Report on water storage and use from tarpaulin lining pond

Study Report on
Water Use in Vegetable Production
in Svay Rieng Province
Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Project
March 2015

2
Acronyms & Abbreviations
CFAP Cambodian Farmer Associations Federation of Agricultural Producers
CSA Climate Smart Agriculture
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
NCDD National Committee for Sub-National Democratic Development
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation
UN United Nations
USD United States Dollar
WEPA Water Environment Partnership in Asia
WFP World Food Programme

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Table of Contents
I. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................4
1.1. Rationale............................................................................................................................................4
1.2. Project Background .....................................................................................................................4
1.3. Objectives of the study..............................................................................................................5
1.4. Methodologies.................................................................................................................................5
1.5. Description of the study area ................................................................................................6
II. Findings.......................................................................................................................................................7
2.1. Number of family’s members and main occupations...............................................7
2.2. Vegetable production .................................................................................................................7
2.2.1.Vegetable cultivated land (m2
) ............................................................................7
2.2.2.Number of vegetable planting cycles per year........................................................8
2.2.3.Production cost and Income per planting cycle.......................................................8
2.2.4.Family labour shared by Gender Aggregation.........................................................8
2.3. Water use and management ..................................................................................................9
2.3.1.Pond water storage capacity................................................................................9
2.3.2.Factors affected water availability for vegetable planting ......................................10
2.3.3. Advantages of the tarpaulin-lining ponds for family’s fish raising...........................13
2.4. Farmers’ perception on the tarpaulin lining pond...................................................14
III. Conclusion ...........................................................................................................................................16
IV. Recommendation.................................................................................................................................17
Tables and Figures
Table 1: Name of tarpaulin farmers interviewed .................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 2: Name of control groups (non-cooperating farmers) Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 3: Main occupation of the interviewed farmer families Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 4: Vegetable cultivated land per household (m2
)........Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 5: Production cost for vegetable planting per cycle ....Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 6: Labour needed for vegetable planning by gender aggregation .....Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Figure 1: Pond water storage capacity (m3
).......................Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Figure 2: Farmer’s perception on the tarpaulin lining pond ............................................15
I. Introduction
1.1. Rationale
Cambodia has been rated as the most vulnerable country to climate change in the world due
to a combination of both the high risks of climate variability and its low economic capacity
to adapt. Cambodia will encounter a change of climate. There will be an increased risk of
more intense, more frequent and longer-lasting heatwaves in a warmer future climate.
There is likely to be a decrease in the daily temperature range in most regions. It is also
likely that a warmer future climate would have fewer frost days. Growing season length is
related to number of frost days, and has been projected to increase as climate warms.
Along with the risk of drying, there is an increased chance of intense precipitation and
flooding due to the greater water-holding capacity of a warmer atmosphere. This has
already been observed and is projected to continue because in a warmer world, precipitation
tends to be concentrated into more intense events, with longer periods of little precipitation
in between. Therefore, intense and heavy downpours would be interspersed with longer
relatively dry periods. Another aspect of these projected changes is that wet extremes are
projected to become more severe in many areas where mean precipitation is expected to
increase, and dry extremes are projected to become more severe in areas where mean
precipitation is projected to decrease (UN-sponsored Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change 4th Assessment Report of IPCC, 2007). Based on these estimates, it is projected
that the mean temperature will have risen by 0.3 to 0.6°C by 2025, 0.7 to 2.7°C by 2060
and 1.4 to 4.3°C by 2090. The expected warming will be more severe from December to
June. Under the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) emission scenarios
A1B, A2 and B1, it is expected that Cambodia’s annual average rainfall will have increased
by 31 percent by the 2090s (MRC 2010). Almost all provinces in Cambodia are vulnerable
due to their low adaptive capacity. Adaptive capacity seems to play an important role in
changing the spatial pattern of vulnerability. Low capacity has made Cambodia among the
most vulnerable regions despite its relatively low exposure to climate hazards (Yusuf &
Francisco, 2009).
1.2. Project Background
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation is a non-profit, international development
organisation established in the Netherlands in 1965. SNV aims to alleviate poverty by
enabling increased income and employment opportunities and increasing access to basic
services. The organisation currently works in 38 countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
SNV provides capacity development services to local organisations in three sectors;
Agriculture, Renewable Energy, and Water, Sanitation & Hygiene. SNV started its operation
in Cambodia in 2005 and currently works in those sectors which have been prioritised and
aligned with the Royal Government of Cambodia’s Development Plan.
The Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) programme is being implemented in Asia covering 4
countries (Cambodia, Bhutan, Lao PDR, and Nepal). The CSA is an approach that aims to
sustainably increase agricultural productivity and incomes, adapt and build resilience to
climate change while reducing and/or removing greenhouse gas emission (where possible).
These practices should prioritise the strengthening of livelihoods, especially those of small-
holders, by improving access to services, knowledge, resources (including genetic
resources), financial products and markets.
SNV applies the CSA approach to integrate and address climate change issues within its
agriculture sector, bringing innovation, new expertise and offering that contribute to the
long term sustainability of the agriculture sector. SNV applies site specific assessments to

