2. • If the subject of linguistics is the scientific study of
the nature, use, and variety of all aspects of
language, the subject of phonetics is the scientific
study of the nature, use, and variety of all aspects
of speech.
• The name usually given to the study of spoken
language from a phonetic perspective, following the
example of Ladefoged (1971, 1997), is linguistic
phonetics.
Emerson University, Multan
3. Phone, Phoneme, Allophone
• Sound (=phone) is a vibration or wave caused by an object.
• This definition comes from acoustics and underlines physical
characteristics of sounds of speech. Sounds are instances of phonemes in
real speech. Put it simply, sounds are everything we hear with our ears.
Here are some examples of sounds:
[k], [b], [f], [u], [d], [e], [i:]
the word “cat” consists of three sounds and can be transcribed as follows:
[kæt]
• In dictionary transcriptions, we have sounds, not phonemes. Sounds are
physical segments. Sounds, unlike phonemes, have such concrete
characteristics as duration in time and loudness. Sounds are produced by
organs of speech. Sounds are quite concrete and linguists consider them
to be units of speech; while phonemes are abstract (they are
generalizations made on the basis of comparison of words) and linguists
consider them to be units of language (cf Saussurian distinction langue –
parole). Sometimes, in non-linguistic circles, the word “sound” is used to
name what is, in fact, a phoneme.
• Phonetics discusses [phone]
Emerson University, Multan
4. Phone, Phoneme, Allophone
• Phoneme (Gr. phone “sound, voice”) is the smallest contrastive unit of
language that may change the meaning of a morpheme and, as a
pursuant, a word.
• Put it simply, phoneme is a contrasting phonological unit. Let us consider
several examples:
1) pig – big /p/* – /b/
2) pen – pan /e/ – /æ/
3) sink – think /s/ – /θ/
• As can be seen from the examples above, the distinction between /p/ –
/b/, /e/ – /æ/, and /s/ – /θ/ creates new words in English, which means
that English has such phonemes as /p/, /b/, /e/, /æ/, /s/, /θ/ (among
other English phonemes). When linguists construct phonological system of
a language (let’s say the language of a tribe), they try to find pairs of
words in which the distinction is as small as in the words above. If such a
pair is found, then it means that this language has such phonemes. Let us
consider one more example, in Russian this time:
4) люк [luk] “hatch” – лук [ɫuk] “onion” /l/ – /ɫ/.
• Phonology discusses {phoneme}
Emerson University, Multan
5. Phone, Phoneme, Allophone
• Allophone (Gr. allos “other” and phone “sound, voice”) is a variant of a
phoneme.
• Allophones are different pronunciations of words which do not change the
meaning of these words. Let us consider the following allophones:
7) [pʰ] as in “pin” and [p] as in “spin”
8) [l] as in “lean” and [ɫ] as in “fill”
• Whether we (or a foreigner) pronounce [pin] or [pʰin], [spin] or [spʰin];
[li:n] or [ɫi:n], [fil] or [fiɫ], it does not really change the meaning in English.
Therefore, we are dealing not with phonemes, but with allophones.
• Allophones can be of three types (Kocherhan, 2006, p. 158):
a) individual (e.g. a foreigner or a person with a speech disorder cannot
pronounce [p] correctly);
b) territorial (e.g. when in some part of a country [p] is always pronounced
as [pʰ]); and
c) positional (e.g. [l] at the end of words is usually pronounced as [ɫ]).
•
Emerson University, Multan
6. Phone, Phoneme, Allophone
• In phonetics and linguistics, a phone is any distinct speech sound or
gesture, regardless of whether the exact sound is critical to the meanings
of words.
• In contrast, a phoneme is a speech sound in a given language that, if
swapped with another phoneme, could change one word to another.
Phones are absolute and are not specific to any language, but phonemes
can be discussed only in reference to specific languages.
• For example, the English words kid and kit end with two distinct
phonemes, /d/ and /t/, and swapping one for the other would change one
word into a different word. However, the difference between the /p/
sounds in pun ([pʰ], with aspiration) and spun ([p], without aspiration)
never affects the meaning or identity of a word in English; it's not possible
to replace [p] with [pʰ] (or vice versa) and thereby convert one word to
another. Thus, [pʰ] and [p] are two distinct phones but not distinct
phonemes in English.
• By contrast, swapping the same two sounds in Hindustani can change one
word into another: [pʰal] (फल) means 'fruit', and [pal] (पल) means
'moment' (CIIL 2008). The sounds are then different phonemes.
Emerson University, Multan
7. • Phonetics is the production and perception of speech sounds in any
language and it deals with "phone". Phonology on the other hand is the
interpretation of speech sounds in a particular language and it deals with
phoneme: the smallest unit of sound.
