DISSERTATTION FULL.docx

ESSEX BUSINESS SCHOOL
POSTGRADUATE DISSERTATION
GLOBALIZATION OR GLOCALIZATION: MARKETING CHRISTMAS AS
AN ILLUSTRATIVE CASE STUDY
By
STEFANO STEPHANOU
1100895
Tuesday 11th
of September 2012
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of
MSc in Management, Marketing and Society
2011-2012
UP:11/09/2012-15:40:38WM:11/09/2012-15:41:56M:BE981-7-FYA:11a1R:1100895C:F6E39D60D741AF20083A061438CB20D9FD6F9BDE

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 03
ABSTRACT 04
INTRODUCTION 05
CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION VS GLOCALIZATION 07
1.1 INTRODUCTION 07
1.2 THE PROCESS OF GLOBALIZATION 08
1.3 GLOBALIZATION: ILLUSION OR REALITY? 09
1.4 GLOBALIZATION: THE BATTLE OF CULTURE 12
1.5 GLOCALIZATION AND CHRISTMAS 15
1.6 CONCLUSION 16
CHAPTER 2: THE STORY OF CHRISTMAS 17
2.1 INTRODUCTION 17
2.2 A SNOWBALL EFFECT 18
2.3 FROM RELIGION TO CONSUMPTION 22
2.4 CONCLUSION 27
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 28
3.1 INTRODUCTION 28
3.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES 28
3.3 RELEVANCE OF GREECE 29
3.4 PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACHES WITHIN MANAGEMENT RESEARCH 30
3.5 ADOPTING A PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH 33
3.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN 35
3.7 STRUCTURE AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS 37
CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS 39
4.1 INTRODUCTION 39
4.2 TEXTUAL DATA ANALYSIS 40
4.3 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW ANALYSIS 43
4.4 CONCLUSION 49
CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND FINAL CONCLUSION 51
5.1 TRENDS OF GLOBALIZATION 51
5.2 CHRISTMAS AND GLOCALIZATION 53
5.3 A MARKETING PERCPECTIVE OF GLOCALIZATION 56
5.4 CO-CREATION 57
5.5 FINAL CONCLUSION 60
BIBLIOGRAPHY 63

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The idea of this study was born out of a combination of a passion for marketing and an
interest in the celebration and the marketing of Christmas. Having a close connection with the
mentality and perspectives of marketing, I would always hail modern Christmas as the peak
of marketing strategies and its influence on culture, as one will almost certainly correlate
Santa Claus with Coca-Cola. Moreover, having taken modules such as Critical Marketing and
International Management during my Masters at the University of Essex, I became more
interested in globalization and its effects on international marketing. I would first and
foremost like to thank my supervisor Professor Philip Hancock for helping me form my
dissertation topic as well as the precious time he devoted to guiding me through this study
and his generous provision of useful references and resources including work that he himself
has written. We both shared a common interest and excitement for my topic on Christmas and
that is one factor that created a much more pleasant and helpful atmosphere that was needed
in a time of hard work and pressure. What is more, I would like to thank my family for
supporting and providing me with useful advice during this last period of studies. I would
also like to thank my friends and fellow students at the University of Essex, Petros Troparis,
Adonis Kilonis, Dimitris Andreou for maintaining the balance between fun and work, a
balance that is crucial to the sanity of one’s life, as well as George Georgiou especially
during the period of writing our dissertations where we supported and motivated each other to
keep pushing until our work was completed.

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ABSTRACT
This study focuses on questioning the gravity and suitability of defining the current and
future environment of our financial, economic and even cultural worlds with the word
globalization. Through an in depth analysis of the creation, expansion and evolution of
celebrating Christmas from a local religious holiday to a global commercialized event, this
study draws upon evidence from both secondary and primary sources in order to generate an
argument that in the face of globalist ideologies, culture may play a vital role in the
acceptance, resistance or rejection of global convergence. In effect, this study argues that
there is a more suitable definition of the phenomena that we witness in today’s world, one
that has been referred to as Glocalization (Miller, 1993). Moreover, this study relates this
argument to marketing perspectives through the works of Cova and Dalli (2009) on co-
creation, and displays a potential direction for the future of marketing strategies in the form
of facilitating consumers, who now seem to have been transformed into producers, with a
base and template to create and produce new products or services.

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INTRODUCTION
In the pursuit of survival, man has gathered clothing, hunted game, and built tools and
shelter. However, recalling Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1989), ‘as one level of need is met
at once, other (and higher) needs emerge and come to dominate’ (Knights et al, 2007: 45). In
effect, when basic (survival) needs were satisfied, over the years man began the quest for
pleasure and identity through intangible (psychological) and tangible needs. Trade evolved as
an attempt to gain wealth and comfort in our standard of living. Over time notable men,
among them being Adam Smith (1776) and Karl Marx (1848), advanced theories that
transformed the simplicities of trade into a seemingly complex monetary system that has
evolved today. With the development of technology during the industrial revolution, as well
as the effects of two World Wars, we saw a world of connected financial markets,
international trade and investment, and a growing convergence of the world’s economies
emerge, resulting in what has come to be known by many as the process of globalization.
Although financial and economic systems are of vital importance, however, culture will
always play a major role in the influence and direction of societies and civilizations. Hence,
one may argue that because of strong western marketing and media, cultures around the
world are being influencing, resulting in a form of “cultural imperialism”, and thus there is a
growing integration of cultures into one homogenous cultural direction, guided perhaps by
the West. As a result, marketing and production may revert back into mass production and
standardization. Conversely however, cultures posses extremely strong dominant belief
systems that have been followed for centuries by societies and thus it seems challenging to
accept the fact that these cultures will simply fade and be replaced by one global culture.

