This document summarizes the history and development of argumentation schemes. It discusses how ancient Greek thinkers like Aristotle analyzed patterns of reasoning called topoi or loci. Modern argumentation theorists have built on this tradition by developing systematic classifications of common argument patterns. The document reviews scheme sets proposed by Hastings, Perelman, Schellens, Kienpointner, and Grennan. It analyzes how their approaches conceptualize argument structures and types of reasoning in different ways based on theories of argumentation.
Differences Between Informal Logic, And Theoretical...Claudia Brown
- Theoretical philosophy categorizes philosophical questions into metaphysics, ontology, philosophy of language, epistemology, philosophy of mind, and logic. It provides an introduction to human reasoning and knowledge.
- Informal logic focuses on reasoning found in everyday exchanges like debates and media, rather than formal logic. Symbolic logic uses mathematical concepts to address problems not solvable through traditional logic.
- Jack Whitehead developed the "living educational theory" approach where practitioners improve their work by communicating the educational values they embody in practice and creating their own educational theories.
This document discusses the principles of rhetoric, beginning with an overview of rhetoric and its origins. It then examines five key principles of rhetoric established by Aristotle and other scholars: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Invention focuses on discovering and establishing arguments in a systematic way. Arrangement is about organizing arguments effectively. Style considers rhetorical devices and language used. Memory emphasizes the importance of recalling discourse arguments. The principles provide guidance for effective persuasive communication.
This document provides an overview of argumentation theory. It discusses key components and internal structures of arguments. It also covers different approaches to argumentation in fields like communication, informal logic, law, politics, mathematics, science and psychology. Different types of arguments are examined like conversational, legal, political and mathematical. Theories of argument fields and the contributions of theorists like Toulmin are summarized. The document aims to introduce argumentation theory as the interdisciplinary study of how conclusions can be reached through logical reasoning in various contexts and disciplines.
This document provides a summary of key concepts from David Zarefsky's lecture notes on chapters 1-12 of his book "Argumentation: The Study of Effective Reasoning". It discusses definitions of argumentation, rhetoric, logic, and dialectic. It also examines underlying assumptions of argumentation like the importance of audience and dealing with uncertainty. Formal and informal argumentation are explored as well as the history of argumentation studies. The document also summarizes analyses of arguments, case construction, the heart of controversies, attack and defense strategies, the role of language and style, and evaluating evidence.
Argumentation And Rhetoric In Visual And Multimodal CommunicationSara Alvarez
This document provides an introduction to the study of multimodal argumentation and rhetoric. It discusses how communication increasingly involves multiple modes beyond just language, such as images, sounds, and gestures. While disciplines traditionally focused on individual modes, the field of multimodal argumentation analyzes how modes work together to convey arguments. The introduction outlines different perspectives in the study of argumentation, such as logical, dialectical, and rhetorical, and how a multimodal approach draws from each. It also discusses terminology around visual, multimodal, argumentation, and rhetoric, proposing that "multimodal argumentation" best captures the combination of modes studied in the volume's contributions.
Memory is a social and political construction. Discuss.·.docxARIV4
Memory is a social and political construction. Discuss.
· The title must appear at the top of your first page as set out in the list attached (The title must not be altered or changed in any way)
· You should use spacing (1.5) and font size 12
· Correct spelling and appropriate paragraphing should be evident
· There should be no widows or orphans, i.e. headings left alone at the bottom of the page
· You should provide references for every citation within the text – omissions will be penalised - References should be written in accord with a referencing convention that is consistent with your major course of study, e.g. APA
Marks will be awarded for:
· Answering the question
· Observing academic conventions
· Adopting a clear and sophisticated style of writing
· Identifying and addressing key issues raised by the question
· Breadth and depth of relevant knowledge
· Depth of analysis, Clarity of argument, Soundness of argument
· Originality of argument
You might find these articles relevant to the topicBaumeister, R. F. & Hastings, S. (1997). Distortions of collective memory: How groups flatter and deceive themselves. In J. W. Pennebaker, D. Paez, & B. Rimé. Collective memory of political events: Social psychological perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: LEA.
Liu, J. H., & Hilton, D. J. (2005). How the past weights on the present: Social representations of history and their role in identity politics. British Journal of Social Psychology, 44, 537–556.
Lászlo ́, J. (2003). History, identity and narratives. In J. Lászlo ́, & W. Wagner (Eds.), Theories and controversies in societal psychology (pp. 180–192). Budapest, Hungary: New Mandate.
Pennebaker, J. W., Paez, D., & Rime, B. (Eds.). (1997). Collective memory of political events: Social psychological perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: LEA.
1700 WORDS REQUIRED essay] and 300 words reflective writing, for reflective writing, I will send you the lecture slides and you will need to reflect upon those slide
to get mark:
Displays a systematic and sophisticated knowledge and understanding of the subject. Is extensively researched and shows a critical awareness of current issues within the field.
Original argument reflecting synthetically on the issues raised in the module. Authoritative and reflective use of supporting material.
Demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of theoretical and critical concepts which includes the ability to reflect critically.
Excellently presented work that conforms to all required academic conventions. Written in a style that is lucid and precise.
Displays a strong and intelligent knowledge and understanding ofthe subject. Is extensively researched and referenced in breadth
and depth.
slides 1.ppt
Epistemology – how do we generate legitimate knowledge?Physical and metaphysical reality (Metaphysics: branch of philosophy that investigates the first principles of nature, e.g. ontology – the science of being)Psychological realities (experience and perception)Social and p ...
Aristotle and Modern Argumentation Theory.pdfNancy Ideker
This document discusses some Aristotelian sources of modern argumentation theory by examining Aristotle's Topics, Sophistical Refutations, and Rhetoric. It argues that while Aristotle does not provide a single, systematic theory of argumentation, modern theorists have reasonably pieced together aspects of his works to form a more coherent view. The Topics focuses on deductive arguments in philosophical debates, while the Rhetoric examines persuasive arguments for public speeches. Together they provide complementary but incomplete perspectives on argumentation. Modern argumentation theory is justified in combining elements from Aristotle's works, but should recognize their limited scope.
This document summarizes Joseph Novak's paper on Aristotle's Topics and informal reasoning. Novak examines Aristotle's topoi dealing with opposition and contrariety. He discusses how Aristotle analyzed arguments using a subject-predicate format and ontological principles. Novak also analyzes how contemporary arguments can employ Aristotelian topoi. The paper aims to provide insight into what Aristotle meant by a topos and how particular topoi function in ordinary argumentation.
Differences Between Informal Logic, And Theoretical...Claudia Brown
- Theoretical philosophy categorizes philosophical questions into metaphysics, ontology, philosophy of language, epistemology, philosophy of mind, and logic. It provides an introduction to human reasoning and knowledge.
- Informal logic focuses on reasoning found in everyday exchanges like debates and media, rather than formal logic. Symbolic logic uses mathematical concepts to address problems not solvable through traditional logic.
- Jack Whitehead developed the "living educational theory" approach where practitioners improve their work by communicating the educational values they embody in practice and creating their own educational theories.
This document discusses the principles of rhetoric, beginning with an overview of rhetoric and its origins. It then examines five key principles of rhetoric established by Aristotle and other scholars: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Invention focuses on discovering and establishing arguments in a systematic way. Arrangement is about organizing arguments effectively. Style considers rhetorical devices and language used. Memory emphasizes the importance of recalling discourse arguments. The principles provide guidance for effective persuasive communication.