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identify suitable agricultural production technologies and practices that are shaped by
specific country context and capacities and the particular social, economic, and
environmental situation where it will be applied.
The SNV approach to CSA is based on a frame work that includes:
1) Climate change impact and vulnerability assessment: using PRA tools a participatory
and inclusive analysis is made of the climate change issues that impact on farmer
production systems, their communities and value chain actors;
2) Defining climate change scenarios: utilising existing weather and climate data as well
as climate change scenarios to define and understand the likely climate and weather
future situation and how these will affect farmers and the value chain;
3) Prioritise issues and identify appropriate CSA approaches: in consultation with
communities, value chain actors and stakeholders to review the information and data
provided from the previous activities to identify vulnerabilities and prioritise aspects
of their production systems and value chain which need CSA initiatives to promote
resilience. SNV is applying this approach to its multi-country CSA project in Bhutan,
Nepal, Lao PDR and Cambodia.
In 2012, SNV partnered with CFAP to implement a piloted a project titled “Promoting
vegetable production using water storage and supply systems enhancement in Svay
Rieng province”. 10 farmers were selected to experiment the water storage and supply
systems with tarpaulin ponds and Rovai pumps. The farmers also engaged in data collection
of vegetable production, income, effectiveness and efficiency of the innovation application.
The result showed significant impact on the vegetable production and incomes of the
farmers. Therefore, the water storage and supply system introduced by the project could be
potential innovation for further study, replication and upscaling.
In 2014, under the current SNV’s Asia Climate Smart Agriculture Project, a field data
collection on water use from the tarpaulin ponds was conducted with support from the CSA
project in cooperation with CFAP (Local NGO in Svay Rieng).
1.3. Objectives of the study
▪ To gather information on water harvesting, application and effectiveness in vegetable
production.
▪ To assess the impact of water storage and use on farmers’ incomes.
1.4. Methodologies
Farmers were trained on data collection and recorded incomes and expenses on from
vegetable production as well water use form the ponds. These data was regularly checked
by our local partner LCB and validated through random interviews with the farmers.
Additionally, CSA project team members provided regular follow-up visits / monitoring
support on the monthly basis in order to provide more assistance in data recording. Data
collection was conducted from 01 September to 31 December 2014 by CFAP staff. 8
tarpaulin farmers (25% women) and 5 non-cooperating farmers (20% women) (farmers
who have normal ponds without tarpaulin lining) were interviewed to collect data on their
vegetable production and water use.