– Phonetics is about the physical aspect of sounds, it studies the production
and the perception of sounds, called phones. Phonetics has some
subcategories, but if not specified, we usually mean "articulatory phonetics":
that is, "the study of the production of speech sounds by the articulatory and
vocal tract by the speaker". Phonetic transcriptions are done using the square
brackets, [ ]
– Phonology is about the abstract aspect of sounds and it studies
the phonemes (phonemic transcriptions adopt the slash / /. Phonology is
about establishing what are the phonemes in a given language, i.e. those
sounds that can bring a difference in meaning between two words. A
phoneme is a phonic segment with a meaning value, for example in minimal
pairs: bat - pat; had - hat
Emerson University, Multan
8. Phonology as grammar of phonetic patterns
•The consonant cluster /st/ is OK at the beginning, middle or end of words in English.
•At beginnings of words, /str/ is OK in English, but /ftr/ or / tr/ are not (they are ungrammatical).
•/ tr/ is OK in the middle of words, however, e.g. in "ashtray".
•/ tr/ is OK at the beginnings of words in German, though, and /ftr/ is OK word-initially in
Russian, but not in English or German.
Emerson University, Multan
9. 1. The first is the articulatory level of description, which
accounts for the changing configurations and other
actions of the speaker’s vocal apparatus.
2. The second is the acoustic level, which consists of
statements about the physical consequences of
articulatory actions in terms of vibratory patterns of
air molecules within the vocal apparatus and in the air
between the speaker and the listener.
3. Finally, the third level of description concerns the
perceptual impressions of the listener receiving the
acoustic information.
Emerson University, Multan
10. A schematic view of the vocal
organs which make up the sub-
processes, including the lungs, the
larynx, the organs of the mouth
and the pharynx in the vocal tract,
and the soft palate (technically
called the velum),
Emerson University, Multan
15. • Place of Articulation
Emerson University, Multan
16. • Place of Articulation
Front vowels Back vowels
[i] bead, beef, key, me [u] boo, move, two, you
[ɪ] bid, myth, women [ʊ] book, could, put
[ɛ] bed, dead, said [ɔ] born, caught, fall, raw
[æ] bad, laugh, wrap [ɑ] Bob, cot, swan
Central vowels
[ə] above, oven, support
[ʌ] butt, blood, dove, tough
Diphthongs
[aɪ] buy, eye, I, my, pie, sigh [oʊ] boat, home, throw, toe
[aʊ] bough, doubt, cow [ɔɪ] boy, noise
[eɪ] bait, eight, great, late, say
Emerson University, Multan
17. For example, one minimal set based on the
vowel phonemes of English could include feat,
fit, fat, fate, fought, foot, and another minimal
set based on consonant phonemes could have
big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wig.
Emerson University, Multan
18. There are definite patterns in the types of sound
combination permitted in a language. lig or vig
are possible sound but fsig, rning are never.
Such constraints are called the phonotactics in
a language and are obviously part of every
speaker’s phonological knowledge.
Emerson University, Multan
19. Segmental vs. Suprasegmental
• If we investigate phonetic or phonological detail in this way, we are
working on the segmental level since each phoneme is usually assumed to
be one segment of speech.
• Once we move on to look at larger chunks of speech that span a number
of segments, such as whole words or phrases, etc., we are dealing with
features on the suprasegmental (Prosody) level.
• Syllables
• Tone
• Intonation
• Stress
• Pitch
• Length
• Falling intonation
• Rising intonation
• Word accent
Emerson University, Multan
20. • A syllable must contain a vowel or vowel-like sound, including
diphthong.
• Syllable----onset & rhyme.
•
• The basic structure of the kind of syllable found in English words like
– green (CCVC), eggs (VCC), and (VCC), ham (CVC), I (V), do (CV), not
(CVC), like (CVC), them (CVC), Sam (CVC), I (V), am (VC).
• Consonant Cluster
– Both the onset and the coda can consist of more than one
consonant, also known as consonant cluster.
Emerson University, Multan
21. The basic structure of the kind of syllable found in English words like
green (CCVC), eggs (VCC), and (VCC), ham (CVC), I (V), do (CV),
not (CVC), like (CVC), them (CVC), Sam (CVC), I (V), am (VC).
Emerson University, Multan
25. Assignment
(to be submitted in the next class)
• What is the scope of Phonetics and what are general
Phonetic and phonological theory?
• Manner and places of articulation of consonants
sounds in human language.
• Manner, places of articulation and types of vowel
sounds in human language.
• What is the scope of International Phonetic
Association?
• Discuss briefly: Phonetics, Phonology, Phones,
Phonemes, Allophones, Vowels, Consonants, Minimal
pairs, Phonotactics
• What are the features of suprasegmental phonology.
Discuss.
Emerson University, Multan