This document provides an overview of argumentation theory. It discusses key components and internal structures of arguments. It also covers different approaches to argumentation in fields like communication, informal logic, law, politics, mathematics, science and psychology. Different types of arguments are examined like conversational, legal, political and mathematical. Theories of argument fields and the contributions of theorists like Toulmin are summarized. The document aims to introduce argumentation theory as the interdisciplinary study of how conclusions can be reached through logical reasoning in various contexts and disciplines.
This document provides a summary of key concepts from David Zarefsky's lecture notes on chapters 1-12 of his book "Argumentation: The Study of Effective Reasoning". It discusses definitions of argumentation, rhetoric, logic, and dialectic. It also examines underlying assumptions of argumentation like the importance of audience and dealing with uncertainty. Formal and informal argumentation are explored as well as the history of argumentation studies. The document also summarizes analyses of arguments, case construction, the heart of controversies, attack and defense strategies, the role of language and style, and evaluating evidence.
Argumentation And Rhetoric In Visual And Multimodal CommunicationSara Alvarez
This document provides an introduction to the study of multimodal argumentation and rhetoric. It discusses how communication increasingly involves multiple modes beyond just language, such as images, sounds, and gestures. While disciplines traditionally focused on individual modes, the field of multimodal argumentation analyzes how modes work together to convey arguments. The introduction outlines different perspectives in the study of argumentation, such as logical, dialectical, and rhetorical, and how a multimodal approach draws from each. It also discusses terminology around visual, multimodal, argumentation, and rhetoric, proposing that "multimodal argumentation" best captures the combination of modes studied in the volume's contributions.
Memory is a social and political construction. Discuss.·.docxARIV4
Memory is a social and political construction. Discuss.
· The title must appear at the top of your first page as set out in the list attached (The title must not be altered or changed in any way)
· You should use spacing (1.5) and font size 12
· Correct spelling and appropriate paragraphing should be evident
· There should be no widows or orphans, i.e. headings left alone at the bottom of the page
· You should provide references for every citation within the text – omissions will be penalised - References should be written in accord with a referencing convention that is consistent with your major course of study, e.g. APA
Marks will be awarded for:
· Answering the question
· Observing academic conventions
· Adopting a clear and sophisticated style of writing
· Identifying and addressing key issues raised by the question
· Breadth and depth of relevant knowledge
· Depth of analysis, Clarity of argument, Soundness of argument
· Originality of argument
You might find these articles relevant to the topicBaumeister, R. F. & Hastings, S. (1997). Distortions of collective memory: How groups flatter and deceive themselves. In J. W. Pennebaker, D. Paez, & B. Rimé. Collective memory of political events: Social psychological perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: LEA.
Liu, J. H., & Hilton, D. J. (2005). How the past weights on the present: Social representations of history and their role in identity politics. British Journal of Social Psychology, 44, 537–556.
Lászlo ́, J. (2003). History, identity and narratives. In J. Lászlo ́, & W. Wagner (Eds.), Theories and controversies in societal psychology (pp. 180–192). Budapest, Hungary: New Mandate.
Pennebaker, J. W., Paez, D., & Rime, B. (Eds.). (1997). Collective memory of political events: Social psychological perspectives. Mahwah, NJ: LEA.
1700 WORDS REQUIRED essay] and 300 words reflective writing, for reflective writing, I will send you the lecture slides and you will need to reflect upon those slide
to get mark:
Displays a systematic and sophisticated knowledge and understanding of the subject. Is extensively researched and shows a critical awareness of current issues within the field.
Original argument reflecting synthetically on the issues raised in the module. Authoritative and reflective use of supporting material.
Demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of theoretical and critical concepts which includes the ability to reflect critically.
Excellently presented work that conforms to all required academic conventions. Written in a style that is lucid and precise.
Displays a strong and intelligent knowledge and understanding ofthe subject. Is extensively researched and referenced in breadth
and depth.
slides 1.ppt
Epistemology – how do we generate legitimate knowledge?Physical and metaphysical reality (Metaphysics: branch of philosophy that investigates the first principles of nature, e.g. ontology – the science of being)Psychological realities (experience and perception)Social and p ...
Aristotle and Modern Argumentation Theory.pdfNancy Ideker
This document discusses some Aristotelian sources of modern argumentation theory by examining Aristotle's Topics, Sophistical Refutations, and Rhetoric. It argues that while Aristotle does not provide a single, systematic theory of argumentation, modern theorists have reasonably pieced together aspects of his works to form a more coherent view. The Topics focuses on deductive arguments in philosophical debates, while the Rhetoric examines persuasive arguments for public speeches. Together they provide complementary but incomplete perspectives on argumentation. Modern argumentation theory is justified in combining elements from Aristotle's works, but should recognize their limited scope.
This document summarizes Joseph Novak's paper on Aristotle's Topics and informal reasoning. Novak examines Aristotle's topoi dealing with opposition and contrariety. He discusses how Aristotle analyzed arguments using a subject-predicate format and ontological principles. Novak also analyzes how contemporary arguments can employ Aristotelian topoi. The paper aims to provide insight into what Aristotle meant by a topos and how particular topoi function in ordinary argumentation.
The document summarizes several theories and traditions related to communication and interpretation:
- The semiotic tradition examines the structure and organization of messages. Semiotics of language studies how language is influenced by and influences semiotics.
- The phenomenological tradition studies structures of consciousness from a first-person perspective, focusing on intentionality and how experiences are directed at objects.
- Reader-response theory (Stanley Fish) focuses on the reader's experience rather than the author/work, and how each reader creates their own unique interpretation.
- The rhetorical tradition explores the inherent connection between rhetoric and human experience, and how rhetoric impacts views of politics, ethics, and life.
- New rhetoric (Perel
Argumentative text as rhetorical structure An application of rhetorical stru...Cynthia Velynne
This document discusses analyzing argumentative texts using Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST). It argues that five of RST's rhetorical relations - Evidence, Motivation, Justify, Antithesis, and Concession - can be considered types of argument relations. These relations involve a part that provides an argument to support a conclusion. The document aims to clarify the concept of an argument relation and demonstrate how RST can be useful for identifying and analyzing argumentative texts versus explanatory texts. It provides definitions and examples to illustrate how RST can analyze the structure and intentions of argumentative texts.
ENGL570_B01_202020 - 202020 SPRING 2020 ENGL 570-B01 LUOTe.docxkhanpaulita
ENGL570_B01_202020 - 202020 SPRING 2020 ENGL 570-B01 LUO
Term Paper
Yolanda McNeil
on Thu, Mar 05 2020, 9:59 PM
15% highest match
Submission ID: 023edea0-7542-490e-9a7e-4a71a560616e
Attachments (1)
Yolanda_McNeil_ENGL570_Term_Project_Paper.docx
Running head: THE ENTHYMEME IN ARISTOTLE'S RHETORIC 1
THE ENTHYMEME IN ARISTOTLE'S RHETORIC 2
Term Project: 1 JUDICIAL RHETORIC (THE ENTHYMEME IN ARISTOTLE'S
RHETORIC) YOLANDA MCNEIL
(http://safeassign.blackboard.com/)
Yolanda_McNeil_ENGL570_Term_Project_Paper.docx
Word Count: 5,918
Attachment ID: 2642248507
15%
http://safeassign.blackboard.com/
ENGL 570 TERM PAPER
Liberty University
Introduction
The concept of enthymeme has been broadly discussed as a subject in argumentation theory
and informal logic. All contemporary theorists understand that the enthymeme concept date
back to Aristotle Rhetoric. They are convinced that the term ‘syllogism’ which ascribed to this
concept in introductions to logic diverges from original Aristotelian perception. But what few
individuals are not sure is that scholars of ancient philosophy and philologists are still
passionately debating the matter of detailed sense of this concept in Rhetoric (Conley, 1984). As
a result, there is just one point that all theorists agree: the enthymeme has changed since
Aristotle's original discussions of it. In overall, the approach of Aristotle to the enthymemes in
the Rhetoric seems to change from argumentative theory to logic.