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This study will attempt to examine whether there is indeed a process of globalization taking
place from a cultural perspective and its significance in terms of marketing. This study will
use in depth analysis of the creation, expansion and celebration of Christmas from ancient
religious times to today’s commercial celebration. It is the purpose of this dissertation to view
arguments depicting the process of globalization in order to gain knowledge of the
surrounding debate, and then proceed to examine how Christmas, a Christian celebration,
managed to spread globally even to countries that are non-Christian. The reason for exploring
this process is to present Christmas as a direct example and result of cultural clashes and
hybrid formations that imply that we are witnessing a process of Glocalization rather than
Globalization, where the global meets the local.
Moreover, by gathering primary and secondary data in the form of semi-structured interviews
and magazines that portray details of Christmas in Greece, a Christian orthodox nation, this
study will attempt to further support the argument that glocalization is a more suitable
definition of the process we observe today. In proving such a point, this dissertation will then
attempt to explore the importance of glocalization in terms of marketing where the arguments
of Cova and Dalli (2009) on Co-Creation and the transformation of the consumer into a
producer relate directly to the example of Christmas and glocalization strategies that may
pave the way for the future of marketing practice.

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CHAPTER 1: GLOBALIZATION VS GLOCALIZATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
‘It has been said that arguing against globalization is like arguing against the laws of gravity’
(Unvienna, 2002). According to advocates such as Held (2000), Stiglitz (2002) and Harvey
(2007), it has become evident since the 1980’s that the process of globalization is
increasingly converging national economies and integrating the world as a whole. As Hirst
(2009) points out globalization was found to have been witnessed during the 1870s, however,
according to Wolf et al (2004) it was during and after the clash of economic and political
ideologies, known as the Cold War, that this process of globalization began to generate a
“visible” global convergence of trade and national economies, with the rise and increasing
advocacy of Neoliberalism in the hope that globalization would instigate a better world for
the human being. Nevertheless, globalization is not without its criticism.
The following chapter will consider this debate surrounding the process of globalization.
Furthermore, it will attempt to depict an explanation of the term globalization as well as
presenting its recent evolvement. Moreover, drivers and effects of globalization including its
positive and negative consequences that it brings will be investigated. This chapter will also
examine the debate between two perspectives; that of the hyperglobalist perspective of
globalization which will be presented through the discussion of Neoliberalism and the Strong
Globalization Thesis. Then the antiglobalist perspective will be examined, depicting evidence
that criticizes advocates of hyperglobalization, and supports the belief that perhaps it is a
process of glocalization that is occurring. Lastly, the socio-cultural aspects of globalization
will be depicted in which we may observe a debate between a homogenized global
convergence of culture and society and the spread of Western influences of culture and

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society to the rest of the world. In effect, through this the issue of Christmas in today’s world
will be illustrated as an example of the process of globalization, or in fact glocalization, of the
world.
1.2 THE PROCESS OF GLOBALIZATION
Although there is no agreed on definition, one may argue that globalization ‘involves the
creation of linkages or interconnections between nations. It is usually understood as a process
in which barriers (physical, political, economic, cultural) separating different regions of the
world are reduced or removed, thereby stimulating exchanges in goods, services money, and
people.’ (Hamilton, 2009: 5). Moreover, in the process of globalization ‘capital sweeps across
countries at electron speed; manufacturing and the generation of services move flexibly
among countries and are networked across borders; markets are supplied from a continually
shifting set of sources’ (Adams, 2006: 29). In addition, when ‘understood as a process,
economic globalization also implies an evolving transformation or qualitative shift in the
organization and dynamics of the world economy’ (Ravenhill, 2007: 281). As a result, this
global transformation may be causing specific effects ‘such that the world economy
increasingly begins to operate as a singular system’ (Ibid). Hence, a global convergence of
the world is a path that seems likely and even inevitable.
Looking back at history, ‘globalization is a concept whose roots go back at least to the
nineteenth century, notably in the ideas of Karl Marx’ (Dicken, 2011: 2), and while certain
aspects of globalization began to surface after the Second World War, alongside the
establishment of the World Trade Organization (WTO), the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) at the Bretton Woods UN Conference 1944, “it has only been in the

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last 30 years or so that globalization has entered the popular imagination in a really big way’
(Dicken, 2011: 2). In effect, these aspects grew rapidly with the end of the Cold War, (as
capitalism was perceived to be the victor) nation-states began to adopt Neoliberal ideologies
as they dissolved barriers to global trade and investment, enabling firms to transform into
multinational corporations (MNC’s); corporations that have now become powerful actors in
today’s world, and outsource their production and seek Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), and
the evolution of technological advances significantly contributed to the global integration of
the world and the generation of the network society.
In terms of the drivers of globalization, one major influence is technology, in which ‘more
powerful computers and communications technology has allowed the easy transfer of data.
The internet has revolutionized the way in which consumers purchase products’ (Hall et al,
2006: 777). In effect, MNC’s ‘increasingly plan their production, their innovation and their
marketing on a scale that goes beyond the national.’ (Knights et al, 2007: 440). Hence, it
makes it easier for MNC’s to create relationships with foreign companies and suppliers as
well as markets and consumers. Additionally, technology could also act deterministically in
that, firms that do not adopt such technologies are in fear of being left behind and becoming
obsolete.
Another influencing factor is the liberalization of trade, where ‘trade protection has been
reduced due to the operation of organizations such as the World Trade Organization’ (Hall et
al, 2006: 777). In effect, this liberalization has enabled businesses to freely operate globally.
Likewise, consumer attitudes towards products have become more individualized and
customized to the extent that mass production is not beneficial any more, as consumers look
to identify with brands and construct a personal connection. This as a result, may generate
new markets for MNC’s to enter such as the demand for Asian automobiles in Europe, or US
products in Asia.

