring children in these
social awareness adverts create moral panic overall which creates immediate
effect on the audience and attracts attention from the audience as the image of
a child is always made as an importance in society.

23
CHAPTER 4
The uses of children in adverts have grown to become more acceptable
throughout the years this is due to how children are represented in todays era
where celebrity lifestyle and culture is more desired. This chapter aims to
explore how the celebrity world and lifestyle gives us a different perspective on
how the use of children in adverts have become more acceptable and more of
a norm in today’s society. Also this chapter will discuss how brand building
Lindstrom argues in today’s society there is a new type of children as
she entitles her chapter “meet the kids”; she states, “This generation has been
tagged the ‘age of compression’. Almost every aspect of today’s tween-ager is
different from what we have seen amongst past generations” (Lindström et al.,
2003, p. 1). You can argue that celebrity children have now become a trend of
the 21st century. Gossip magazines and social media have created a sense of
normality of seeing children on the World Wide Web on a daily basis. Examples
such as North Kardashian and the Beckham family portray how times have
changed from celebrities hiding and shielding their children from cameras and
tabloid press to them using images taken from tabloid press to further promote
their image and brand on social media sites.

24
The uses of children in adverts and marketing strategies have become
a norm in today’s society. They can be deemed as new celebrities; you can
argue they are produced by modernity as the 21st century and has allowed for
children to gain a celebrity status without their being a moral or legal issue.
Martin Lindstrom discusses the three key ingredients common in successful
campaigns: Community exploration, peer-to-peer marketing and viral
marketing.
Celebrities such as Kim Kardashian and Victoria and David Beckham
have built a successful brand for themselves and the same ideology would be
applied to their children into building their own brand. The idea for the children
would be to build an image that changes with time but the effects remains the
same. A brand that can be inherited and evolves from one generation to the
next is the goal for PR and marketing companies. However how has the moral
issue of exploiting children to sell something evolved into a whole new way of
how we see children as a marketing strategy over the years?
Magazines such as ‘People’ continuously play on the celebrity culture
trends when writing articles and using celebrity children have become a new
trend to talk about which further promotes the child celebrity brand. An example
would be the royal baby; the royal baby is now a term coined when referencing
Prince Williams’s children George and Charlotte. Articles as such are creating
a story of a product and the product is the family brand. The royal family brand
and the Kardashian brand differ in most however the similarity they have would
be using the children to carry and further add to their brand whilst also creating
and building a brand for their children. For example in an article of People
magazine the front cover is of the royal family and the headline reads ‘The
Royal Fab Four: Our Lovely Little Family”. The children are the new face of the
family and are an investment into royal continuity of the brand. Both articles
Figure 10 is a post from Kim Kardashian’s
Instagram using an image taken from
tabloids to further promote her brand.
(Kardashian, 2016)

25
(seen in figure 11 and 11.1) portray the children as important roles in the article
due to the how the children are placed around on the front cover. The exposure
of the child allows for marketers to create a desirable imagery for other parent
to want for their children
You can argue celebrities are characters in a perpetual ‘real life’ soap
opera that feeds our fascination with the famous. Magazine articles are the
production in which tells the story as “new ‘scenes’ that expand the on going
soap-like narratives that they construct out of celebrity lives” (Kosnik, Abigail,
and Lee, 2010, p. 239). The royal family are national treasures and are adored
worldwide, their lives have always been an interest and a on going show for the
audience and now that the prince and princess have been born this has added
another ‘plot’ which creates further interest that will keep the audience wanting
to know more. You can argue this has allowed for the royal family to be
permanent characters in the ‘celebrity soap opera’. Magazine articles feeds the
storyline of celebrity culture as seen in figure 11 and 11.1; Peoples magazine
sub heading states a “change in the royal family” that makes you want to know
more but also the storyline is kept open so the audience are kept drawn and
interested. “Soap operas are “immersive story worlds’, referring to the fact that
fans immerse themselves in a narrative where the small and large moments in
Fig 11. Peoples magazine article
portraying the celebrity culture
trend (Perry, 2015)
Fig 11.1, Peoples magazine
(Perry and Jessen, 2015)