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1.5. Description of the study areas
Svay Rieng province is located in the southeast of Cambodia bordering Vietnam
to the north, east and south. The only other Cambodian province to border Svay
Rieng is Prey Veng. The capital is Svay Rieng town. Cambodia's National Highway 1 leads
to the international border checkpoint of Bavet, which leads into Vietnam.
The quality of groundwater is generally satisfactory, although high iron concentrations and
increased salinity levels have been encountered in some provinces (Svay Rieng, Prey
Veng and Takeo) (FAO, n.d.). According to data for the last 14 years provided by the
Provincial Department of Water Resources, the average, minimum and maximum annual
rainfall is 1713.41 mm, 1306.5 mm and 2195.2 mm respectively. It has been observed that
the annual rainfall has decreased during the last several years (World Bank, 2011). The
average annual temperature is 27.8℃. The maximum is 28.49℃ and the minimum is
26.59℃.
Svay Chrum is one among the seven districts of Svay Rieng provinces. The district is
subdivided into 17 communes and 168 villages (Wikipedia, 2014). Svay Chrum has a total
population of 155,167 persons, equal to 34,386 families; number of female-headed
household families was 5,881 persons (NCDD, 2010). Svay Chrum is the CSA project’s
target district, where storage and supply system in vegetable production was introduced, by
this reason it was selected for this study.
Photo 1: Cambodia map and Svay Rieng
province highlighted with red color (Wikipedia,
2014)
Photo 2: Svay Rieng map (WFP, 2006)

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II. Findings
2.1. Number of family’s members and main occupations
Based on the data collected from the individual interview, there were 5 members per family.
The average number of women family members was 3 (or about 60% of the total family
members). Majority of the interviewed farmers were involved in farming activities, at the
same time, they also conducted some off-farm activities to generate additional income for
their families. Rice cultivation was the main families’ agricultural activity mainly for
consumption with surplus often sold. Each farmer household normally had rice field of 0.8
ha on average. The off-farm activities are normally carried out in the dry season after
completion of the farming activities in the rainy season.
Table 1: Main occupation of the interviewed farmer families
On-farm activities % Off-farm activities %
Cattle raising 6.38 Clothes sewing 2.13
Chicken raising 12.77 Construction worker 4.26
Pig raising 6.38 Make and sell cook stoves 2.13
Rice cultivation 21.28 Making wine for selling 2.13
Vegetable growing 25.53 Motorbike repairer 2.13
Policeman 2.13
Rice mill 2.13
Selling clothes 2.13
Selling grocery 4.26
Selling papaya salad 4.26
Total % 72% 28%
2.2. Vegetable production
Vegetable production is often common among farmer families in Svay Chrum district to
produce supplementary food for household consumption. Normally vegetable production
was done in the rainy season as farmers have limited water storage capacity.
Among the interviewed farmers engaged with this data collection, they carried out
vegetable production for 6 months, starting from end of the rainy season in June through to
November. However, this situation varies and depends on the available of rainwater. It is to
emphasize that all interviewed tarpaulin farmer’s adapted different planting methods such
as application of plastic mulching, mixed cropping, crop rotation, planting time adjustment
to fit the climate condition, etc. On contrary, only 1 among 5 (20%) interviewed control
groups/non-cooperating farmers applied mulching, mixed cropping, and crop rotation.
2.2.1. Vegetable cultivated land (m2
)
According to the data collected from the interviewed farmers (both tarpaulin farmers and
control groups/non-cooperating farmers), the average cultivated areas for vegetable