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1.3 GLOBALIZATION: ILLUSION OR REALITY?
Many advocates of globalization, as Held (2000), Stiglitz (2002) and Harvey (2007), argue
that ‘we live in a borderless world in which the national is no longer relevant. In such a
world, globalization is the new economic order’ (Dicken, 2011: 5). However, this view has
been considered a myth, and rather its rhetoric has lead pro-globalist Neoliberals to perceive
globalization as ‘an ideological project, one that, it is asserted, will bring the greatest benefit
for the greatest number’ (Ibid). Here, Neoliberals view globalization as ‘the solutions to the
world’s economic problems and inequalities’ (Ibid).
Neoliberal theory argues that the ‘state should favour strong individual private property
rights, the rule of the law, and the institutions of freely functioning markets and free trade’
(Harvey, 2007: 64). Moreover, in their belief that market mechanisms will resolve challenges
within the market, Neoliberals support the argument that ‘the freedom of businesses and
corporations to operate within this institutional framework of free markers and free trade is
regarded as a fundamental good. Private enterprise and entrepreneurial initiative are seen as
the keys to innovation and wealth creation....Continuous increases in productivity should then
deliver higher living standards to everyone ’ (Ibid). Thus, with globalization seemingly
liberalizing markets and lowering protectionist measures, it is the Neoliberalists’ hope that
this process will create a better world for society, perhaps even a utopia. Nevertheless, for
such hopes to be possible, Neoliberals state that ‘sectors formerly run or regulated by the
state must be turned over to the private sphere and be deregulated....Privatization and
deregulations combined with competition, it is claimed, eliminate bureaucratic red tape,
increase efficiency and productivity, improve quality, and reduce costs’ (Harvey, 2007: 65).
Hence, what is witnessed here is that the balance of economic and political power could be
changing as the role of the nation-state may be declining.

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On the other hand however, Sceptics and anti-globalists, such as Hirst (2009), argue that the
Anglo-US conception of globalization and competitiveness ‘fails to appreciate that foreign
direct investors in capital intensive sectors of the international economy are attracted to
locations such as the Northern European economies....for the access they provide to a highly
skilled, reliable, and innovative labour force’ (Harvey, 2007: 65). Moreover, sceptics are
doubtful of the existence of a completely integrated global economy, and rather favour the
term regionalization as they witness supporting evidence which contradicts the arguments of
globalization such as the effectiveness of Asian Developmental nation-states; states that
opted to follow the ideology of globalization in terms of generating a favourable environment
for investment, but maintain a level of control over the market as the state helps to form and
encourage the process of economic development.
Likewise, sceptics seem to believe in regionalization rather than globalization, as Hirst argues
that ‘the world economy is far from being genuinely global. Rather, trade, investment and
financial flows are concentrated in the Triad of Europe, Japan/East Asia and North America,
and this dominance seems set to continue’ (Hirst et al, 2009: 3). Moreover, Hirst developed a
definition of regionalization as ‘a geographically contiguous area composed of the territories
of nation-states that have either combined in an integrative economic or monetary union, or
whose economies have evolved into a closely interdependent entity, or who can empirically
be shown to be advancing along these routes’ (Ibid: 159). In effect, such processes are
reflected through the European Union (EU), the North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA)
and the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). It is argued that it is within these
triad blocs that the process of economic integration is occurring, leaving some nations to be
more globalized than others, and thus this would explain the uneven world we live in where
the promises of globalization have not been fulfilled for most.

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Nevertheless, the 2008 financial crash ‘demonstrated, contrary to much sceptical opinion, just
how integrated the world economy had become in the last three decades’ (Ravenhill, 2007:
293). Circumstances such as this crisis may display how one action may have a global
reaction, and how one idea as simple as Christmas for instance, may spread to a global level
in today’s integrated society. Moreover, it is argued that ‘there has been a huge increase in
both intra-industry and intra-firm trade, both of which are clear indicators of more
functionally fragmented and geographically dispersed production processes’ (Dicken, 2011:
7). Hence, the basic argument here for pro-globalists is that ‘globalizing processes are
reflected in, and influenced by, multiple geographies, rather than a single global geography:
the local and the global intermesh, running into one another in all manner of ways’ (Ibid). In
effect, such a statement could possibly be perceived through the element of culture. Having
agreed that today’s society is being integrated at a global level to some extent, reveals a
significant conflict of power and culture between Western influences, global cultural
convergence and local culture and traditions. In other words, perhaps one may perceive a
hybrid between global and local cultures; a hybrid known as glocalization which will be
analyzed further down.
1.4 GLOBALIZATION: THE BATTLE OF CULTURE
With the liberalization of trade and investment, and the promotion of Neoliberalism and free
markets, cultures around the globe have been directly and indirectly affected. As MNC’s
distribute their products at a global level, it can be argued that they are spreading elements of
their culture to overseas markets. This process has been extended through the creation of
brands and media. A brand can be considered ‘a name, term , sign, symbol, design or any

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other feature that allows consumers to identify the goods and services of a business and to
differentiate them from those of competitors’ (Hall et al, 2006: 199). Moreover, through the
development of an image/identity, branding may enable customers to construct a relationship
with the brand, beyond the functional use of the product. As a result, global brands may
influence local culture, but at the same time as consumers establish these relationships they
may also attach local cultural elements to that global brand.
Likewise, through the advancement of media and technology, the power of MNC’s, Western
products and services or products and services with a Western image, as well as media such
as Hollywood movies, series and shows, and the internet, have all been able to reach almost
every nation, and in embodying elements of their local culture, have reflected at a global
level. As a result, many national cultures have been influenced to some extent. Such an
argument would support the statement that ‘globalization constitutes a current manifestation
of the ongoing dynamics of general culture diffusion....In this context, international trade as
an agency of this dynamic serves as an umbilical cord of culture diffusion’ (Brinkman et al,
2002: 732).
In effect, advocates of globalization such as Steger (2005) have perceived globalization ‘as a
multidimensional set of social processes that create, multiply, stretch, and intensify
worldwide social interdependencies and exchanges while at the same time fostering in people
a growing awareness of deepening connections between the local and the distant’ (Steger,
2005: 13). The question that arises here is, whether it is Western influences that are affecting
foreign cultures to the extent that it overpowers the local culture, or is there indeed a balance
of the two? In recent years there has been evidence favouring the path of Western influences
as seen in Thailand where ‘white skin is a crucial market of physical beauty in both urban and
rural Thai aesthetic systems’ (Ellis et al, 2011: 219). In effect, this belief exists in East Asian
as a result of Western (US) beauty being displayed and marketed to them through media as a