26
a characters life (all of their decisions, all of their relationships, all of their
personal crisis) can be interpreted and retold in an endless variety of ways”
(Kosnik, Abigail, and Lee, 2010, p. 240). This overall enhances the desirability
of the celebrity’s child’s life.
The novelty of prince George before and after he was born created such
a buzz that this created a brand in itself that this is seen as PR and marketing
gold which you can argue is why advertisers sees the appeal in using children
in adverts as this is known to create a reaction and attract a wider audience.
It is suggested the royal family are seen as symbolic. Every parent sees
or thinks their child is either a prince or a princess in their eyes, which therefore
adds and creates commercial value of their brand. The photo of Prince George
and Queen Elizabeth stamp sheet photo shoot (seen in figure 12) was a topic
trending on social media site Twitter. The image of Prince George standing on
blocks stacked together created a comical factor about the child; by doing so
allowed for the figure of prince child to become a viral marketing tool (Lindstrom,
2004). By doing so allowed for the audiences to talk about Prince George in
topics that were relatable rather than seeing him as a celerity child status; this
makes the idea of Prince George more desirable to the public.
Boorstin discusses a case in which he states that it “produced a spate of
new celebrities whose significance no one quite understood but whose
newsworthiness itself made him or her important” (Boorstin and Boorstin, 1997,
Figure 12 is the photo taken for Queen
Elizabeth’s 90th birthday (Elston, 2016)

27
p. 72). This is the case for all celebrity children. A brand that has been able to
develop a celebrity status for itself throughout the years is the Kardashian
brand. You can argue they are the epitome of self branding as Kim Kardashian
initially started off with a bad reputation to her brand however her and the
Kardashian family were able to remarket and rebrand themselves into them
becoming one of the biggest brand names in show business to date. North West
is the daughter of Kim and Kanye West; she became a celebrity child instantly
due to her mothers’ large following and reputation in the industry. You can
argue North West brand was produced by modernity due to the production of
how the child’s mothers status was first developed and is maintained; for
example Kim Kardashian has managed to retain their fame through a series of
highly calculated PR and social media moves that control their own image. Kim
even goes to state that “Social media allowed my career to sustain, and I’ve
adapted to the change of it all,” (Goode, 2014). This argues the issue of
modernity in today’s society, which has allowed for the idea of children to be
distorted in; in both positive and negative ways.
A brand that has used multiple platforms that has allowed for their status
to be inherited and evolve from one generation to the next would be Victoria
and David Beckham. The Beckham brand is one of Britain’s most recognizable
families and their children have added on to their fame. Romeo Beckham is the
perfect example of what Lindström would describe as a “Tween” (Lindström et
al., 2003); he is a leading example of how to further a brand in a positive outlet.
We have gone from parents complaining about the effects of adverts and
commercial TV has on children to parents who turn their children into a brand.
“Tween marketing is just as much about building a solid base for the future as
it is about creating an ongoing dialogue with an audience that will in a few years,
become their major source of revenue” (Lindström et al., 2003, p. 14). This
argues the debates of whether it is morally or ethically acceptable to exploit
children in brands and marketing in regards of them sustaining a comfortable
future.

28
The world of the celebrity lifestyle has given us a different perspective
on how it is more morally acceptable to use children in adverts and marketing
campaigns. The public, which are the celebrity fans, follow their lives and
everything about them so the fans of the celebrity will also want to follow the
life of their child as the child is famous by association. This is made acceptable
due to the up rise in digital media (social media) “this generation being online
is as comfortable as being offline” (Lindström et al., 2003, p. 3). The fans know
the child by association with the celeb which therefore gains the celebrity further
publicity without having to do much themselves.
Figure 13 is a Burberry Campaign featuring
Romeo Beckham. Burberry campaign has
been the biggest job for Romeo yet.

29
An example of this would be Kim Kardashian; she regularly brings her daughter
North to high profiled events such as Kanye Wests and Givenchy fashion
shows. By bringing North to fashion shows she is setting what may be deemed
as a new trend for celebrities in which they use their children as a fashion
“accessory”. It is as though the parents are creating miniature versions of
themselves. Kim is dressing north in similar outfits (seen in figure 14 and 14.1)
as her in order to show the continuity of their brand. Figure 14 shows Kim
Kardashians natural instincts as a parent to protect and shield her innocent
vulnerable child from the world whereas she is doing the complete opposite by
bringing the child to such events as you can argue by bringing the child and
wearing matching outfits will add on extra publicity and further create a branding
factor as seen in figure 14.1.
In figure 14 Kim, Kanye and North are all dressed in similar outfits, which
means this was planned beforehand possibly knowing that this would make it
into an article. However, in figure 4 You can also see the child is not happy or
amused to be in the environment at the time which indicates the idea that the
environment is probably not the most suitable for young children to be at. This
can argue the issue that using children in adverts or as a marketing tool is not
morally acceptable due to the uncomfortable expression on the child’s face.
Figure14, Kim and
North at the
Givenchy fashion
show. (Vulpo, 2014)
Figure 14.1 is a photo taken from
magazine article portraying the names of
celebrities and North West is put among
the names of celebrities. (Fleming, 2015)