Research Purpose
This research paper provides an analysis of how Aristotle ascribes to the enthymeme. That will
be achieved from the perception of argumentation theory in explaining how enthymeme has
presented in different perspectives. The advantages of argumentation theory include the
following: it supplements the dominant logical approach presented in 2 highly enlightened
researches by Burnyeat (1994) which emphasizes the question of logical validity of the link
between the premise and deduction. Secondly, that method is better calculated to outline
parallels in contemporary ‘enthymeme issues.
The research intends to use an argumentative theory which is the study of how deductions can
be arrived at through reasonable thinking, that is, soundly, claim based or not on-premises. It
comprises rules of logic and inference in speeches and premises. 1 IN COMBINATION
WITH RHETORIC THEORY THAT TRACES ITS ROOTS BACK TO ANTIQUE
GREECE, WHERE “RHETORIC” DENOTED THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING AS
IT ADVANCED UNDER THE STATUTORY RÉGIME, ESPECIALLY IN THE 4TH
AND 5TH-CENTURY ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY.
THE ORDINARY CITIZEN LACKED THE WIDE-RANGING KNOWLEDGE OF THE
LAW AND ITS PROCEDURES THAT THE PROFESSIONAL LAWYER DID,
HOWEVER, IT WAS GREAT TO HIS ADVANTAGE TO HAVE WIDE-RANGING
KNOWLEDGE OF THE TACTICS OF DEFENSE AND PROSECUTION. AS A
RESULT, THE SCHOOLS OF RHETORIC DID A SUCCESSFUL BUSINESS IN
TRAINING THE LAYPERSON TO DEFEND HIMSELF IN COURT OR TO
PROSECUTE AN OFFENDING NEIGHBOR. AS.
1995-05-00 NEH Dissertation Grants Abstract Of Dissertation ProjectCharlie Congdon
Michael Ochoa is applying for a dissertation grant from NEB to complete his PhD dissertation at Tulane University titled "A Philosophical and Mathematical Theory of Truth". The dissertation aims to develop a theory of truth that addresses postmodern criticisms of "logo-centrism" by providing an internal defense of mathematical science. It will examine theories of truth proposed by Tarski, Kripke, and Barwise/Etchemendy to separate the intuitions motivating mathematics from those making it susceptible to criticism. The fourth chapter will propose a new account of truth that extends formal results while resolving conflicts through demonstrating the equivocation of "universality".
The persuasive essay has a writing style that requires careful crafting and precise structure. The art of persuasion has its own ethics and politics. Read to find out
Manipulation and cognitive pragmatics. Preliminary hypothesesLouis de Saussure
de Saussure Louis (2005). Manipulation and Cognitive Pragmatics: Preliminary
Hypotheses. In de Saussure Louis & Peter Schulz (Eds), Manipulation and Ideologies
in the Twentieth Century: Discourse, Language, Mind, Amsterdam-Philadelphia, John Benjamins, 113-146.
Discourse Approaches to Politics, Society and Culture, 17
Uncorrected first proofs. Please refer to original text.
What (Good) is Historical Epistemology Thomas Sturm ref.docxphilipnelson29183
What (Good) is Historical
Epistemology?
Thomas Sturm reflects on a conference on historical epistemology, held at the
MPIWG in July 2008, which brought together historians and philosophers of science.
• AUG 31, 2008
• Thomas Sturm
•
• DEPT. I
Philosophical epistemology aims to clarify what knowledge is, whether we possess
any of it, and how we can justify our knowledge claims, including scientific ones.
While epistemology is a strong branch of current philosophy, its universalistic
pretensions have often been criticized. In particular, it has been suggested that
knowledge is situated in contexts (biological, social, historical, material) and that
epistemology cannot afford to ignore these contexts. One such challenge, which has
recently attracted many historians of science, has been named “historical
epistemology”. Yet there are several different versions of this approach. The
conference aimed to clarify and evaluate these in talks and discussions with
internationally leading historians of epistemology and philosophers and historians of
science. The conference attracted over 120 guests from Europe, America, and Asia,
who work in disciplines as diverse as philosophy, history of science, physics, geology,
economics, sociology, psychology, art history, and philology.
The guiding task was to clarify what versions of historical epistemology exist and the
pros and cons each of them presents. What kind of historical enterprise is historical
epistemology? What are its basic assumptions, and what are their rationales?
Moreover, in what sense is such a focus on epistemic categories and practices itself a
form of epistemology (or philosophy of science)? As papers and discussions were
based on studies about specific topics that exemplify or test one or another version of
historical epistemology, the conference covered a wide variety of issues. These
included the historicity of epistemological categories and standards (such as the
replication of experiments in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the relation
between perception and judgment, or different models of explanation and causal
inference); the historicity of epistemic objects, that is, the “birth, life, and death” of
real or apparent objects of research (like phlogiston, the electron, memory, or the
economy); and models of scientific development, which were either guided by a neo-
Kantian framework or tried to deal with alleged cases of incommensurability by
means of theories of concepts from recent cognitive science.
https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/dept-one
The way the program was organized reflected three versions of historical
epistemology, as they are practiced by researchers at the MPIWG. Each has its own
points of contact to philosophical epistemology and the philosophy of science: (1)
According to Lorraine Daston, historical epistemology raises “the Kantian question
about the preconditions that make thinkin.
Philosophy of man(modern, ancient, contemporary)EsOr Naujnas
Philosophy is the study of fundamental problems concerning existence, knowledge, reason, mind and language. It uses methods like questioning, argumentation and systematic presentations to analyze topics such as metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics and logic. Metaphysics examines concepts like existence, objects, properties, time and causation. Epistemology is the study of knowledge and justified belief. Value theory includes ethics, which analyzes concepts like goodness, justice and virtue, and aesthetics, which addresses beauty, art and taste. Modern philosophy originated in 17th century Western Europe with rationalists like Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz using systematic doubting and reasoning to understand fundamental concepts.
This document discusses debates around theoretical approaches in stylistics, arguing that theoretical eclecticism is valid and more useful than claiming one approach is better. It summarizes recent arguments between proponents of different theories like relevance theory, conversation analysis, and critical discourse analysis. While adversarial debate has value, some discussions have an unnecessary harsh tone that undermines progress. The document advocates considering multiple viewpoints to better understand complex language phenomena, rather than viewing theories as competing.
The document discusses Thomas Kuhn's work "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" and his key concepts of paradigms, normal science, and scientific revolutions. Kuhn argued that science progresses through periods of normal science within a dominant paradigm, punctuated by scientific revolutions that result in a new paradigm taking hold. His work challenged the traditional view of science as a linear, cumulative process.