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role model to be followed. Moreover, Coca Cola a US soft drink can now be found almost all
over the world as a common beverage. Thus, one may argue that ‘globalization constitutes an
irreversible process, and that Anglo-American norms and values underwrite the culture of the
new world. Americanization is associated with globalization because the USA is the sole
superpower’ (Ardalan, 2009: 518). Thus, as Thompson (2004) states, one could perceive
global brands as Trojan horses where MNC’s colonize local cultures (Thompson, 2004).
On the other hand however, consumers are not passive recipients of brands and media.
Although brands may affect their choices, consumers with increasing knowledge significantly
through the internet, have the power to interpret, accept or decline a brand. More importantly,
as Cova and Dalli (2009) argue, consumers are able to co-create brands and products and
‘increasingly regard brands as shared cultural property rather than as privately owned
intellectual property’ (Cova and Dalli, 2009: 317). At the same time however, MNC’s have
also followed strategies of adapting their global products to local cultures such as
McDonald’s without beef burgers in India and Yahoo which displays local versions of its
search engine in each country. Consequently, these strategies can be characterized by the
term glocalization which refers to ‘the creation of products or services intended for the global
market, but customized to suit the local cultures’ (Khondker, 2004: 4). In effect, perhaps it is
rather a process of glocalization of cultures than a process of globalization and a
homogenization of culture, as Thompson (2004) argues that consumers customize global
brands by attaching and detaching certain meanings and cultural elements, in order to match
with local cultural flows (Thompson, 2004).

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1.5 GLOCALIZATION AND CHRISTMAS
One issue that could depict to an extent the effects of glocalization and potentially Western
influence on culture throughout the world is the creation and celebration of the Christmas
holiday. Thompson (2004) argues that ‘a nostalgic view of community has become a highly
commercialized trope through which consumers are able to forge an ephemeral sense of
interpersonal connection via common consumption interests’ (Thompson, 2004: 639). As a
result, a global celebration of Christmas may offer such connection to people through
consumption of Christmas products and rituals. It is within such a field that one could
perceive how ‘cultural forces from various metropolises which enter new societies tend to
become indigenized in one way or another’ (Ardalan, 2009: 520). In effect, the spread of the
Christmas celebration could be seen as a snowball effect, as the festival attains and drops
cultural and social elements as it moves from country to country adapting accordingly.
Moreover, although of religious background it is supported that Christmas was created for
marketing interests. This perspective was taken seriously by Coca Cola which associated its
drink and brand with a reconstructed Santa Claus and the Christmas holiday, in order to enter
the winter market (Forbes, 2007). Additionally, to one extreme one may argue that ‘images
and ideas, which are more easily and rapidly transmitted worldwide, profoundly impact the
way people experience their everyday lives. Culture is no longer associated with a fixed
locality, but gains new meanings that reflect dominant themes emerging in a global context’
(Forbes, 2007: 525). Perhaps through Christmas and its association to marketing and media,
we could perceive effects glocalization throughout the world.

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In effect, this thesis intends to explore the history and evolution of Christmas, focusing
significantly on rituals, traditions, images, products and marketing of the global festivity.
This thesis will then attempt to investigate characteristics and evidence of glocalization
within Christmas by comparing the Anglo-US version of Christmas with that of the Greek
version. In doing so, this thesis could be able to offer a new perception of the world, through
the lens of glocalizational effects rather than globalization.
1.6 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this chapter explored the process of globalization, as well as debates over
globalization through the perspectives of champions of globalization and Neoliberalism,
which indicated favouring arguments about the ideologies and beliefs for the present and the
future of globalization. Likewise, through the perspective of anti-globalists and sceptics, the
issue of regionalization surfaced and was seen by sceptics as a better concept to describe the
present condition of the world and its economy. In effect, this analysis turned to the cultural
aspects of globalization. Here, one could envisage a conflict of power between or perhaps if
not a conflict then a mixture of local and global culture. In addition, one could witness a
spread of Western cultural influences throughout the world, which could be met acceptance,
modification or even rejection. It has been suggested that such an issue could be viewed
through the celebration of Christmas, a holiday that has become a global phenomenon even in
nations such as China and Japan where Christianity is not the dominant religion. Through the
celebration of Christmas, one may be able to view how global marketing actions result in
local reactions, as local consumers may either work to shape the festival (in line with their
culture) in order to establish a connection with the local community or even accepting
Western versions of the festival to feel a global connection.

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CHAPTER 2: THE STORY OF CHRISTMAS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In its global expansion over time, Christmas has moved from country to country, giving as
well as receiving cultural elements, and thus one may perceive a snowball effect of the
festival, a term used by Forbes (2007) to describe the process of gathering widespread
traditions and dropping others as the concept of Christmas travels through various countries
and cultures; perhaps a factor that was always part of Christmas since its birth. Nonetheless,
the meaning, messages and effects of Christmas worldwide, have changed over time and
changed from a presumed religious subject to a subject of family, overconsumption and
commercialization. Perhaps, one may argue that the Christmas celebration, just like
Valentine’s Day, Mother’s Day and the escapades of the Easter Bunny, has been transformed
into an opportunity for corporations as a global marketing medium within their possible
glocalization strategies.
The following chapter will explore the known history of the Christmas festival from its birth
in Rome, to its global expansion to the USA and Asia. This investigation will present various
cultural artefacts and elements from different cultures, religions and nations, such as the
Christmas tree, feasts and lights, gift-giving and Santa Claus, which influenced and shaped
what we know as Christmas today. Moreover, this chapter will convey the change in the
perception of the Christmas holiday, from a religious reason to a family-centred commercial
celebration, in order to attempt to view evidence of corporate global marketing interests in
Christmas.

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2.2 A SNOWBALL EFFECT
Today when walking through a shopping centre, almost anywhere in the world, during the
mid-winter season, one will notice thousands of Christmas-related products and services with
a Santa Claus in every corner. There is a lively and colourful atmosphere with Christmas
music and many busy people shopping for food, decorations, gifts and other accessories for
the Christmas celebration. However, this time of year was not always like this; there were
times when Christmas was celebrated without a Santa Claus, a Christmas tree and gifts and
even a time when Christmas was not celebrated at all. Hence, in order to understand the
transformation of Christmas into today’s method of celebration and meaning, this chapter
will provide a history background of this festival starting from its creation in ancient Rome.
The essence of the Christmas festival had not been derived by Christianity. Indeed such
celebrations occurred earlier; the reason being for ‘people to have something to look forward
to for the first half of winter, the preparations could be a welcome distraction, and the party
itself would be a blast’ (Forbes, 2007: 4). In such a party, one may expect to observe ‘lights,
pushing back the oppressive darkness....evergreens as symbols or decorations....feasting and
drinking....[and] gathering of people, perhaps the whole village’ (Ibid: 5). As Forbes (2007)
argues thus, such festivals where common in many cultures in Europe before Christianity
even existed.
In effect, as history progressed, Forbes (2007) states that through cultural interaction, certain
elements and traditions of these festivals were transferred from one culture to another
(Forbes, 2007). Moreover, two major examples of such winter festivals that actually
influenced Christmas are the Saturnalia in Ancient Rome, where ‘every December 17 a
sacrifice was offered to Saturn in the Roman Forum, but what mattered most to the general
public was the feasting and partying that followed’ (Ibid: 8). During this festival ‘houses,