30
This overall caused further headlines on North and Kim Kardashian. These
events can be deemed as a pseudo-event. Theorist Boorstin created the term
“pseudo-event”; he claimed that America was living in an "age of contrivance,"
in which illusions and fabrications had become a dominant force in society.
Public life, he said, was filled with "pseudo-events" - staged and scripted events
that were a kind of counterfeit version of actual happenings.
Boorstin stated that as an audience “we do not like to believe that our
admiration is focused on a largely synthetic product.” Therefore the audience
also appreciates events that are deemed more real and less focused on
empathy rather than ‘just’ celebrity gossip. One of the major headlines of 2015
was the story of Mark Zuckerberg, the Founder and CEO of Facebook, and his
wife Pricilla Chan will be donating 99% of their estimated $45 billion dollars’
worth of Facebook stock shares to charity (BBC, 2015). The inspiration for the
act of kindness is their newly born daughter, Max; although this article was
created to headline the story of their daughter Max being born the added topic
of Mark donating 99% of their estimated worth to charity has created further
promotion to this story. Zuckerberg had found a strategic way of combining both
stories to create immense amount of publicity. In reference to Lindstrom three
key ingredients to successful campaigns this article applies to the viral
marketing strategy. You can argue Zuckerbergs child portrays to society that
the figure of a child in such an influential storyline can be looked at in a morally
acceptable standpoint.

31
Boorstin states that a pseudo-event possesses characteristic with one
being “it is intended to be a self – fulfilling prophecy. In the case of Mark
Zuckerburg you can argue the article seen on figure 5 can be deemed to be
created to become a self- fulfilling prophecy due to the article no doubt being a
positive storyline for the family as they are using the media as a platform to
inform the world of their positive doing. However, this headline is also about the
birth of their daughter and the articles that will follow through will now always
be in connection with the child as she grows up. The child will now always be
associated with this article and what the shares they have given to the world
has benefited; even if the articles discuss how the shares of the money was
used have no correspondent to the child in the future the public will always
associate this moment and the topic with the child.
A chapter entitled ‘The peer factor’ investigates ways in which brands
can be built through peer-to- peer marketing. Lindstrom’s discusses viral
marketing techniques and he states, “tweens should be allowed to take
ownership of the brand by building and spreading it them-selves” (Lindström et
al., 2003, p. 139). This argument is a great example of how celebrity children
can be used as a marketing tool to build a brand that has been enlisted upon
them from birth due to their parent’s celebrity status. Celebrity children
representing themselves as a brand or marketing a brand is not something
that’s new however when it is done unintentionally this could be deemed as a
phenomenon. Celebrity children are now able to have articles written solely
about them. An example would be the Royal baby or North Kardashian West.
This shows how popular and in demand celebrity culture is in terms of what the
public wants to know about them which gives off the impression that the child
celebrity is a desirable one.
Overall this chapter portrays a different perspective of how the use of
children in adverts became acceptable. The parents whom are celebrities have
transitioned from the instinct of hiding and shielding their child to allowing
Figure 15, photo of Mark Zuckerberg and
family after revealing headline story. (BBC,
2015)

32
cameras and tabloids to market their child portrays the extreme jump of
attitudes. The ideology that we have gone from complaining about whether it is
morally and ethically wrong to use children in adverts to parents using
strategies to manipulate the audience in buying into their child’s brand portrays
how influential celebrity culture can be on the public.
“Children can no longer be exclude from these media and the things they
represent; nor can they be confined to material that adults perceive to be good
for them” (Buckingham, 2000, p. 16). In the celebrity world children use to be
deemed as sacred and hidden however due to how the 21st century has
developed with technology and being exposed to much more at a young age
the need to shield children has somewhat become a thing of the past. The
importance and value of keeping the ideology of children’s innocence and
image sacred is still an important factor however society has grown to accept
the celebrity culture and what comes with it and apply the rules to children as
well. Moral and legal issues have loosened up at the same time as social norms
have grown and changed. “The attempt to protect children by restricting their
access to media is doomed to fail” (Buckingham, 2000, p. 16).
The ideology of children has developed into an image of liberation and
desirability from audiences. The new digital era has allowed for children to go
from being consumers of media to playing a part in adding and consuming the
media as well. “We need to do more than bemoan the negative consequences
of children’s increasing experience of ‘adult’ life, or indeed than celebrating it
as a form of liberation” (Buckingham, 2000, p. 16)

