You will see all the relevant topics Trans-boundary environmental problems; global pollution; economic significance of biodiversity; economics of climate change; trade and environment, dispute resolutions

1. International
Environmental
Problems
Submitted by: Shiba Rashid &
Ali Raza
Submitted to: Miss Aminah Shaikh
Roll # 18617, 18640
BS (Economics) Semester: vi

2. Environmental Economics
“Environmental economics is concerned with
the impact of the economy on the environment,
the significance of the environment to the
economy and the appropriate way of regulating
economic activity so that balance is achieved
among environmental, economic and other
social goals.”

3. International Environmental
Economics
“The international economic environment
can be described as the global factors that
are outside of the control of individual
organizations but that can affect the way
that businesses operate. These factors
include unemployment rates, inflation
rates, and labor costs.”

4. International Environmental
Problem
The global environment is without doubt challenged by myriad of
problems. Among several of these environmental challenges are
population explosion, loss of biodiversity, climate change, ozone layer
depletion, air and water pollution etc.

5. Trans-boundary environmental
problem
 A trans-boundary environmental problem is an environmental
problem that is trans-boundary in scale. In other words, it is an
environmental problem originating in, or contributed by, one country
and affecting (or impacting) another.
 For example, in the case of eutrophication in the Dnipro River Basin (a
trans-boundary problem affecting many aquatic systems), the
nutrients may be emitted predominantly by one country in a region
but the effects felt in several countries. The impact may be damage to
the natural environment (e.g. algal blooms) and/or damage to human
welfare (e.g. health problems).

6. Across, Beyond
National Borders
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEMS
Trans Boundary
TEPs broadly refer to cases in
which pollution created in one
country “moves” across
national boundaries.
Such TEPs have negative
implications for living
standards in one or more
countries in the region or the
world in general.
Transboundary Environmental
Problem

7. Examples of trans-boundary
environmental challenges:
 Air and water pollution
 Shared natural resources (river systems, forests coasts etc.)
 Large ecosystems
 Toxic Waste management
 Movement of refugees
 Spread of disease/pests

8. Monitoring Impacts of TEPs
 A key tool for TEPs is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) – used at the
regional level
 It covers issues of (a) notification, (b) prior consultation and (c) agreement
 The information that an Trans-boundary EIA generates is used for conflict
resolution and sustainable development.
 Examples:
 EU Law United States,
 Canada,
 Mexico ASEAN members

9. Understanding TEPs
There are two key issues to be considered in understanding TEP:
 The duty to cooperate in international law - sovereignty vs. trans-
boundary environmental problems.
 Beyond the duty to cooperate – international environmental law
obligations

10. Trans-boundary environmental problems can
be solved only by Multilateral Environmental
Agreements (MEAs)
Trans-boundary
environmental
problem’s TEP
Multilateral
Environmental
Agreements
MEA’s
Most UN Agencies work on trans-boundary issues using MEAs
PROBLEM SOLUTION

11. Global Pollution
 Earth's natural systems is impacting air and water quality around
the world.
 Warmer temperatures associated with climate change increase
the formation of tropospheric ozone, a main constituent of smog
and contributor to cardiorespiratory disease.
 Warmer temperatures and higher atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations are associated with longer pollen seasons and
increased pollen production, intensifying allergic respiratory
diseases, such as asthma.

12. Global Pollution Cont.…
 Biomass burning for agriculture in places like equatorial Asia is
driving sharp increases in particulate air pollution and associated
morbidity and mortality.
 In some regions, air pollution has become so pervasive that it
obscures the sun, altering regional weather patterns, reducing
agricultural yields, and accelerating glacial melting. Man-made
pollutants in water bodies pose a threat to drinking supplies.
 Water-borne pollutants in oceans and terrestrial water systems are
also consumed by small organisms and thus enter the food chain.

13. Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the
natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution
can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such
as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the components of
pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or
naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed
as point source or nonpoint source pollution.

14. Index
Air pollution
Land pollution
Water pollution
Global warming

15. Air Pollution
Some air pollutants that are released into the atmosphere by man- made activities
pose environmental and health risks directly. These primary pollutants include
carbon monoxide, particulate matter, nitrogen oxides and lead, emitted from
exhausts of road vehicles. Additional impacts, however, result from the conversion
of primary pollutants by a complex series of chemical reactions in the atmosphere,
to secondary pollutants. Since much of the pollutant chemistry is driven by the
presence of sunlight, the secondary products are commonly referred to as
photochemical pollutants.