8
production was about 234m2
per household. The minimum was 112m2
, and a maximum of
405m2
.
Table 2:Vegetable cultivated land per household (m2)
Tarpaulin farmers Control groups/non cooperating farmers
Minimum 125 100
Average 235 233
Maximum 310 500
2.2.2. Number of vegetable planting cycles per year
The number of vegetable planting cycles could be more or less depended on the availability
of water (from rainwater or from other water sources such as underground water/drilled
well or from a bigger pond). Too much rain resulted in waterlogging conditions limiting
vegetables productions in such soils. The current coping mechanism for water logging
conditions is to wait/postpone planting until the water levels have decline and therefore
farmers needed to wait for another appropriate time to plant their vegetables. On average,
both tarpaulin farmers and control groups applied three vegetable planting cycles per year.
However, only farmers who had enough water from bigger ponds or drilled wells could do
four cropping cycles per year.
2.2.3. Production cost and Income per planting cycle
In term of the production cost, majority of the farmers buy vegetable seeds from local
markets, except some vegetable seeds that they could keep by themselves such as: wax
gourd seed, sponge gourd seed, etc. It is important to note that the trend of using chemical
fertiliser is increasing year after year. Access to good quality agricultural input was still a
constraint for rural farmers. According to the interview, 67% of the farmers interviewed
raised that they faced difficulty in accessing good quality inputs. Sometimes, they could not
find all of the agricultural input they wanted (e.g. plastic mulch, tarpaulin, etc.).
Table 3: Production cost for vegetable planting per cycle
Tarpaulin farmers Control group / non-
cooperating farmers
Average expense on production cost (riels) 212,500 189,000
Average income from vegetable production
(riels)
473,900 278100
Balance (riels) 261,400 89,100
In general both women and men were involved in vegetable production and shared decision
making agronomic practices in terms of crops to plant. Women involved more in
determining the selling price and men involved more in deciding the buying prices of the
agricultural inputs.
2.2.4. Family labour shared by Gender Aggregation
In general, both women and men shared similar labour force in vegetable production.
Among the tarpaulin farmers, men shared (62%) higher labour force than women (38%)

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because men normally involved in land preparation and weeding, and women mostly
involved in selling, transporting and planting activities. Among the control groups, women
and shared the same labour force (50:50) in the vegetable production. On the other hand,
women and men in widow and widower families wholly involved in vegetable production
because they were the only family’s member who involved in farming activities.
Table 4 : Labour needed for vegetable planning by gender aggregation
Tarpaulin
farmers
Control
groups
Total number of working days in vegetable
production (per planting cycle)
43 34
% of total working day woman
involved in vegetable production
38 50
% of total working days man
62 50
% of total working day woman and man
100 100
2.3. Water use and management
2.3.1. Pond water storage capacity
Water for irrigation was only available during the rainy season while the main source was
from rainwater. Based on the individual interview, the normal pond normally dry up in
December-January, but the same size of the tarpaulin-lining pond could keep remaining
water 1 to 2 months longer. This enabled farmers to plant another cycle of vegetable
production.
The farmers depended on rainwater for their vegetable planting. They collected rainwater
and stored in their tarpaulin lining ponds for later use. These farmers have ponds smaller
than the control groups. On average, the pond water storage capacity of the tarpaulin
farmers was about 100m3
, while the control groups have bigger pond size with capacity to
store water approximately 282m3
. Furthermore, all (100%) of the control groups could
access to underground water from drilled wells. But only 1 out of 8 interviewed tarpaulin
farmers (or approximately 12%) accessed the underground water from the drilled well. The
depth of drilled wells was 29m on average, 10m in minimum and 45m in maximum.

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Figure 1: Pond water storage capacity (m3)
2.3.2. Factors affected water availability for vegetable planting
Despite all the project farmers having water ponds, they did not have enough water for
vegetable production.
Different factors affected availability of the water:
• 75% of the tarpaulin farmers used water from the tarpaulin for other purposes, such
as washing kitchen facilities, clothes washing, cattle feeding, etc. It is to estimate
that about 10%-20% of the total water volume stored in the pond used for other
purposes. During the data collection, 50% of the tarpaulin farmers raised fishes in
their tarpaulin lining ponds, so some volume of water was not used for the vegetable
planting, but it was kept for fish raising instead.
• Pond cover (trellis) was not used to reduce evaporation rate to the atmosphere.
Evaporation rate is high contributed to loss of water from irrigation. Farmers
observed that the evaporation rate in their ponds was 3 mm per day1
. This means
that 231 litters of water is evaporated every day2
. According to Water Environment
Partnership in Asia, annual evaporation rates in Cambodia range from 2,000 to 2,200
mm. The highest evaporation rate occurs in March and April at 200 to 240 mm and
the lowest evaporation rate in September at 120 to 150 mm (WEPA, n.d.).
• Water leaching from the Rovai pump: According to the interviewed farmers, the
amount of water leaching from Rovai pump was about 20 litters if they need to fill
1
According to SNV climate change vulnerability and impact assessment report, the
temperature / heat has increased during the last few year. Increasing temperature / heat
significantly contributes to high water evaporation rate.
2
According to the tarpaulin farmer interview, the average size of the tarpaulin-lining pond is 11 m x 7 m.
0
100
200
300
Tarpaulin farmers Control group / non-cooperating
farmers
Volume m3
Volume m3