33
CONCLUSION
It looks like the child is taking an active role in the advert, and is no longer
projected in the position of the passive consumer. However, the problem with
the ethical and legal concerns of showing children in adverts or even the idea
of exploiting their “faces” or “voices” for a commercial purpose seem to have
become more and more relaxed. The dissertation tried to show some of the
reasons behind our changing attitude towards the exploitation of children in
commercial advertisement. In a way, celebrity culture made the idea of the child
celebrity very desirable. With examples of Prince George and North Kardashian
West they portray how celebrity lifestyle has allowed for audiences to accept
how the figure of the child has changed in the 21st century whilst also gaining a
fan factor.
The dissertation shows that there is a close link between the use of
children in commercial adverts and social awareness campaigns. This paper
has explored the face and positioning of children in adverts and how they are
used in order to gain awareness of social and political issues but also how they
are used to flip the target audience from them and onto their parents.
The Haribo advert where the adults are seen eating the sweets in the
boardroom is portraying the message that adults to embrace their inner child.
The voices of children are used in replacement of the adult’s voice is playing
Figure 15, is a screenshot taken from the Haribo
Starmix ‘Kids Voices’ advert. (UKHaribo, 2014)

34
on the Haribo slogan “Kids and grown-ups love it so, the happy world of Haribo”.
Instead of expressing the image of the child the advert is using the body of
adults and expressing the figure of the child through their voices.
CSPI state, ”children learn behaviors by imitating role models – parents,
teachers, peers, sibling, etc.., including role models they see on television
(Strasburger, 1999)” (CSPI, 2003, p. 35). The Haribo advert is interesting as
you see the roles of the adults and parents have been reversed and they are
being displaced in the position of the child. You can argue the audiences are
seeing the thoughts of the children however using the image of adults allows
for the advert to be morally and ethically acceptable but still create the impact
of using a child without actually seeing a child in the advert.
The future connection between children and advertising is never a sure
thing. The media market is constantly changing and developing and the fad of
using children in adverts can soon fade away. Beder discusses the
consequences of the corporate capture of childhood and states, “children are
being targeted as potential markets for products and services. As a
consequence, children are learning that happiness, relationships and fulfillment
can be attained through the right purchases and that others will judge them by
what they have rather than who they are.” (Beder, Varney, and Gosden, 2009,
p. 222). Losing the ideology of childhood could cause for a variety of
unsustainable issues in todays society. There are already debates on the issue
of children growing up too fast which will only construed the norms of how
children will grow up and live by what society deems as normal in the 21st
century.
Celebrity culture and lifestyle have created an invisible line between the
distinctions of childhood and adulthood. “There is a growing generation gap in
media use – that young people’s experience of new media technologies is
driving a wedge between their culture and that of their parents’ generation”
(Buckingham, 2000, p. 4) This implies the social change of the 21st century
could partly be the reason why the ideology of children and childhood have
changed audience’s perspectives and attitudes.

35
You can argue in some aspects children are being empowered as
explored in chapter 4. The development of new technologies has allowed for
children to be liberated in a sense where the ideology of children is celebrated
and embraced. “Children are increasingly gaining access to ‘adult’ media and
being empowered as consumers in their own right; yet the commercialization
and privatization of the media are also contributing to the growth of inequalities”
(Buckingham, 2000, p. 192). Yet still the issue of inequality and morals plays
an issue on todays society.
It is debatable as to whether children themselves can be seen to benefit
from such branding and adverts. As Schor argues that many adults long to
return to a time where children were sheltered and the ideology of them are
kept innocent however action needed will require ”widespread grassroots
activism” (Schor, 2004). Marketers and advertisers only aim is to capture the
hearts and attention of children and their success in doing so has shown in
recent times as Lindstrom states “It’s all about more information, more
entertainment more communication and more brands” (Lindström et al., 2003,
pp. 10 - 11). In order for the ideology of childhood to be kept the same marketers
needs to set them free.
“’Rather than one or another advert shaping how children behave, it is
the whole wider commercial world of celebrities, music and film that is far more
powerful” (Mayo and Nairn, 2009, p. 318). You can say it is marketers and
advertisers whom are the causes for loss of childhood however you can argue
the public and audiences have somehow helped to create the representations
of the commercial world in the 21st century and we have to take some
responsibility in the changing of attitudes towards the new outlook we have on
children.