16. Reaction in Air Pollution
A well-known secondary photochemical pollutant is ozone (O3). Its formation
results from the sunlight-initiated oxidation (reaction with oxygen) of volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) such as benzene in the presence of nitrogen
oxides(NO), mostly nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Once formed,
ozone is scavenged by NO, and in the absence of other competing reactions, a
"photo stationary state" is formed where concentrations of NO, NO2 and O3 are all
inter-related.

17. Water Pollution
Water pollution occurs when undesirable foreign substances are
introduced into natural water. The substances may be chemical or
biological in nature. Common pollutants include human or animal
waste; disease-producing organisms; radioactive materials; toxic metals
such as lead or mercury; agricultural chemicals such as pesticides,
herbicides, or fertilizers; acid rain ; and high-temperature water
discharged from power plants, often called "thermal pollution."
Pollutants in water are dangerous for human or animal consumption
and harm crops. High temperatures may cause algae to grow rapidly,
rendering water unfit for consumption.

18. Reaction in Water Pollution
Pollutants in water are commonly measured and reported as parts per million
(ppm) or parts per billion (ppb). A solution that contains 2 grams(0.071 ounces) of
lead in 1 million grams (2,205 pounds) of water (1,000 liters, or 264.2 gallons) is a 2
ppm solution. A 1 ppb solution of calcium contains 1 gram (0.036 ounces) of
calcium in 1 billion grams (2,205,000 pounds) of water. A concentration of 1 ppm is
the same as 1 milligram(3.6 × 10 −5 ounces) per liter. Acid rain is a widespread
term used to describe all forms of acid precipitation (rain, snow, hail, fog, etc.).
Atmospheric pollutants, particularly oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, can cause
precipitation to become more acidic when converted to sulphuric and nitric acids,
hence the term acid rain. Acid deposition, acid rain and acid precipitation all relate
to the chemistry of air pollution and moisture in the atmosphere.

19. Land Pollution
Land pollution is contaminating the land surface of the earth by
dumping waste. Human beings take part in making land pollution
Example
Soil Pollution – mainly due to chemicals in herbicides (weed killers)
and pesticides (poisons which kill insects and other invertebrate
pests).
Waste Disposal – waste threatens the health of people in residential
areas. It encourages household pests and turns urban areas into
unsightly, dirty and unhealthy places to live in.

20. Reaction in land pollution
Modern fertilizer consists of varying amounts of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and
potassium (K). These three are believed to be essential for plants to grow, and are
extracted from the soil with each harvest. This is why farmers spread fertilizer on
their fields, to replace the nutrients lost. It’s certainly not the ideal and sustainable
way to farm, but it’s thought to be the most efficient for large-scale farms.
Strategies like crop rotation and allowing large fields to rest would cut too deep
into profits that are based on quantity, opposed to quality.

21. Global Warming
Global warming is the unequivocal and continuing rise in the average temperature
of Earth's climate system. Since 1971, 90% of the increased energy has been stored
in the oceans, mostly in the 0 to 700m region. Since the early 20th century, the
global air and sea surface temperature has increased about 0.8 °C (1.4 °F), with
about two- thirds of the increase occurring since 1980. Each of the last three
decades has been successively warmer at the Earth's surface than any preceding
decade since 1850. The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and
emission of infrared radiation by gases in a planet's atmosphere warm its lower
atmosphere and surface. It was proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824, discovered in
1860 by John Tyndall, was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in
1896, and was developed in the 1930s through 1960s by Guy Stewart Calendar.

22. Biodiversity
 The variety of plant and animal life in the world or in a particular habitat, a high
level of which is usually considered to be important and desirable.
 The number of kinds of living things present at a particular place is called
biodiversity.
 The types of plants and animals no longer found in this world are called extinct .
E.g. Dinosaurs
 Many organisms that are very likely to become extinct in near future are called
endangered organisms such as Bengal tiger, Panda etc.

24. Types of Biodiversity
 Community and ecosystem diversity (different
habitats, niches, species interaction)
 Species diversity (different kinds of organisms,
relationship among species)
 Genetic diversity (different genes &
combination of genes within populations)

25. Community and
ecosystem diversity
Ecosystem diversity refers to the diversity of a place at the
level of ecosystem. This has 3 perspectives:
 Alpha Diversity: Within community diversity. Alpha diversity
refers to the diversity of organisms sharing the same
Community/Habitat.
 Beta Diversity: Between community diversity. It refers to
the diversity of organism sharing two habitat.
 Gamma Diversity: Diversity of the habitat over the total
landscape or geographical area is called gamma diversity

26. Species diversity
 It refers to the variety of species with
in a region.
 Species diversity is an index that in
corporates the number of species in
an area and also their relative
abundance.
 It is generally a much more useful
value than species richness.