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great halls, and streets were decorated with laurel, green trees, and shrubs, illuminated by
candles and lamps....people exchanges small gifts, such as wax candles, wax fruit, and clay
dolls’ (Forbes, 2007: 8). Hence, Forbes (2007) displays how during this festival social norms
and class of Rome were put to the side and replaced with an equal celebration between all
citizens.
Furthermore, the second example of a winter festival is Yule from Northern Europe. Here ‘it
was ancient custom that when sacrifice was made all farmers were to come to the temple and
bring along with them the food they needed while the feast lasted. At this feast all were to
take part in the drinking of ale’ (Ibid: 11). Such a festival thus, provides another instance of
celebration in the form of great feasts, drinking, and a lightened and colourful atmosphere.
Moreover, as Christianity evolved but was not dominant yet in Europe, it was ‘an Easter-
centred religion. The death and resurrection of Jesus were the centre of the early Christian
message’ (Ibid: 17). As Forbes (2007) explains, the reason for Christianity focusing on death
rather than birth was their belief that birthdays represented a pagan celebration (Forbes,
2007). Thus, how and for what reason was Christmas, the celebration of the birth of Jesus,
created by the church, if such beliefs of birthdays existed?
The answer partly lies in two other connected festivities or religions that existed within Rome
during mid-winter; Sol Invictus (Unconquered Sun) and Mithraism. According to Forbes
(2007) these two connected religions were celebrated on December 25 in the same fashion as
other depicted festivals and were followed by army and government officials as well as
members of higher social class (Forbes, 2007). Thus it would seem challenging at that time
for Christianity to dominate and create Christmas. However, everything changed when
Constantine came to power and was ‘the first Roman emperor to embrace Christianity, who
ruled some or all of the empire from 306-337’ (Ibid: 29). In effect, Constantine made

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Christianity legal and promoted it. As a result, the power of this religion and church could
increase.
Obviously though, Sol Invictus and Mithraism posed as competition towards Christianity and
when ‘the teachers of the Church realised that Christians were allowing themselves to take
part in the celebrations of the Day of the Birth of the Unconquered Sun, they decided to
observe the Feast of the true Birth on the same day....therefore, it seems quite clear that the
intention of the Christian Church was to overlay Mithraic rituals and ceremonies with
Christian significance’ (Whiteley, 2008: 18). Hence, as Forbes (2007) argues, Christmas was
created to challenge rival religions, attain further converts and attribute Christian meaning to
winter festivals (Forbes, 2007), and one could perceive this as a glocalization strategy to
attract people to a “global” belief with a “local” method.
Christianity having established Christmas, began to spread throughout the world,
significantly through missionaries, ‘picking up winter customs as it went, incorporating them
into Christmas celebrations and also spreading certain customs from one region to another.
The snowball changes size, shape, and colour as it rolled, not only adding features but also
dropping them, over time and distance’ (Forbes, 2007: 46). One example of this according to
Forbes (2007) is the introduction of the German Christmas tree to the American colonies in
the 1800s which later became one of the symbols of American Christmas (Forbes, 2007).
However, the celebration of Christmas did eventually meet resistance; and the opponents
were the Puritans, who were people that ‘campaigned to eliminate Catholic features that they
believed departed too far from the biblical model, the practices and beliefs of the earliest
Christians’ (Ibid: 55). Hence, Christmas being perceived as one of these Catholic features,
became the target of Puritans in New England (in USA) and in England and as a result, ‘the
Puritan-dominated Parliament in England outlawed seasonal plays in 642, declared Christmas

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a day of penance instead of a feast day in 1644, and on December 24, 1652, proclaimed that
no observance shall be had of the five and twentieth of December, commonly called
Christmas day’ (Forbes, 2007: 57). This caused a conflict between Christmas worshipers and
Puritan supporters throughout England.
On the other hand however, in the American colonies, even though Puritan pressures on
Christmas celebration were occurring, Forbes (2007) explains how other colonists of
Catholic, Anglican, German, Dutch and even Scandinavian origin brought their local
traditional Christmas customs and Christmas was celebrated in a ‘localized fashion’ (Forbes,
2007). Hence, Christmas was observed by some colonists and celebrated in a local manner
while others did not participate. Nevertheless, this festival eventually began to gain
domination as ‘the Christmas revival occurred in the mid-1800s, in both England and the
United States’ (Forbes, 2007: 60). During this period many significant people helped to
revive the Christmas observance such as Charles Dickens for his story “A Christmas Carol”
as he was ‘encouraging the revival or reinvention of Christmas traditions, persuading
businesses to close for the holiday, and promoting acts of kindness and charity as an
appropriate focus’ (Ibid: 62).
Another influential figure was Queen Victoria with her husband Prince Albert in 1837 who
‘contributed to the revival of Christmas in two major ways: importing the German Christmas
tree into English Christmas observances, and modelling Christmas as a family-centred
celebration’ (Ibid: 63). Such figures embraced the Christmas festival with a family oriented
perception as well as a “foreign” feature of the German Christmas tree, and through their
image and public appearances, the English as well as the American population followed.
Therefore, one may argue that both Dickens with his story and Queen Victoria with her
family, successfully attempted to act similarly to what the Christian church had done in
Rome, and reinvent the meaning of the mid-winter festival by (maintaining the name