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full water than with total volume of 785 litters. Or it was about 2.55% of total
volume of pumping water.
Photo 3: Water leaching while using Rovai pump
• Pond depth was another factor affected to the availability of water for vegetable
planting. In the rainy season, water with high sediment flow into the ponds, this
made the pond depth to become shallow. Furthermore, it also affected the water
quality. None of the interviewed tarpaulin farmers prevented sediment flow into the
ponds. In case of digging a new pond, the farmer raised that that soil is very solid so
it is difficult to get a deep pond using hand digging3
.
• Soil-water holding capacity: High organic matter content is increased soil storage of
water (FAO, Creating drought-resistant soil, 2005). According to the field observation
during the data collection, limited amount of organic matter used to cover soil while
majority of the farmers use plastic mulching. Residues from the vegetables (e.g.
root, stem, leaves, etc.) were not used properly to sustain or improve soil fertility.
• Types of crops: normally, the selections of crops, farmers are influenced by the
market demand. However, shallow rooted vegetables need low water irrigation depth
per application than deep-rooted vegetables. According to individual interview,
farmers liked to plant cucumber, yard long bean, etc. These kinds of vegetables are
considered as shallow rooted vegetables; the root depth is around a half meter.
3
Excavator could be used to dig ponds. CFAP spent 510 USD to dig a pond with 10x15m, and 3m depth.

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2.3.3. The practice of irrigation
The tarpaulin farmers normally used Rovai-pump to pump water from the tarpaulin-lining
pond for storing in water tanks before distributing to vegetable gardens. The farmers raised
that they could save labour and time to other productivity work while using Rovai pump as a
water pumping tool. It was very rare that the tarpaulin farmers used bucket to carry water
from pond to farm. According to the interview with farmers, the water tank of the Rovai
pump can store 785 cubic meters of water, and the farmers could irrigate their vegetable
garden area of 420m2
for 2-3 days. Once irrigation was conducted per day. It could be
estimated that the farmers need 11 to 17 cubic meters of water to irrigate a vegetable
garden areas of 4202
within 45days (one cycle of short rotation crop).
The control group (non-tarpaulin farmers) used two ways to bring water from ponds to their
farms, some of them use pumping machine and some others used bucket to carry water
from ponds. Normally, when the water level/depth in the pond goes down, the farmers were
difficult to use hand bucket to carry water from the pond to irrigate their vegetable gardens.
Farmers in Basak village raised that the underground water in their village is salty, so they
cannot use the underground water directly on their garden. The salty water affects to
growth and yield of the crop. Farmers need to store it for a while in ponds or canals before
watering their crops4
. Yield reductions occur when the salts accumulate in the root zone to
such an extent that the crop is no longer able to extract sufficient water from the salty soil
solution, resulting in a water stress for a significant period. If water uptake is appreciably
reduced, the plant slows its rate of growth (FAO, Water quality for agriculture, 1985).
Farmers also pump water from other sources (e.g. drilled wells, bigger ponds nearby) if
their ponds did not provide enough water.
Photo 4: water pumping machine used for
pumping water from pond to vegetable
gardens
Photo 5: Farmer using bucket to carry water
from pond to their vegetable garden
4
Farmers /villagers in Basak village and some parts of Svay Taplor village normally bring water from outside their
village for drinking.