27. Genetic Diversity
 It is a level of biodiversity that refers to the total number of
genetic characteristics in the genetic make up of a species.
 It is distinguishes from genetic variability, which describe the
tendency of genetic characteristics to vary.

29. Human Impact on Biodiversity
The forests are being cut for cultivation and urbanization.
The cutting of forests has destroys the habitats of animals.
Another human act of excessive hunting of animals has
endangered animals.

30. Conversation of Biodiversity
For the conversation of biodiversity trade of endangered animals has
been regularized. To save the habitats the number of game reserves
has been increased. National parks have been made all over the
world where endangered animals are kept.

31. Why should we protect
Biodiversity
Reason to protect Biodiversity
1. Medicinal
2. Agricultural
3. Commercial
4. Ecological
5. Ethical/Aesthic

32. Importance of Biodiversity
The natural environment is the source of all resources for life. Environmental processes provide a
wealth of services to the living world providing us with sir to breathe, water to drink and food to eat as
well as materials to use daily lives and natural beauty to enjoy.
Complex ecosystems with a wide variety of plants and animals tend to be more stable. A highly diverse
ecosystem is a sign of a healthy system. Since all the interests and the interests of future generations to
conserve biodiversity and our resources. The benefits and services provided by ecosystems include:
 Generation of soils
 Maintenance of soil quality
 Maintenance of air quality
 Maintenance of water quality
 Pest control
 Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
• Pollination
• Crop production
• Climate stabilization
• Provision of food security
• Provision of health care
• Income generation
• Spiritual and cultural value

33. Economic significance of
biodiversity
 Maintaining biodiversity is essential for organic waste disposal, soil formation,
biological nitrogen fixation, crop and livestock genetics, biological pest control, plant
pollination, and pharmaceuticals. Plants and microbes help to degrade chemical
pollutants and organic wastes and cycle nutrients through the ecosystem.
 Biodiversity is essential for the sustainable functioning of the agricultural, forest,
and natural ecosystems on which humans depend, but human activities, especially
the development of natural lands, are causing a species extinction rate of 1,000 to
10,000 times the natural rate.
 The authors estimate that in the United States, biodiversity provides a total of $319
billion dollars in annual benefits and $2,928 billion in annual benefits worldwide
(1997 calculation)

34. Climate
 Climate is the long-term pattern of
weather in a particular area.
 Climate, is the average of weather over
time and space.
 Climate is the average of that weather.
For example,
you can expect snow in the Northeast in
January or for it to be hot and humid in the
Southeast in July. This is climate.

35. Climate change
 A change in global or regional climate
patterns, in particular a change apparent
from the mid to late 20th century onwards
and attributed largely to the increased levels
of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by
the use of fossil fuels.
 Climate change is the long-term alteration of
temperature and typical weather patterns in
a place

36. Causes
 Burning coal, oil and gas produces carbon dioxide and nitrous
oxide.
 Cutting down forests (deforestation).
 Increasing livestock farming.
 Fertilizers containing nitrogen produce nitrous oxide emissions.
 Fluorinated gases are emitted from equipment and products
that use these gases.

37. Factors that affect climate
Abiotic Factors
 Latitude
 Altitude
 Ocean Current
 Topography
 Solar Radiation
 Evaporation
 Orbital variation
 Volcanic Activity
Biotic Factors
 Transpiration
 Respiration
 Photosynthesis
 Decompositions

38. Earth Natural Greenhouse
 Plays important role in maintaining Earth’s energy
balance.
 Greenhouse gases needed in a atmosphere to regulate
temperature to sustain life.

39. Greenhouse Gases
 Water vapors (H2O)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Methane (CH4)
 Nitrous oxide (N2O)
 Ozone (O3)

40. Factors of climate change on
economics

41. Trade and Environment
Trade liberalization
Specialization Income
Growth Technology
Transport
Environmental Policy
The environment
Pollution-havens
Weak evidence, expect foe some industries
Environmental Kuznets curve?
Pollution differs amongst equally rich countries
Environmental problems must be internalized
Uncertain trade growth link. Institutions
Transfer of technology
Spill-over from preferences, policies and standards in
rich countries
More transportation – energy, alien species
Less transportation – distance, lower
Subsidies, less tariff escalation
“Race to the bottom” chilling effect
Competitiveness, harmonization
Political effect of free trade

42. Conceptual Issues
Trade and Environment issues can be divided into two broad categories:
 The impact of changes in trading rules and liberalization on the environment
Environmental damage is associated with the production and consumption of goods.
International trade alters production and consumption thus affecting the environment.
 The impact of changes in environment regulations on international trade prospects
The use of policy instruments (both regulatory and economic instruments) to protect
the environment can rather affect international trade and act as non-tariff barriers to
trade, or create opportunities for environmentally-sound products because of an
increase awareness of environmental problems.