The document discusses the multi-level nature of science. It describes how science works at different scales, from individual scientists tackling specific problems to broad overarching theories that frame entire disciplines. Hypotheses aim to explain narrow phenomena, while theories provide broad explanations supported by evidence. Some theories, like evolution or plate tectonics, are so important that they establish frameworks for understanding the natural world. Even accepted theories may change over time with new evidence. The document uses examples like the discovery of ozone depletion by CFCs to illustrate how science is an iterative process dependent on evidence and the scientific community.
Research Dilemmas Paradigms, Methods and MethodologyJairo Gomez
The document discusses issues faced by early career researchers, including confusion created by textbooks and articles that present research methodology as either qualitative or quantitative. It argues that discussions should include mixed methods and address the perceived dichotomy. The document then defines and discusses various research paradigms, including positivist/postpositivist, interpretivist/constructivist, transformative, and pragmatic. It explores how paradigms relate to methodology and methods, noting that certain paradigms are commonly associated with either qualitative or quantitative approaches.
This document outlines three arguments about creativity across domains:
1) Creativity exists on a single latent dimension from hard sciences to soft sciences to arts.
2) Creators' psychological traits and experiences correlate with their domain according to its placement on this dimension.
3) An individual's creativity matches their domain based on the fit of their traits and experiences to what is typical of that domain. The document provides examples supporting each argument across scientific and artistic fields.
This document discusses philosophy and logic. It provides an overview of some of the major philosophers from history like Thales, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Philosophy is defined as the science of beings in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles acquired by the aid of human reason alone. Logic studies the principles or laws of accurate thinking and systematic reasoning. There are different fields of study in philosophy like metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology. Logic is traced back to Aristotle and aims to evaluate arguments as good or bad based on term arrangement.
The document discusses several concepts related to positivism, critical theory, and research methods. It begins by defining positivism as a philosophy that knowledge can only come from empirical evidence and strict scientific methods. It then discusses critiques of positivism and introduces related concepts like hermeneutics, critical theory, induction, deduction, abduction, and methods for comparative causal analysis.
Analytic Philosophy Of Literature Problems And ProspectsAngie Miller
This document discusses the current state of analytic philosophy of literature. It notes that there is growing interest in interdisciplinary study but also disagreement about the proper aims and methods of the analytic approach. The document aims to explore these issues by briefly discussing the history and characteristics of analytic philosophy of literature, examining some alleged weaknesses like neglect of history and empiricism, and considering the prospects for contributing to understanding literature. It provides context on the origins and development of analytic aesthetics and philosophy's interest in literature.
This document provides an overview of ontology learning from unstructured text. It discusses how ontology became important for facilitating text understanding and automatic processing. It also describes different types of ontologies used in computer science, including upper ontologies describing very generic concepts, and domain ontologies describing specific subject domains. The document outlines various methods for learning ontologies from text and clarifies different understandings and uses of the term "ontology" in philosophy and computer science.
A CONTINUIST APPROACH TO PROMOTING CREATIVITY GENERATING NOVEL METAPHORICAL ...Jennifer Daniel
This document describes an experiment that tested a continuist approach to promoting creativity through the generation of novel metaphorical expressions. The experiment asked participants to generate creative titles for essays. The experimental group was trained in heuristics involving extending and reinstantiating conceptual metaphors, while the control group used their natural abilities. The titles generated using the heuristics were found to be more creative. The heuristics involved deriving new metaphorical expressions by varying conventional conceptual metaphors in systematic ways.
This report discusses about Logical Empiricism, or Logical Positivism – from its origins, who founded this "movement", its influences, weaknesses, and its contribution to education in general.
Visual Medium Advertisement Analysis Es. Online assignment writing service.Sheila Sinclair
The document provides instructions for requesting and completing an assignment writing request through the website HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, with the option of a full refund for plagiarized work.
Personal Essay Template. The Per. Online assignment writing service.Sheila Sinclair
The document discusses both the positive and negative impacts of globalization. It notes that globalization can both promote progress through greater interconnectivity between people worldwide, but can also lead to cultural homogenization and the alteration of local cultural values and traditions. Specifically, the document states that while globalization expands exposure to foreign cultures, it can also influence people, especially younger generations, to take on global cultural trends at the expense of their traditional local identities. Both benefits like the spread of ideas and challenges like changes in traditional customs are discussed as complex effects of the growing interconnectedness between societies worldwide under globalization.
The document summarizes several theories and traditions related to communication and interpretation:
- The semiotic tradition examines the structure and organization of messages. Semiotics of language studies how language is influenced by and influences semiotics.
- The phenomenological tradition studies structures of consciousness from a first-person perspective, focusing on intentionality and how experiences are directed at objects.
- Reader-response theory (Stanley Fish) focuses on the reader's experience rather than the author/work, and how each reader creates their own unique interpretation.
- The rhetorical tradition explores the inherent connection between rhetoric and human experience, and how rhetoric impacts views of politics, ethics, and life.
- New rhetoric (Perel
Argumentative text as rhetorical structure An application of rhetorical stru...Cynthia Velynne
This document discusses analyzing argumentative texts using Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST). It argues that five of RST's rhetorical relations - Evidence, Motivation, Justify, Antithesis, and Concession - can be considered types of argument relations. These relations involve a part that provides an argument to support a conclusion. The document aims to clarify the concept of an argument relation and demonstrate how RST can be useful for identifying and analyzing argumentative texts versus explanatory texts. It provides definitions and examples to illustrate how RST can analyze the structure and intentions of argumentative texts.
ENGL570_B01_202020 - 202020 SPRING 2020 ENGL 570-B01 LUOTe.docxkhanpaulita
ENGL570_B01_202020 - 202020 SPRING 2020 ENGL 570-B01 LUO
Term Paper
Yolanda McNeil
on Thu, Mar 05 2020, 9:59 PM
15% highest match
Submission ID: 023edea0-7542-490e-9a7e-4a71a560616e
Attachments (1)
Yolanda_McNeil_ENGL570_Term_Project_Paper.docx
Running head: THE ENTHYMEME IN ARISTOTLE'S RHETORIC 1
THE ENTHYMEME IN ARISTOTLE'S RHETORIC 2
Term Project: 1 JUDICIAL RHETORIC (THE ENTHYMEME IN ARISTOTLE'S
RHETORIC) YOLANDA MCNEIL
(http://safeassign.blackboard.com/)
Yolanda_McNeil_ENGL570_Term_Project_Paper.docx
Word Count: 5,918
Attachment ID: 2642248507
15%
http://safeassign.blackboard.com/
ENGL 570 TERM PAPER
Liberty University
Introduction
The concept of enthymeme has been broadly discussed as a subject in argumentation theory
and informal logic. All contemporary theorists understand that the enthymeme concept date
back to Aristotle Rhetoric. They are convinced that the term ‘syllogism’ which ascribed to this
concept in introductions to logic diverges from original Aristotelian perception. But what few
individuals are not sure is that scholars of ancient philosophy and philologists are still
passionately debating the matter of detailed sense of this concept in Rhetoric (Conley, 1984). As
a result, there is just one point that all theorists agree: the enthymeme has changed since
Aristotle's original discussions of it. In overall, the approach of Aristotle to the enthymemes in
the Rhetoric seems to change from argumentative theory to logic.