36
Bibliography
adsoftheworldvideos (2015) McDonald’s: Good times. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4KeJweeWQ9w (Accessed: 26 April 2016).
Atkin, C.K. (1989) Public communication campaigns. Edited by Ronald
E. Rice and William J. Paisley. United States: Sage Publications.
Barthes, R. (1977) Elements of semiology. New York: Atlantic Books.
Barthes, R. (1993) Mythologies. United Kingdom: London : Vintage,
1993, c1972.
BBC (2015) Facebook’s Mark Zuckerberg to give away 99% of shares
Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-34978249
(Accessed: 28 April 2016).
Beder, S., Varney, W. and Gosden, R. (2009) This little Kiddy went to
market: The corporate capture of childhood. United Kingdom: Pluto Press.
Bignell, J. (2002) Media semiotics: an introduction. 2nd edn. United
Kingdom: Distributed exclusively in the U.S.A. by Palgrave.
Blickwink (2012) Top 10 controversial united colors of Benetton ads.
Available at: http://www.alistgator.com/top-ten-controversial-united-colors-of-
benetton-ads/ (Accessed: 4 May 2016).
Bolton, D. (2015) John Lewis Christmas advert: They’ve even released
a man on the moon app. Available at: http://www.independent.co.uk/life -
style/gadgets-and-tech/news/john-lewis-christmas-advert-theyve-even-
released-a-man-on-the-moon-app-a6724591.html (Accessed: 4 May 2016).
Boorstin, D.J. and Boorstin (1997) The image: A guide to pseudo-events
in America. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
Buckingham, D. (2000) After the death of childhood. Malden, MA: Wiley,
John & Sons.
Buckingham, D. (2011) The material child: Growing up in consumer
culture. Cambridge: John Wiley & Sons.
Calvert, S. and L, (2010) The handbook of children, media, and
development (handbooks in communication and media). Edited by Sandra L.
Calvert and Barbara J. Wilson. United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell (an imprint of
John Wiley & Sons Ltd).

37
CSPI, C. for S.I. the P.I. (2003) ‘Pestering Parents: How Food
Companies Market Obesity to Children’, .
DeMilked (2010) 33 creative anti-smoking ads. Available at:
http://www.demilked.com/33-creative-anti-smoking-ads/ (Accessed: 4 May
2016).
Elston, L. (2016) Prince George steals the show in new portrait to
celebrate Queen Elizabeth’s 90th birthday. Available at:
http://www.independent.ie/style/celebrity/celebrity-news/prince-george-steals-
the-show-in-new-portrait-to-celebrate-queen-elizabeths-90th-birthday-
34643337.html (Accessed: 3 May 2016).
Fleming, O. (2015a) Kanye west unveils his second Yeezy collection at
NYFW. Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-3237136/Kanye-
West-proves-takes-lot-money-look-poor-Rapper-unveils-second-Yeezy-
collection-New-York-Fashion-Week.html (Accessed: 28 April 2016).
Fleming, O. (2015b) Kanye west unveils his second Yeezy collection at NYFW.
Available at: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-3237136/Kanye-West-
proves-takes-lot-money-look-poor-Rapper-unveils-second-Yeezy-collection-
New-York-Fashion-Week.html (Accessed: 5 May 2016).
Goode, L. (2014) Kim Kardashian west on social media, mobile games
and her polarizing fame. Available at: http://recode.net/2014/10/27/kim -
kardashian-west-code-mobile-2014/ (Accessed: 28 April 2016).
Hall, S. (1997) Representation: Cultural representations and signifying
practices. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage in association with the Open University.
Insider, T.A. (2009) Kiwis remind us to drive safely with bleeding billboard.
Available at: http://jalopnik.com/5307849/kiwis-remind-us-to-drive-safely-with-
bleeding-billboard (Accessed: 3 May 2016).
John Lewis (2015) John Lewis Christmas advert 2015 -
#ManOnTheMoon. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuz2ILq4UeA (Accessed: 26 April 2016).
john lewis (2016) John Lewis man on the moon activity pack. Available at:
http://www.johnlewis.com/john-lewis-man-on-the-moon-activity-
pack/p2215736 (Accessed: 4 May 2016).
Kardashian, K. (2016) Instagram photo by Kim Kardashian west â€¢ Feb
21, 2016 at 4: 11am UTC Available at:

38
https://www.instagram.com/p/BCCNElPOS1C/?taken-
by=kimkardashian&hl=en (Accessed: 28 April 2016).
Kensinger, E.A. (2009) ‘Remembering the details: Effects of emotion’,
Emotion Review, 1(2), pp. 99–113. doi: 10.1177/1754073908100432.
Kosnik, D., Abigail, H. and Lee, C. (2010) The survival of soap opera:
Transformations for a new media era. Edited by Sam Ford, Abigail De Kosnik,
and Lee C Harrington. United States: University Press of Mississippi.
Laughey, D. (2008) Key Themes in Media Theory and Popular Culture.
United Kingdom: McGraw Hill / Open University Press.
Lemish, D. (ed.) (2015) The Routledge international handbook of
children, adolescents and media. United Kingdom: Routledge.
Lindström, M., Seybold, P.B. and Lindstrom, M. (2004) Brandchild:
Remarkable insights into the minds of today’s global kids and their relationships
with brands. London: Kogan Page.
Linn, S. (2004) Consuming kids: Protecting our children from the
onslaught of marketing and advertising. United States: The New Press.
Marshall, D.P. (1997) Celebrity and power: Fame in contemporary
culture. 2nd edn. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Marshall, D.P. and Redmond, S. (2015) A companion to celebrity. United
States: John Wiley & Sons.
Mayo, E. and Nairn, A. (2009) Consumer kids: How big business is
grooming our children for profit. London: Constable.
Merritt, R. (2009) Social marketing and public health: Theory and
practice, by french. Edited by Jeff French, Clive Blair-Stevens, and Dominic
McVey. New York: Oxford University Press, USA.
Nixon, S., Hall, S. and Evans, J. (eds.) (2013) Representation: Cultural
representations and signifying practices. 2nd edn. London: Sage Publications
Ltd UK.
Paulo, S. (2012) Prefeitura de Belo Horizonte: Speak for her, 2 Available
at:
http://adsoftheworld.com/media/print/prefeitura_de_belo_horizonte_speak_for
_her_2 (Accessed: 3 May 2016).
Perry, S. (2015) Inside life at home with the Fab royal family of 4!
Available at:

39
http://www.people.com/people/package/article/0,,20395222_20937809,00.htm
l (Accessed: 25 April 2016).
Perry, S. and Jessen, M. (2015) Inside Princess Kate’s approach to raising her
‘live wire’ toddler, Prince George Available at:
http://www.people.com/people/package/article/0,,20395222_20931116,00.htm
l (Accessed: 25 April 2016).
Schor, J.B. (2004) Born to buy: The commercialized child and the new
consumer culture. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Tellis, G.J. (2004) Effective advertising: Understanding when, how, and
why advertising works. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
UKHaribo (2014) New HARIBO Starmix advert 2014 - boardroom (HD
version). Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qv64gSHZJl8
(Accessed: 3 May 2016).
University, O. (2013) Representation: Cultural representations and
signifying practices (culture, media and identities series). Edited by Sean Nixon,
Stuart Hall, and Jessica Evans. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage in association with
the Open University.
Uribe, R. (2016) ‘Separate and joint effects of advertising and
placement’, Journal of Business Research, 69(2), pp. 459–465. doi:
10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.06.052.
Vulpo, M. (2014) Kim, Kanye and north support Kendall Jenner at Paris
Fashion week. Available at: http://www.eonline.com/news/583457/kim-
kardashian-kanye-west-and-north-west-support-kendall-jenner-at-paris-
fashion-week-see-the-pics (Accessed: 5 May 2016).
Williamson, J. (1994) Decoding advertisements: ideology and meaning
in advertising. New York: Distributed in the USA by Kampmann & Co.
Windows (2015) Introducing windows 10 - the future starts now.
Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gu6vmNz-PhE (Accessed: 26
April 2016).

San Mao Advertising and Marketing Dissertation

Recommandé

Recommandé

Contenu connexe

Tendances

Tendances (20)

En vedette

En vedette (20)

Similaire à San Mao Advertising and Marketing Dissertation

Similaire à San Mao Advertising and Marketing Dissertation (15)

San Mao Advertising and Marketing Dissertation