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2.3.4. Cost for installing tarpaulin lining pond & Rovai pump + return on investment
from vegetable production
Cost for preparing a combined tarpaulin lining pond and Rovai pump was approximately 560
USD in 2012, and the cost has reduced to only 380 USD when price of tarpaulin has
dropped from 200 USD to 100 USD and the price of the Rovai pump has reduced from 260
to 180 USD per unit.
Based on the cost mentioned above, farmers need 2 years to get return on investment of
the tarpaulin pond and Rovai pump while they could make income from vegetable 195 USD
(approximately 200 USD) per year. In other words, they would take only 1 year to get the
return on investment if they only prepare a tarpaulin pond (without Rovai pump).
Table 5: Cost for setting up tarpaulin lining pond and Rovai pump
Year 2012/13
(USD)
Present 2014/15
(USD)
Pond digging 100 100
Tarpaulin 200 100
Rovai pump 260 180
Total 560 380
Reducing cost is good news for smallholder farmers. Alternatively, the small farmers with
limited resource can firstly prepare the tarpaulin lining pond (without Rovai pump), then
they need only 200 USD to prepare a tarpaulin lining pond.
2.3.5. Advantages of the tarpaulin-lining ponds for family’s fish raising
As mentioned above, 50% of farmers with tarpaulin ponds raised fish in the tarpaulin lining
ponds. “Trey Pra” fish (Pangasius pangasius) was selected for the family fish raising because
it is more tolerant to brackish waters/saline water. Only 1 out of 8 (or 12.5%) sourced their
fingerlings form the rice fields through trapping and then put them into the tarpaulin ponds.
According to the interviewed farmers, fish raising provided them with additional and
diversified food source reducing their expenditure on food because otherwise they are
forced to buy from the market. About 25% of the interviewed farmers made additional
income from aquaculture ranging from six to 171 USD).

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Photo 6: Fish raising in the tarpaulin lining pond
2.4. Farmers’ perception on the tarpaulin lining pond
According to the interviewed farmers, tarpaulin-lining pond is better than the normal pond
in many ways for example the tarpaulin lining acts as a shield for the pond walls preventing
erosion. This in effect means less siltation and the pond can stay longer with requiring
major maintenance more so in terms of desilting repairing the walls. Because it reduces
erosion of the walls means, water quality is relatively higher making it conducive for
aquaculture and domestic water use. Additionally, the tarpaulin lining is highly impervious
and minimises if not eliminate percolation of water into the soil translating to longer water
storage for vegetable production. However, availability and high cost of the tarpaulin was a
difficulty for the farmers to afford for installing the tarpaulin lining ponds.

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Figure 2: Farmer’s perception on the tarpaulin lining pond
Apart from the increased coping strategies to climate risks neighbouring farmers have
visited and learned from their practices in terms of the installation of the tarpaulin lining
pond as well as some other vegetable growing techniques such as mulching, crop rotation,
crop diversification, etc. some of them have improved their vegetable growing techniques
after the visit.