Research Purpose
This research paper provides an analysis of how Aristotle ascribes to the enthymeme. That will
be achieved from the perception of argumentation theory in explaining how enthymeme has
presented in different perspectives. The advantages of argumentation theory include the
following: it supplements the dominant logical approach presented in 2 highly enlightened
researches by Burnyeat (1994) which emphasizes the question of logical validity of the link
between the premise and deduction. Secondly, that method is better calculated to outline
parallels in contemporary ‘enthymeme issues.
The research intends to use an argumentative theory which is the study of how deductions can
be arrived at through reasonable thinking, that is, soundly, claim based or not on-premises. It
comprises rules of logic and inference in speeches and premises. 1 IN COMBINATION
WITH RHETORIC THEORY THAT TRACES ITS ROOTS BACK TO ANTIQUE
GREECE, WHERE “RHETORIC” DENOTED THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING AS
IT ADVANCED UNDER THE STATUTORY RÉGIME, ESPECIALLY IN THE 4TH
AND 5TH-CENTURY ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY.
THE ORDINARY CITIZEN LACKED THE WIDE-RANGING KNOWLEDGE OF THE
LAW AND ITS PROCEDURES THAT THE PROFESSIONAL LAWYER DID,
HOWEVER, IT WAS GREAT TO HIS ADVANTAGE TO HAVE WIDE-RANGING
KNOWLEDGE OF THE TACTICS OF DEFENSE AND PROSECUTION. AS A
RESULT, THE SCHOOLS OF RHETORIC DID A SUCCESSFUL BUSINESS IN
TRAINING THE LAYPERSON TO DEFEND HIMSELF IN COURT OR TO
PROSECUTE AN OFFENDING NEIGHBOR. AS.
1995-05-00 NEH Dissertation Grants Abstract Of Dissertation ProjectCharlie Congdon
Michael Ochoa is applying for a dissertation grant from NEB to complete his PhD dissertation at Tulane University titled "A Philosophical and Mathematical Theory of Truth". The dissertation aims to develop a theory of truth that addresses postmodern criticisms of "logo-centrism" by providing an internal defense of mathematical science. It will examine theories of truth proposed by Tarski, Kripke, and Barwise/Etchemendy to separate the intuitions motivating mathematics from those making it susceptible to criticism. The fourth chapter will propose a new account of truth that extends formal results while resolving conflicts through demonstrating the equivocation of "universality".
The persuasive essay has a writing style that requires careful crafting and precise structure. The art of persuasion has its own ethics and politics. Read to find out
Manipulation and cognitive pragmatics. Preliminary hypothesesLouis de Saussure
de Saussure Louis (2005). Manipulation and Cognitive Pragmatics: Preliminary
Hypotheses. In de Saussure Louis & Peter Schulz (Eds), Manipulation and Ideologies
in the Twentieth Century: Discourse, Language, Mind, Amsterdam-Philadelphia, John Benjamins, 113-146.
Discourse Approaches to Politics, Society and Culture, 17
Uncorrected first proofs. Please refer to original text.
What (Good) is Historical Epistemology Thomas Sturm ref.docxphilipnelson29183
What (Good) is Historical
Epistemology?
Thomas Sturm reflects on a conference on historical epistemology, held at the
MPIWG in July 2008, which brought together historians and philosophers of science.
• AUG 31, 2008
• Thomas Sturm
•
• DEPT. I
Philosophical epistemology aims to clarify what knowledge is, whether we possess
any of it, and how we can justify our knowledge claims, including scientific ones.
While epistemology is a strong branch of current philosophy, its universalistic
pretensions have often been criticized. In particular, it has been suggested that
knowledge is situated in contexts (biological, social, historical, material) and that
epistemology cannot afford to ignore these contexts. One such challenge, which has
recently attracted many historians of science, has been named “historical
epistemology”. Yet there are several different versions of this approach. The
conference aimed to clarify and evaluate these in talks and discussions with
internationally leading historians of epistemology and philosophers and historians of
science. The conference attracted over 120 guests from Europe, America, and Asia,
who work in disciplines as diverse as philosophy, history of science, physics, geology,
economics, sociology, psychology, art history, and philology.
The guiding task was to clarify what versions of historical epistemology exist and the
pros and cons each of them presents. What kind of historical enterprise is historical
epistemology? What are its basic assumptions, and what are their rationales?
Moreover, in what sense is such a focus on epistemic categories and practices itself a
form of epistemology (or philosophy of science)? As papers and discussions were
based on studies about specific topics that exemplify or test one or another version of
historical epistemology, the conference covered a wide variety of issues. These
included the historicity of epistemological categories and standards (such as the
replication of experiments in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the relation
between perception and judgment, or different models of explanation and causal
inference); the historicity of epistemic objects, that is, the “birth, life, and death” of
real or apparent objects of research (like phlogiston, the electron, memory, or the
economy); and models of scientific development, which were either guided by a neo-
Kantian framework or tried to deal with alleged cases of incommensurability by
means of theories of concepts from recent cognitive science.
https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/dept-one
The way the program was organized reflected three versions of historical
epistemology, as they are practiced by researchers at the MPIWG. Each has its own
points of contact to philosophical epistemology and the philosophy of science: (1)
According to Lorraine Daston, historical epistemology raises “the Kantian question
about the preconditions that make thinkin.
Philosophy of man(modern, ancient, contemporary)EsOr Naujnas
Philosophy is the study of fundamental problems concerning existence, knowledge, reason, mind and language. It uses methods like questioning, argumentation and systematic presentations to analyze topics such as metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics and logic. Metaphysics examines concepts like existence, objects, properties, time and causation. Epistemology is the study of knowledge and justified belief. Value theory includes ethics, which analyzes concepts like goodness, justice and virtue, and aesthetics, which addresses beauty, art and taste. Modern philosophy originated in 17th century Western Europe with rationalists like Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz using systematic doubting and reasoning to understand fundamental concepts.
This document discusses debates around theoretical approaches in stylistics, arguing that theoretical eclecticism is valid and more useful than claiming one approach is better. It summarizes recent arguments between proponents of different theories like relevance theory, conversation analysis, and critical discourse analysis. While adversarial debate has value, some discussions have an unnecessary harsh tone that undermines progress. The document advocates considering multiple viewpoints to better understand complex language phenomena, rather than viewing theories as competing.
The document discusses Thomas Kuhn's work "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" and his key concepts of paradigms, normal science, and scientific revolutions. Kuhn argued that science progresses through periods of normal science within a dominant paradigm, punctuated by scientific revolutions that result in a new paradigm taking hold. His work challenged the traditional view of science as a linear, cumulative process.
The document discusses the multi-level nature of science. It describes how science works at different scales, from individual scientists tackling specific problems to broad overarching theories that frame entire disciplines. Hypotheses aim to explain narrow phenomena, while theories provide broad explanations supported by evidence. Some theories, like evolution or plate tectonics, are so important that they establish frameworks for understanding the natural world. Even accepted theories may change over time with new evidence. The document uses examples like the discovery of ozone depletion by CFCs to illustrate how science is an iterative process dependent on evidence and the scientific community.
Research Dilemmas Paradigms, Methods and MethodologyJairo Gomez
The document discusses issues faced by early career researchers, including confusion created by textbooks and articles that present research methodology as either qualitative or quantitative. It argues that discussions should include mixed methods and address the perceived dichotomy. The document then defines and discusses various research paradigms, including positivist/postpositivist, interpretivist/constructivist, transformative, and pragmatic. It explores how paradigms relate to methodology and methods, noting that certain paradigms are commonly associated with either qualitative or quantitative approaches.