43. Major Issues
The main issue surrounding the trade-environment
linkage is the concern by both developed and
developing countries that environmental issues are
being used in a strategic manner to capture or
protect markets.

44. Developing Countries Position
 Fear that developed countries use environmentally
related trade policies to protect their won industry.
 Fear that developed countries use environmentally
related trade policies to impose environmental
preferences

45. Developed Countries Position
Fear that developing countries strategically
ignore environment to promote exports
Fear that developing countries environmental
policies threaten global commons

46. Committee on Trade and
Environment (CTE)
 Establish by the WTO General Council in January 1995.
 CTE mandate and terms of reference are contained in
the Marrakesh Ministerial Decision on Trade and
Environment of 15 April 1994.

47. Work of CTE
 Ten item were listed in the Marrakesh Ministerial Decision on Trade and Environment which were
taken up by CTE.
 The relationship between the precisions of the multilateral trading system and trade measures for
environmental purposes including those pursuant to MEAs.
 The relationship between environmental polices relevant to trade and environmental measures with
significant trade effects and the provisions of the multilateral trading system.
 The issue of exports of domestically prohibited goods.
 The relevant provision of the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
(TRIPS).
 The work program envisaged in the Decision on Trade in Services and the Environment.

49. Dispute Resolution
 Dispute resolution is a term that refers to a number of processes
that can be used to resolve a conflict, dispute or claim.
 Dispute resolution involves bringing two or more discordant
parties to clear understanding wherein their differences are ironed
out.
 It points to every technique applied for settling dispute between
entities.

50. Dispute Resolution Methods
 Avoidance
 Negotiation
 Early Neutral Expert Evaluation
 Mediation
 Ombudsperson
 Peer Review Panel
 Conciliation
 Med-Arb
 Concilio-Arbitration
 Judicial Dispute Resolution
 Arbitration
 Tribunal
 litigation

51. Conciliation
Conciliation is similar to Mediation except for the active role of the third party in
putting forward suggestions of compromise.
It’s structures to bring disputing parties to acceptable agreement through
concessions.
There are variations of “Conciliator Power” in conciliation practices of some
countries.

52. Arbitration
This is a formal submission of dispute to one or more Arbitrators for a decision to
be reached.
 The is a quasi-judicial system.
 Arbitration Clause in the contract shows the terms of arbitration between the
parties.
 Decisions are voluntary/binding depending on the terms of arbitration as
enshrined in the Arbitration Clause.
 Court-Imposed Arbitration is binding.

53. Hyper Methods of Dispute
Resolution
mediation
arbitration
conciliation
arbitration
Med-Arb
Concilio-Aribitration

54. Avoidance
This is an intentional plan to avoid development of resentment by
sorting out critical issues independently without challenging or
unsettling the other party.

55. Negotiation
 “Negotiation involves two or more parties with competing or conflicting
interests or needs working towards an agreement on how they will cooperate.
 Negotiation is a process of finding point of balance between your objective and
that of the other party.
 In the middle of every difficulty lies opportunity.

56. Elements of Negotiation
 Interests
 Options
 Alternatives
 Legitimacy
 Communication
 Relationship
 commitment

57. Negotiation Process
 Prepare objectives and strategy
 Discuss and exchange information
 Purpose solution
 Bargain and review areas of concession
 Conclude, draft and endorse agreement

58. Mediation
Mediation is an ADR mechanism in which disputing parties allow an independent
third party to help them reach a point of settlement.
 Mediation Clause in the contract between the disputing parties should point
out terms of mediation including choice of mediator.
 Disputing parties agree to mediate
 Disputing paeties select acceptable mediator
 Decisions are made by disputing parties

59. 7 Steps to Mediation
 Choose Mediator
 Identify Objective of Both Sides
 Decide Mediation Schedule
 Engage the Other Party in Declaration of Position
 Discuss with Mediator
 Mediation Shuttle Diplomacy
 Endorsed Deal