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III. Conclusion
Based on the findings from this study, it is concluded that:
• Water from the tarpaulin lining ponds (approximately 100m3
) was not enough to use
for vegetable planting throughout the whole year. The lack of water for vegetable
planting also contributed from other factors such as the use of water for the other
purposes (e.g. kitchen utensil washing, clothes washing, cattle feeding, fish raising,
etc.). On the other hand, flow of sediment into the pond made the pond depth
become shallow, and it affected to the water storage capacity of the pond.
• The tarpaulin-lining pond was not only used to store rainwater for vegetable planting
but it was also used for fish raising in the drier months. Therefore, some amount of
water is kept for fish raising (not for vegetable growing). However, fish raising
definitely contributed to improved household food security of the rural farmers.
• The tarpaulin farmers had better water use and management skills than the control
groups / non-cooperating farmers. For instance, the tarpaulin farmers earned higher
incomes than the control groups even with less water resources. Apart from the
water management, the tarpaulin farmers also applied other planting techniques to
save water, such as mulching, crop rotation to improve soil-water holding capacity,
selection to drought tolerant crops, etc.), while none of the control groups had
applied one of these techniques.
• The farmers were interested in the tarpaulin-lining ponds while it provided better
benefits compare to the normal pond, such as it can last longer while storing water,
as well as to prevent soil erosion while the tarpaulin covers surface soil. However,
availability and cost of the tarpaulin was still a barrier for farmers to consider this
innovation. About 67% of the interviewed farmers mentioned difficulty in accessing
good quality agricultural inputs in their respective communities.
• Women and men shared similar labour force in vegetable production. Women
normally much involved in selling, transporting of the agricultural production from
home to market, and planting activities while men usually involved in land
preparation. Both women and men shared decision making about the crops to plant.
The decision-making was depending on the activities where women and men mostly
involved. Women mostly decided the selling prices of their products, and men
decided the buying prices of the agricultural inputs.

17
IV. Recommendation
According to the findings of this study, some recommendations can be provided as follows:
• To save more water, pond’s water storage capacity and efficient use of water from
the pond need to be realised. This means that the farmers should rehabilitate their
ponds or even make it bigger and deeper to store more volume of water for
vegetable production. At the same time, they also need to apply planting techniques
that could save more water.
• Farmers should improve following specific areas:
o Rehabilitate the pond or even make it bigger and deeper in order to increase
its water storage capacity for vegetable planting.
o During the rainy season, farmers should also build sediment trap to collect
particle or muddy soil, not allowing them to flow into the pond that make the
pond depth become shallow.
o Farmers should also make trellis on the top of the pond (pond cover) in order
to reduce water loss through evaporation from the pond to the atmosphere.
o Combining the pond technology with mulching and drip irrigation provides an
efficient way to use the water harvested.
o At the same time with the improvement of water use management, other
agricultural techniques need to be considered as well, such as selection of
crop type that consume less water, improve soil-water holding capacity, etc.

18
References
DoA. (2006). Department of Agriculture . Retrieved from Government of Sri Lanka :
http://www.agridept.gov.lk/index.php/en/crop-recommendations/821
FAO. (1985). Water quality for agriculture. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/T0234E/T0234E01.htm#ch1.2.1
FAO. (2005). Creating drought-resistant soil. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0100e/a0100e08.htm
FAO. (n.d.). Cambodia . Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/espim/country/cambodia/print1.stm
FAO. (n.d.). SALINITY PROBLEMS. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0234e/t0234e02.htm
HKI. (2003). Home Gardening in Cambodia .
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, I. (1927). Root Development of Vegetable Crops. Retrieved from
http://www.soilandhealth.org/01aglibrary/010137veg.roots/010137toc.html
NCDD. (2010). Retrieved from Commune Database :
http://db.ncdd.gov.kh/cdbonline/home/index.castle
WEPA. (n.d.). State of water environemental issues: Cambodia . Retrieved from http://www.wepa-
db.net/policies/state/cambodia/overview1_3.htm
Wikipedia. (2014). Svay Chrum district. Retrieved from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svay_Chrom_District
World Bank. (2011). Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile Cambodia. World Bank.