This document outlines three arguments about creativity across domains:
1) Creativity exists on a single latent dimension from hard sciences to soft sciences to arts.
2) Creators' psychological traits and experiences correlate with their domain according to its placement on this dimension.
3) An individual's creativity matches their domain based on the fit of their traits and experiences to what is typical of that domain. The document provides examples supporting each argument across scientific and artistic fields.
This document discusses philosophy and logic. It provides an overview of some of the major philosophers from history like Thales, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Philosophy is defined as the science of beings in their ultimate reasons, causes and principles acquired by the aid of human reason alone. Logic studies the principles or laws of accurate thinking and systematic reasoning. There are different fields of study in philosophy like metaphysics, ontology, and epistemology. Logic is traced back to Aristotle and aims to evaluate arguments as good or bad based on term arrangement.
The document discusses several concepts related to positivism, critical theory, and research methods. It begins by defining positivism as a philosophy that knowledge can only come from empirical evidence and strict scientific methods. It then discusses critiques of positivism and introduces related concepts like hermeneutics, critical theory, induction, deduction, abduction, and methods for comparative causal analysis.
Analytic Philosophy Of Literature Problems And ProspectsAngie Miller
This document discusses the current state of analytic philosophy of literature. It notes that there is growing interest in interdisciplinary study but also disagreement about the proper aims and methods of the analytic approach. The document aims to explore these issues by briefly discussing the history and characteristics of analytic philosophy of literature, examining some alleged weaknesses like neglect of history and empiricism, and considering the prospects for contributing to understanding literature. It provides context on the origins and development of analytic aesthetics and philosophy's interest in literature.
This document provides an overview of ontology learning from unstructured text. It discusses how ontology became important for facilitating text understanding and automatic processing. It also describes different types of ontologies used in computer science, including upper ontologies describing very generic concepts, and domain ontologies describing specific subject domains. The document outlines various methods for learning ontologies from text and clarifies different understandings and uses of the term "ontology" in philosophy and computer science.
A CONTINUIST APPROACH TO PROMOTING CREATIVITY GENERATING NOVEL METAPHORICAL ...Jennifer Daniel
This document describes an experiment that tested a continuist approach to promoting creativity through the generation of novel metaphorical expressions. The experiment asked participants to generate creative titles for essays. The experimental group was trained in heuristics involving extending and reinstantiating conceptual metaphors, while the control group used their natural abilities. The titles generated using the heuristics were found to be more creative. The heuristics involved deriving new metaphorical expressions by varying conventional conceptual metaphors in systematic ways.
This report discusses about Logical Empiricism, or Logical Positivism – from its origins, who founded this "movement", its influences, weaknesses, and its contribution to education in general.
Visual Medium Advertisement Analysis Es. Online assignment writing service.Sheila Sinclair
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The document discusses both the positive and negative impacts of globalization. It notes that globalization can both promote progress through greater interconnectivity between people worldwide, but can also lead to cultural homogenization and the alteration of local cultural values and traditions. Specifically, the document states that while globalization expands exposure to foreign cultures, it can also influence people, especially younger generations, to take on global cultural trends at the expense of their traditional local identities. Both benefits like the spread of ideas and challenges like changes in traditional customs are discussed as complex effects of the growing interconnectedness between societies worldwide under globalization.
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Descriptive Paragraph On Nature. Essay On Nature. 2Sheila Sinclair
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The document provides information about the history and origins of hip hop music. It began in the 1970s in the Bronx, New York among DJs, MCs, breakdancers, and graffiti artists. The early sound that was popular in New York was disco music. DJ Kool Herc is cited as playing an important role in the emergence of hip hop by extending the breakbeat portion of songs to allow for dance parties. The document intends to fully explain how rap music evolved from its origins in the Bronx streets to what it is today.
The document provides instructions for requesting and completing an assignment writing request on the HelpWriting.net website. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with an email and password. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, and the company offers refunds for plagiarized work.
Writing A Speech For Your Presentation - SoalanruleSheila Sinclair
The document provides instructions for writing a speech for a presentation on the site HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email; 2) Complete a form with instructions, sources, and deadline; 3) Review bids from writers and choose one; 4) Review the paper and authorize payment; 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction. The site promises original, high-quality content or a full refund.
1. Cirque du Soleil has strong internal resources and competencies that drive its success, including its large workforce of talented artists and performers.
2. Its core competencies are its reputation for innovative, high-quality shows with unique choreography and stunts.
3. These competencies are rare, valuable, and difficult for competitors to imitate, giving Cirque du Soleil a sustainable competitive advantage in the entertainment industry.
The document discusses the steps to request writing assistance from HelpWriting.net, including creating an account, completing an order form with instructions and deadline, and reviewing writer bids before choosing one and placing a deposit to start the assignment. It notes that customers can request revisions to ensure satisfaction and will receive a full refund if the paper is plagiarized. The process aims to match customers with qualified writers and provide original, high-quality content for assignments.
Owl Writing Paper Teaching Resources. Online assignment writing service.Sheila Sinclair
1. Choosing to be induced without medical necessity can increase the odds of a cesarean section.
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How To Write An Introduction Paragraph For An Essay About A BooSheila Sinclair
The document discusses the functions of humanity and morality. It argues that associating with one universal religion can breed love among all of humanity, while different religions divide people and can cause conflicts. It also states that humanity, with qualities like humility, can bring inner peace, while morality comes from humanism which fights for human rights and progress. Finally, it explains that humanism provides a non-superstitious worldview that allows for more ethical choices based on empathy rather than religion.
The document provides instructions for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and select one based on qualifications. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction, and the company guarantees original, high-quality work or a full refund.
30 High School Scholarship Essay Examples ExamplSheila Sinclair
This document discusses why video games should be considered sports. It provides arguments both for and against considering esports as real sports. While esports meet some criteria like requiring skill and being competitive, they ultimately differ from traditional sports in lacking physical exertion. Esports competitions instead resemble organized gaming events. The document also notes similarities in team structures and competitive pathways between esports and sports.
The document provides instructions for writing an explanation paper in 5 steps:
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14 Financial Analysis Templates - AI, PSD, Google Docs, Apple PagesSheila Sinclair
The document discusses the sales management process of Bharat Petroleum Corporation Ltd (BPCL), an Indian public sector oil and gas company, focusing on their STMO (Sales Territory Management Officer) sales role. It presents details of BPCL's STMO Satyam Awasthi and his responsibilities managing lubricant sales as the Area Manager, with the case study submitted as part of an individual assignment on sales management.