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Christmas) moving away from the birth of Jesus and Christianity, towards a more charitable,
family-oriented and mixed custom festival. This reinvention of Christmas began to spread at
a global level, but was celebrated with less religious meaning and a more commercial feeling
with both global and local features. Tom Flynn supports this argument depicting ‘surprisingly
how small a role the churches played in the Victorian revival. From its inception
contemporary Christmas was primarily a secular and commercial holiday’ (Flynn, 1993,
105).
2.3 FROM RELIGION TO CONSUMPTION
Having reinvented Christmas significantly in England and then the USA, a major change may
be observed in the essence of the celebration; religious concepts and perceptions of Christmas
began to fade as family-oriented meanings came to dominate. In effect, such meanings could
be transformed into business and marketing opportunities, an issue that would be more
challenging with religion. In other words, ‘everything that was revived or invented –
decorations, cards, crackers, collections of carols, going to a pantomime, visiting Santa Claus
and buying presents – all had one thing in common: they could be sold for profit’ (Whiteley,
2008: 20). Whiteley (2008) here argues that with Christmas another issue being celebrated
was the fruitful benefits of ‘industrial capitalism – conspicuous consumption in a market
economy’ (Ibid). The fading of religious celebrations of Christmas can also be viewed in
Christmas cards which ‘ignored the Nativity and depicted instead evergreens, snowscapes,
children playing, Father Christmas and robin redbreasts’ (Ibid: 21).
With a new theme (family) beginning to dominate Christmas until the present day ‘creative
consumerism has increasingly become the main instrument for achieving one of the most

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often observed attributes of Christmas’ (Miller, 1993: 22). Indeed as Miller (1993) points out,
‘a sixth of all retail sales is brought about by Christmas shopping and related activities’ (Ibid:
61). One major figure that brought about such change was the creation and modification of
Santa Claus instead of Jesus Christ. One may argue that by doing this, the essence and
nativity of Christmas is fading away, however, first one may argue that the very existence of
Christmas is a result of many features and customs from various ethnicities and religions
mixed together and thus there is no single homogenous nativity, and second as Whiteley
(2008) argues:
‘if a nativity was being celebrated [now], it was the birth of a market economy
underpinned by the new power of industrialization. The profoundly
commercial-secular nature of the invention has made possible its incredible
international success. Even an officially atheist society like the People’s
Republic of China has no difficulty in embracing the festival’ (Whiteley, 2008:
22).
As well as a bringer of change, Santa Claus also provides an example of the snowball effect
of Christmas. In brief, having Dutch and Flemish origin, the snowball effect took action
‘adding remnants of the Arab presence in Spain, remnants of Spanish control of the
Netherlands, a flying white horse perhaps derived from the Germanic and Nordic Odin, and
Dutch clogs to receive presents’ (Forbes, 2007: 78). Moreover, having travelled as a blurred
concept to the American colonies, ‘Saint Nicholas in the colony of New Amsterdam was an
invented tradition, attributable to [Washington] Irving and his acquaintances’ (Ibid:83). In
effect, Washington Irving generated attributes for Santa Claus and the poem “Night Before
Christmas” ‘helped create vital parts of the Santa Claus tradition’ (Ibid: 86). However, one of
the most important instrumentalists of the image and commercial vision of Santa Claus was
Haddon Sundblom (1899-1976) a commercial artist who made Coca-Cola and Santa Claus

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identical for the reason that ‘if an association of Coca-Cola with Santa Claus could boost
winter seasonal sales, the company would be that much more successful’ (Ibid: 92).
One could perceive Sundblom’s achievement as a myth-making strategy of marketing that
essentially created an image/symbol of Christmas called Santa Claus, which replaced Jesus,
the church and Christianity, and bonded this image with the Coca-Cola brand and
commercialization and as Whiteley (2008) states ‘it was this image that was most famously
exploited by the Coca-Cola Company from the early 1930s on, in the corporate company
colours of red and white, as part of its campaign to increase winter sales of its soft drink’
(Whiteley, 2008: 57). In effect, Forbes (2007) is tempted to argue that in the place of Jesus
and Christianity, the now dominant character of Santa Claus could be considered ‘a symbolic
villain, seducing shoppers into consumerist excesses, drowning people in bankruptcies and
subverting human values. Indeed, Santa has been manipulated by commercial interests for the
sake of sales and profit’ (Forbes, 2007: 95); and thus in the words of Miller (1993) ‘Santa is
first and foremost a symbol of material abundance and hedonistic pleasure’ (Miller, 1993:
83).
Moreover, Forbes (2007) observed six changes that occurred which transcended Christmas
from a religious invention to a commercial celebration. First, ‘before the nineteenth century,
gifts were not the focus of Christmas observances’ (Forbes, 2007: 112). This is evident as the
main themes in older versions of Christmas focused on feasts and drinking rather than family
and gift-giving. Second, ‘industrialization in the 1700s and 1800s helped lead to the rise of
consumer culture’ (Ibid: 113). This occurred through marketing and the generation of fashion
trends. Third, ‘merchants began to see holidays as an opportunity rather than an obstacle’
(Ibid). Such holidays such as Christmas may create major benefits for corporations as
comprehended by Coca-Cola. Fourth, ‘manufactured, purchased Christmas gifts began to
replace homemade ones in the United States in the late 1800s and early 1900s’ (Ibid: 114).

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Such a factor portrays evidence of a growing, cultivating consumer culture, as personal
creation is replaced with mass consumption. Fifth, ‘commerce had more influence than
Christianity in making Christmas the culturally dominant holiday it is in the United States
today’ (Forbes, 2007: 115). Lastly, ‘voices of resistance and reform accompanied the rise of a
commercialized Christmas throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries’ (Ibid: 116).
Hence, these factors display a transformation or a reinvention of Christmas perhaps in the
favour of commercial interests and consumer culture.
Returning to the snowball effect of Christmas and Santa Claus, one may perceive that the
global commercialization and celebration of Christmas even to non-Christian countries may
be a result of marketing techniques of glocalization. One could still argue in favour of a
globalized homogenous perception, however, accepting this may make it challenging to
perceive the different cultural methods and reasons of celebrating Christmas. In other words,
as Miller (1993) argues that Christmas:
‘demonstrates more securely than any theoretical argument the weaknesses of
approaches which posit global homogenization against local
heterogeneity....the ability of this festival to become potentially the very
epitome of globalization derives from the very same quality of easy syncretism
which makes Christmas in each and every place the triumph of localism, the
protector and legitimation for specific regional and particular customs and
traditions’ (Miller, 1993: 25).
Simply put, Christmas may in fact provide a clear view of a process of glocalization
throughout the world. Such an argument can be conveyed through the example of Christmas
in Japan. Kimura and Belk (2005) argue that ‘Christmas has been adopted in Japan in a big
way, even though less than 1% of Japan is Christian. Although a small number of Christian