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Annex:
Table: Popular Vegetables & root depth
Description Scientific names Number of Maturity
days
Optimum planting
time
Remarks Root depth –
from early
development
to maturity
(m)
Cucumber, Cucumis sativus 55-75 days May-June
November-
December
Optimum temperature 18-30℃
Good fertility soil with good aeration (avoid
water logging).
In Cambodia, there are two major cucumber
varieties, Trosak Phar and Trosak Srov
0.12-0.6
Yard long bean Vigna sesquipedalis
L
55-70 days November-January Grows best under warm temperatures
25–35 °C
0.3-1
Green Petiole 55-65 days November-January Mulching is needed to ensure good moisture
Bitter gourd, Mormodica
charantia L.
75-90 days June-July
November-January
Water requirement is medium
Lemongrass, Cymbopogon
citratus
55-90 days June –July Water requirement is medium to low
Papaya, Approximately 170
days after planting
(HKI, 2003)
June-July (in the
beginning of the
raining season)
Papaya is susceptible to papaya mealy bug
and not resistant to waterlogging.
Pumpkin Cucurbita maxima. 80-90 days May-June,
December
Pumpkins are very drought resistant plant.
Well drainage soil with high amount of
organic matter important to well growth.
Optimum pH range is about 5.5-7.5. (DoA,
2006)
0.18-1.5
Sponge gourd, Luffa cylindrical 80-90 days May-June
November-
December
Water requirement is medium
Water convolvulus, Ipomea aquatica 50-60 Any time in the
year
Water convolvulus prefers full sun but where
temperatures are very high. It tolerates very
high rainfall.
Wax gourd, 75 days, some
varieties 5 months
May-June Water gourd is tolerant to drought, but
moisture is needed when flowering
Sources: (HKI, 2003), (McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, 1927)

20
Annex 2: Labour needed for vegetable planning by gender aggregation (tarpaulin farmers)
Total
working
day
woman
involved
in
vegetable
production
Total
working
days man
involved
in
vegetable
production
Total
working
day woman
and man
involved in
vegetable
production
% of total
working
day
woman
involved
in
vegetable
production
% of total
working
days man
involved
in
vegetable
production
% of total
working
day
woman
and man
involved
in
vegetable
production
Land preparation 4 8 12 9 17 27
Making rows for
vegetable planting
0 2 2 0 5 5
Fertilising 1 1 2 2 3 5
Mulching 1 2 3 1 5 6
Planting 2 1 3 3 2 6
Weeding 1 6 7 3 14 16
Insect control 1 1 2 0 2
Harvesting 2 3 4 4 6 10
Transporting 3 2 5 6 5 10
Selling 3 2 5 8 5 12
Total 16 26 43 38 62 100

21
Annex 3: Labour needed for vegetable planning by gender aggregation
(Control groups/non-cooperating farmers)
Total
working
day
woman
involved in
vegetable
production
Total
working
days man
involved in
vegetable
production
Total
working day
woman and
man
involved in
vegetable
production
% of total
working
day
woman
involved
in
vegetable
production
% of total
working
days man
involved in
vegetable
production
% of total
working
day
woman
and man
involved in
vegetable
production
Land preparation 2 2 3 4 4 9
Fertilising 2 1 2 4 1 6
Mulching 1 1 1 1 2 4
Planting 1 1 2 2 2 4
Weeding 1 7 8 3 21 24
Insect control 1 4 5 3 10 13
Harvesting 3 2 5 7 6 13
Transporting 4 1 5 12 3 15
Selling 4 0 4 12 0 12
Total 17 17 34 50 50 100

22
Annex iv: Name of tarpaulin farmers interviewed
N Name of farmers Sex Village Commune Phone number
/remarks
1 On Ratha M Trabek Svay Chrum 088 8033 221
2 Sam Pov F Tei Year Thlork 093 589 280
3 Ty Sarin M Portireach Portireach 096 4587 442
4 Kenn Snoar F Basac Basac N/A
5 Keo Tith M Basac Basac 097 6906 971
6 Pov Siem M Basac Basac 088 5135 816
7 Pheuk Savath M Khnar Kruos 088 9982 784
8 Ruos Ny M Veal La Ngeut Kampong
Chamlong
011 770 279
097 7821 525
Annex v: Name of control groups (non-cooperating farmers) interviewed
N Name of farmers Sex Village Commune Phone number
/remarks
1 Suos Vanhorn M Teyea Thlork 088 99 84 975
2 Ong Sim M Thnar Krus 088 91 98 809
3 Mom Hang F Basak Basak N/A
4 Leak Thorn M Rongchanh Portireach 010 81 000 8
5 Prom Saban M Trabek Svay Chroum 089 568487

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