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This document provides a 3-step process for requesting writing assistance from HelpWriting.net:
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College Essay Persuasive Essay Conclusion FormatSheila Sinclair
The document discusses Gilbert Keith Chesterton's novel "The Man Who Was Thursday" and how it deals with the themes of terrorism and art. It analyzes how Chesterton uses humor, fantastical elements, and poetic language to question perceptions of reality and conventional logic. Through disguises and mysterious characters, the novel explores the nature of terrorism and its relationship to literature. The summary highlights the novel's examination of these complex topics through its paradoxical and enigmatic style.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
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This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
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Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
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it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
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1. Argumentative Reasoning Patterns
Fabrizio Macagno1 and Doug Walton2
This paper is aimed at presenting a preliminary study on argu-
ment schemes. Argumentation theory has provided several sets of
forms such as deductive, inductive and presumptive patterns of rea-
soning. The earliest accounts of argument schemes were advanced
in Arthur Hastings’ Ph.D. thesis at Northwestern University (1963),
and in Perelman and Obrechts-Tyteca’s work on the classification
of loci in 1969. Other scheme sets have been developed by Toul-
min, Rieke, Janik (1984), Schellens (1985),van Eemeren and Kruiger
(1987), Kienpointner (1992) and Grennan (1997). Each scheme set
put forward by these authors presupposes a particular theory of argu-
ment. Each theory, in turn, implies a particular perspective regarding
the relation between logic and pragmatic aspects of argumentation,
and notions of plausibility and defeasibility. The history of argument
schemes begins with the concepts of topos and locus.
1 Loci and argumentation schemes
In the field of argumentation there are conflicting views about what
an argument is and what must be present for something to be re-
garded as an argument. Arguments may be thought of as complex
speech acts or as propositional complexes (the result of speech acts,
namely a speech act’s propositional product). These two perspec-
tives follow from two different approaches to argument schemes.
Both perspectives, though, have in common a fundamental feature;
namely, they both identify recurrent patterns or argument schemes
from arguments. This common feature distinguishes the modern the-
ories on argumentation from traditional dialectical and rhetorical
studies. In the ancient tradition, the focus of the studies was lim-
ited to the locus. The locus of an argument is the proposition upon
which the argument is based and is the proposition that is accepted
by everyone (maxima proposition). Modern theories, in their study
on argument schemes, comprehend not only what was traditionally
thought of as topoi or loci, but also the use of topoi or loci in actual
argumentation.
1.1 Aristotelian Topoi
The whole occidental tradition on dialectics stems from Aristotle’s
Topics. The first translation of the Topics by Cicero was later com-
mented and conceptually reorganised by Boethius in De Differen-
tiis Topicis. This later treatise was the primary source for most of
medieval commentaries and dialectical works on what is nowadays
called argumentation. In Aristotle, topoi have the twofold function
of proof and invention, that is, they are regarded as points of view
under which a conclusion can be proved true or false, and as places
where arguments can be found (De Pater, 1965, p. 116). Their logical
structure has been studied by (Kienpointner 1987, p. 281).
1 Department of Linguistics, Catholic University of Milan
2 Department of Philosophy, University of Winnipeg
1.2 Loci in the Ancient Tradition
In the middle ages, the Aristotelian topics were completely rein-
terpreted and their function and role substantially changed. Two
main developments in the treatment of the topics can be recognized
(Stump, 1989, p. 287). First, all syllogisms were regarded as de-
pendent upon topics and, secondly, later on, all topical arguments
were considered necessary. In order to understand these two devel-
opments, it is useful to analyse Boethius’ De Differentiis Topics and
their interpretation in Abelard and in the following theories in the
12th and 13th century, until the works Burley in the 14th century.
The roots of medieval dialectics can be found in Boethius’ work
De differentiis topicis. Some of the topoi (Boethius, 1185C, 1185D)
are necessary connections, while others (for instance, from the more
and the less) represent only frequent connections. Dialectical loci are
distinct from rhetorical loci because, the former are relative to ab-
stract concepts (the things, such as robbery), the latter stem from
things having the qualities (the concrete cases, such as a particular
case of robbery) (1215C)3
. During the middle ages, the focal point
of the study of argument was the connection between dialectics and
demonstration. Beginning with the XIth century, Garlandus Compo-
tista conceived all the topics under the logical forms of topics from
antecedent and consequent, whose differentiae (the genera of max-
imae propositiones) are the syllogistic rules (Stump, 1982, p. 277).
In the XIIth century, Abelard in his Dialectica examined for the first
time4
the structure of dialectical consequence in its components. In
this work, the maxima proposition, expressing a necessary truth, is
structurally connected to the endoxon. The relation between contin-
gent and necessary truth is considered to be an assumption. Bur-
ley and Ockham organised the consequences into classes, accord-
ing to the type of medium, which can be extrinsic (such as the rule
of conversion) or intrinsic (for instance, the topic from genus), for-
mal (holding by means of an extrinsic topics) or material (supported
by an intrinsic topic, dependent on the meaning of the terms) (Boh,
1984, p. 310). The doctrine of loci was then taken over in the Renais-
sance by Rudulphus Agricola. Topics were deemed to be the means
by which arguments are discovered and knowledge is obtained. In
this treatise, the difference between dialectical and rhetorical loci, a
distinction maintained throughout the whole Middle Age is blurred.
While Logic is related to the abstract, i.e. formal relationships be-
tween concepts, the topics pertain to the discussion and to the matter
treated in the dialogue (Agricola, 1976, p.12-13). In the Port Royal
logic, in 17th Century, topics were regarded as part of the inventio
3 Rhetorical loci do not proceed from relations between concepts, but from
stereotypes and are relative to what is implied or presupposed by a particu-
lar fact. For instance, given a murder and a person accused of homicide, the
rhetorical reasoning can proceed from the place and time of the plaintiff (he
was seen close to the scene of the murder, therefore he may have committed
the murder). See Boethius 1215b.
4 M. Kienpointer, 1987, p. 283.
2. and were classified according to criteria that differed from that of
Aristotle and that were maintained throughout the Middle Age. The
focus of this work is on the different kinds of argument and the divi-
sion is based on the fields of human knowledge the premises of the
argument belong to (Arnauld, 1964, p. 237).
1.3 Topoi and their development into
argumentation schemes
The ancient dialectical tradition of topics is the predecessor to and the
origin of the modern theories of argument schemes. In this section,
the most important and relevant approaches of modern theories of
argument schemes are outlined.
1.3.1 Hastings
Hastings described nine modes of reasoning, grouped into three
classes: verbal and semantic procedure (argument from example,
from verbal classification and from definition), causal connections
(arguments from sign, from cause and from circumstantial evidence)
and arguments supporting either verbal or causal conclusions (argu-
ments from comparison, analogy and testimony). In his work, Hast-
ings analysed the necessary conditions for the correct use of each
scheme. The critical questions matching a scheme provide criteria
for evaluation of the type of argument (Hastings 1963, p. 55).
1.3.2 Perelman
In Perleman and Olbrecht-Tyteca’s theory, loci are seen as general
strategies or rathercatalogs of the habits of mind endemic to a given
culture5
. About 100 argument patterns are described in their work
and are classified into two main categories: arguments by associa-
tion6
and arguments by dissociation7
. Arguments from association
are divided into three main classes: Quasi-logical Arguments, Rela-
tions Establishing the Structure of Reality and Arguments based on
the Structure of Reality. In arguments from dissociation, concepts
conceived as a whole are separated into two new concepts, introduc-
ing polisemy.
1.3.3 Schellens
Schellens’ argument schemes (Schellens 1985) are primarily drawn
from Hastings’ and are classified into four classes according to
their pragmatic function (Kienpointner, 1992, pp. 201-215). The first
group is comprised of pragmatic arguments and is normative and de-
scriptive. The second group is comprised of unbound arguments and
is either normative or descriptive. Every scheme is associated to a set
of evaluation questions, similar to Hastings’ critical questions.