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churches in Japan have attempted to preserve religious aspects of the holiday, it is
overwhelmingly a secular celebration with no religious meaning’ (Kimura and Belk, 2005:
325). Moreover, these authors state that the Christmas festival persuades consumers to spend
more freely, and was aided by multinational corporations resulting in an example of Western
cultural imperialism (Kimura and Belk, 2005).
This may be true is one respect, however, Japanese people although accepting a global
festival, they seem to celebrate it in a local fashion distinct from Western ways of
observance. This can been seen from ‘a long-standing tradition of fancy and expensive
Christmas cakes....a giant Christmas tree in the Japan Rail Kyoto train station decorated with
the Japanese superhero Astro Boy. Christmas cards in Japan that feature kawaii (cute)
Japanese cartoon characters....[and] the phenomenon of young couples exchanging expensive
Christmas gifts and staying in an expensive hotel’ (Ibid: 326). Hence, it can be argued that
Japan accepted global/Western concepts of Christmas, added Japanese features but
simultaneously maintaining this festival as foreign, as Kimura and Belk (2005) state:
‘Partitioning of Christmas in time and space, helps keep it something that can
be regarded as gaijin or foreign. The hybrid adaptations like the Astro Boy
Christmas tree star, Christmas weddings, and kawaii Christmas cards have
not done away with Western Christmas iconography nor have they made
Christmas in Japan uniquely Japanese’ (Ibid: 327).
Therefore, one may begin to understand that having transcended from a religious concept of
Christmas to a commercial celebration and the creation of Santa Claus, gave the festival a
more attractive image to be accepted globally even by non-Christians, and thus Christmas
was able to spread throughout the world with a global image but with a local fashion and
adaptation. As a result, Christmas offers a good example of glocalization in the world.

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2.4 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this chapter has explored the historic background of the celebration of
Christmas. In this research it was observed that Christmas was an invention of Christianity to
spread its beliefs of Christianity while maintaining local features of pre-Christian religions
and incorporating further foreign features of other cultures it met. As history progressed
Christmas spread throughout the world and met resistance with the Puritans in England who
suppressed this festival. Moreover, Christmas was revived significantly with figures such as
Charles Dickens and Queen Victoria with Prince Albert. In effect, gaining popularity,
corporations began to perceive benefits in the acceptance of Christmas and hence,
commercialization was introduced, with Santa Claus as its symbol, to promote Christmas and
its perfect image through consumption, helping to create a consumer culture.
Furthermore, evidence was provided portraying six factors that lead to the commercialization
of Christmas. Serving through a commercialized conception, the global image Christmas,
perhaps Western-oriented, was able to be more attractive and acceptable by cultures
worldwide such as China and Japan, however, the snowball effect was still active, and in
effect local attributes and customs are added to relate this global festival to a local host. As a
result, such a process may offer evidence that in today’s world perhaps it is a process of
glocalization that is occurring rather than globalization as cultures engage to exchange
customs and creations with one another.

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CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the following chapter the aim and research question of this research paper will be
presented and explained. This chapter will then depict the reasons for specifically choosing
Greece as the location of the study. Moreover, two major philosophical approaches will be
shown and contrasted in terms of the ontological and epistemological assumptions of
interpretivism and positivism. Following the display of the reasons for choosing to adopt one
of these philosophical approaches, we will turn to the research design where an explanation
and description, as well as limitations, will be provided of the chosen methods of textual data
analysis and semi-structured interviews. In addition, the actual data gathered and the
prerequisites need of the interviewees to be included in the research will be provided. In
effect, limitations will also be given to further understand the discussion and analysis of this
research.
3.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
It is the aim of this dissertation is to address the research question to what extent are we
witnessing a, process of cultural globalization, or one of glocalization at least in some part of
our ‘global’ lives - and whether this may influence and be of importance to a marketing
perception of the world.

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In order to address this question, this dissertation takes as a case study the observance and
analysis of the celebration of Christmas. In effect, by exploring the creation, history and how
it has evolved and expanded globally and comparing that information with data gathered
from, in this instance, the country of Greece, one may be able to view any differences and
similarities between global features of Christmas and local preserved traditions that are
located in a country; in this case being Greece (the reason for choosing Greece will be shown
further on in this chapter). As a result of this study, one may be able to then view future
trends, ideas or challenges for the marketing perspective; a perspective that has and could still
becoming a very crucial component in the world today.
3.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GREECE AND THIS STUDY
In order to understand the reason for choosing to view the Christmas celebration in Greece, it
may be helpful to briefly view the association of Christmas and Christianity to ancient
Greece. Here, Forbes (2007) manages to depict such history:
‘Jesus, and the religion of Christianity, were born into the Roman Empire, a
vast realm that extended around the Mediterranean Sea. This empire had an
important cultural division within it, generally summarized as Greek and
Latin....the Greek portion of the empire was the eastern side of the
Mediterranean, extending from Egypt through Palestine up to what we now
call Syria, Turkey and Greece. The western side, using Latin as a common
language, encompassed both northern Africa and southern Europe, including
Italy’ (Forbes, 2007: 21).