1.3.4 Kienpointner
In Alltagslogik, Kienpointner classifies roughly 60 context-
independent argument schemes in three main groups according to
their relation with the rule or generalization (endoxon). Argument
5 Warnick, 2000, p. 111.
6 For example, two different concepts might be associated into a unity, such
as in the example: I have accused; you have condemned, is the famous reply
of Domitius Afer. (Perelman, Olbrechts-Tyteca, 1969, p. 223)
7 For example, the concept of religion is divided into apparent religion
vs. true religion: What religion do I profess? None of all those that you
mention. And why none? For religion’s sake! (Perelman, Olbrechts-Tyteca
,1969, p. 442)
schemes may be based on rules taken for granted, establish them by
means of induction, or illustrate or confirm them. Argument schemes,
in turn, may have descriptive or normative variants and different log-
ical forms (Modus Ponens, Modus Tollens, Disjunctive Syllogism,
etc.).
1.3.5 Grennan
In Grennan’s (1997, p. 163-165) typology all the structurally valid in-
ductive inference patterns are classified according to 8 warrant types
(effect to cause, cause to effect, sign, sample to population, parallel
case, analogy, population to sample, authority, ends-means), com-
bined with the types of claims the warrant connects (utterance-types
expressing the minor premise and the conclusion of an argument,
such as obligation). In this perspective, both the abstract form of the
inference and the pragmatic role of the utterances expressing the sen-
tences are taken into consideration
The main patterns of reasoning found in modern argumentation
theories primarily stem from the Aristotelian and medieval dialecti-
cal topoi. Many arguments can be traced back to these patterns. The
theory presented in the following section is focused on the treatment
of real arguments and is aimed at individuating the possible patterns
of reasoning they are based on.
2 Argumentation schemes in a pragmatic approach
The innovation that Walton’s approach brings to this topic is the
adoption of a more descriptive perspective. From this perspective, ar-
gument schemes are analysed in relation to fallacies. Many sophisms
are patterns of inference that can be valid in certain contexts of argu-
mentation. Hamblin (1970) first pointed out the necessary connection
between fallacies and inferences. He attacked the standard treatment
of fallacies for its lack of an explanatory theory regarding the in-
ferences underlying the sophisms. In Walton’s approach, most of the
traditional fallacies are regarded as kinds of errors or failure in partic-
ular argumentation schemes, infractions of the necessary conditions
required for the correct deployment of a topos in a type of dialogue.
2.1 Walton’s pragmatic approach: Structure of an
argument scheme
In Walton’s perspective, arguments are analysed in a specific conver-
sational context. The propositional content of the argument is con-
sidered in relation to its use in a type of dialogue and arguments are
evaluated also by means of the rules of the dialogue game the inter-
locutors are involved in. Arguments usually considered as fallacious,
for instance the ad hominem argument, can be acceptable if certain
dialogical conditions are respected. Each argument scheme provides
not only the general structure of the propositions constituting the ar-
gument, but also the necessary conditions by which its acceptability
is determined. Argument schemes are presumptive and defeasible.
Since each argument scheme is not only regarded to be an abstract
propositional form but also a pattern instantiated in real dialogues, it
cannot be said to be always valid in a discussion. It is subject to de-
feasibility when new information is added and either contradicts the
argument’s premises or conclusion, or weakens its force by making
it irrelevant to support the position. For this reason, arguments can
be presumptively accepted by the other party, but their relevance and
role in the dialogue depend upon the fulfilment of the critical ques-
tions. Examples are argument from expert opinion (Walton 2002, pp.
49-50) and argumentum ad hominem (Walton 1998, pp. 199-215)
3. 2.2 Types of argument schemes
Argumentation schemes include many patterns of reasoning in dia-
logue. Arguments can have deductive, inductive or abductive logical
forms. They can proceed from causal connections between things,
from the meaning of terms, from the relationship between the inter-
locutors, or from the status of the speaker. The premises can be rules,
dialogical norms, or accepted opinions. A distinct classification is
difficult to find, but, at the same time, is necessary in order to orga-
nize analytical tools reconstructing arguments. In the diagram below,
the first scheme has a constructive aim, while the second can be used
only to rebut the first. The refutation scheme stems from the third
critical question of the constructive argument (Walton, 1996, p. 92).
Argument from established rule Argument from exceptional case
M.p: If carrying out types of ac-
tions including the state of af-
fairs A is the established rule
for x, then (unless the case is an
exception), x must carry out A.
m.p.: Carrying out types of ac-
tions including state of affairs
A is the established rule for a
Concl.: Therefore a must carry
out A.
CQ1 : Does the rule require car-
rying out types of actions that
include A as an instance?
CQ2 : Are there other estab-
lished rules that might conflict
with, or override this one?
CQ3 : Is this case an exceptional
one, that is, could there be ex-
tenuating circumstances or an
excuse for noncompliance ?
M.p.: Generally, according to the
established rule, if x has prop-
erty F , then x also has property
G.
m.p.: In this legitimate case, a
has F but does not have G.
Concl.: Therefore an exception to
the rule must be recognized,
and the rule appropriately mod-
ified or qualified.
Along with this distinction in levels of dialogue, argument
schemes can be classified according to the components of the argu-
mentative process. In addition to patterns aimed at the subject of the
discussion, schemes can also involve the emotions of the interlocutor,
or the ethos of the speaker, or the common ground between the in-
terlocutors. An example can be given of the three classes of scheme
in the patterns below, respectively argument from distress (Walton
1997, p. 105), argument from popularity (Walton 1999, p. 223) and
Ethotic Argument (Walton 1995, p. 152):
Almost all the arguments taken into consideration in most of the
theories are related to the topic of the discussion itself and they can
be divided according to both their content and their logical form.
2.3 Argument schemes and missing premises: the
reconstruction of real arguments
Argument schemes are an extremely useful tool for argument recon-
struction. Arguments in real conversational situations almost always
proceed from premises that are taken for granted. This is the case be-
cause these premises are shared by the community of speakers or pre-
sumed to be commonly accepted. When a difference occurs between
those premises which are actually granted by the interlocutor and
those assumptions upon which the argument is based, a fallacy often
results. For instance, the speaker may take for granted a premise that
Hearer Common Ground Speaker
Argument from Dis-
tress
Argument from Popu-
larity
Ethotic Argument
M.p.: Individual x is
in distress (is suffer-
ing).
m.p.: If y brings
about A, it will
relieve or help to
relieve this distress.
Concl: Therefore,
y ought to bring
about A.
P.: Everybody (in a
particular reference
group, G) accepts
A
Concl: Therefore,
A is true (or you
should accept A).
M.P: If x is a person
of good (bad) moral
character, then what
x says should be
accepted as more
plausible (rejected
as less plausible).
m.p.: a is a person
of good (bad) moral
character.
Concl.: Therefore
what x says should
be accepted as more
plausible (rejected
as less plausible).
the hearer does not accept, or a proposition is assumed as necessary
or highly plausible while the interlocutor consider it only slightly
possible. The argument scheme is fundamental for the reconstruc-
tion of the implicit premises because the missing logical step can be
found by considering the structure of the inference.
3 Conclusions
The aim of the paper has been to offer a prolegomenon to the project
of constructing a typology of argument schemes. Since many argu-
ment schemes found in contemporary theories stem from the an-
cient tradition, we took into consideration classical and medieval di-
alectical studies and their relation with argumentation theory. This
overview on the main works on topics and schemes provides a basis
for approaching main principles of classification.
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