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In effect, with such division came differences in cultural and religious beliefs. As Forbes
(2007) mentions, this division generated a separation of the Christian church into the eastern
orthodox Christians and the western Catholic and Protestant Christians (Forbes, 2007). As
discussed in earlier chapters, the western Catholic Church was responsible for creating
Christmas while eastern Orthodox Churches focused more on Easter and Epiphany. As time
passed however, both churches began to celebrate all those holidays together. Nevertheless,
the importance of each holiday is different for each church. Hence, Greece being a part of the
Orthodox Christians and a major one at that, deemed Easter for example, more important than
Christmas. Therefore, unlike Japan or China, it is interesting to analyze a Christian country
with significant Christian influence, but which even to this day may celebrate Easter to a
much larger extent than Christmas. Nonetheless, it is more interesting to view Greek
traditions and norms of the Christmas celebration and whether they have been preserved
today in the face of Anglo-US influences.
3.4 PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACHES WITHIN
MANAGEMENT RESEARCH METHODS
In the field of research methods, different perceptions of the nature of reality or in other
words; ontology, as well as ‘what constitutes acceptable knowledge in a field of study’
(Saunders, 2009: 112) or; epistemology, have come to create different philosophical
approaches within research methods. Moreover, amongst traditional management research,
two approaches have been emphasized; that of positivism and that of interpretivism.
From the positivist perspective, researchers ‘tend to take a realist position and assume that a
single, objective reality exists independently of what individuals perceive’ (Anderson et al,

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1988: 509). In effect, researchers in this context assume ‘the role of an objective analyst,
coolly making detached interpretations about those data that have been collected in an
apparently value-free manner’ (Saunders et al, 2000: 85). In effect, the ontological
assumptions here, is that reality is separated from the researcher, presenting a sense of
objectivity with not interaction between the researcher and the reality in which he/she is
investigating. This brings us to the epistemological assumption of positivism, that since one
is separate from, and cannot affect the stable structure of reality, ‘precise, accurate
measurements and observations of this world are possible’ (Anderson et al, 1988: 509), thus
generating relative, significant knowledge. This is seen in situations such as detailed
experiments held within laboratories, where elements from the natural world are extracted
and placed within a laboratory for control and experimentation. Moreover, such scientific
science based methods imply a ‘generalizing approach to research; that is, they seek out
general, abstract laws that ideally can be applied to an infinitely large number of phenomena,
people, settings, and times’ (Ibid: 511).
Furthermore, such an approach usually demands the use of quantitative methods of large data
collection. Positivists believe that ‘the research design is the fixed structure of the research,
and adherence to this structure allows for accurate answers’ (Anderson et al, 1988: 512). This
usually entails that ‘when you do research, the best way of arriving at the truth is to use
scientific method, which is otherwise known as the hypothetico-deductive method’
(Jankowicz, 2005: 111) as seen in the example of the laboratory. In addition, researchers here
develop a hypothesis based upon given credible theories, from which experiments,
observation and measurement of extracted data will prove or disprove the hypothesis, and this
will be used in the construction of new theories (Ibid: 111). Hence, it is deemed necessary to
be objective and to have large quantifiable data in order to produce justifiable generalized
knowledge.

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On the other hand, from the perspective of interpretivism, researchers argue that ‘the social
world of business and management is far too complex to lend itself to theorizing by definite
laws in the same way as the physical sciences’ (Saunders et al, 2009: 116). Interpretivists in
dealing mostly with intangible elements of the social sphere, tend to perceive reality in a less
structured and separated way than positivists. Moreover, the ontological assumption here, is
that of subjectivism, implying that ‘social phenomena are created from the perceptions and
consequent actions of those social actors concerned with their existence’ (Saunders et al,
2009: 110). Hence, reality here is converged with the researcher, in which both sides
influence each other, where the researcher attempts to interpret his/her surroundings in order
to make sense and construct meaning and act accordingly. In effect, this implies that different
people will have different perceptions of reality and thus, different meanings and actions. As
a result, a one definitive truth to be found out there, seems to fade, as researchers here try to
‘focus instead on a socially agreed understanding’ (Jankowicz, 2005: 116). In addition, one
can understand that the significant difference between positivism and interpretivism, is that
interpretivism believes that ‘the human world is never a world in itself; it is always an
experienced world, that is, a world that is always related to a conscious subject’ (Sandberg,
2005: 43).
Hence, the interpretivist approach tends to use more qualitative methods of research.
Researchers here ‘study a specific phenomenon in a particular place and time. Rather than
seeking to determine law-like regularities, the interpretivists seek to determine motives,
meanings, reasons, and other subjective experiences that are time- and context-bound’
(Anderson et al, 1988: 511). Moreover, since there is an appreciation of the different
perceptions of reality and its interaction with people, it becomes challenging to generalize. In
effect, research is conducted in natural surroundings where ‘the research is actually an
emergent process. As perceived realities change, the research design adapts’ (Ibid: 513). As a

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result, data collection techniques such as ethnography, or more specifically, participant
observation and semi- and unstructured interviews are used. This occurs as the observation
and interaction between the researcher and the examined surroundings and informants is part
of the process of developing an understanding of the reality that the research is concerned
with, since there is the ability to relate to perceptions and feelings of the people under
examination.
3.5 ADOPTING A PHILOSOPHICAL APPROACH
Because of the social elements inherent in the matter at hand, this research adopts an
interpretivist approach. In a complex environment, entailing substantial social and cultural
elements such as that of the celebration of Christmas, it is challenging to adopt a positivist
approach which perceives this social reality as separated from the researcher; that is to say
that these surroundings are too complex to view objectively. Moreover, ‘the positivist
approach works in the physical sciences because the phenomena it investigates can be
understood and predicted accurately enough by believing that there are events out there, that
the status of the date is unarguable, that truth exists independently of the people who seek
it....unfortunately, this doesn’t work as well with organizational phenomena’ (Jankowicz,
2005: 115). This is so because organizational phenomena incorporate various beliefs,
meanings, cultures, feelings and perceptions of reality which a positivist deductive study
using quantifiable data will fail to acknowledge and understand, since there is no one ultimate
truth.
This argument can be associated with the Christmas holiday; a celebration, a social event
that occurs based on cultural, social and religious features and traditions that shape and guide

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the festival. However, these features are not the same in every location and changed over
time. Hence, one may understand that there is no objective truth of Christmas and its
celebration as well as its impact and interaction between different people. This argument can
also be related to the process of globalization and glocalization. Both processes may represent
subjective concepts that are formed and demonstrated through cultural, social and economic
factors that differ by location and change by time. Although there may be certain foundations
of the issue of Christmas and globalization/glocalization, they are not permanent or constant.
As observed through the creation and history of Christmas as well as debates between the
assumption of globalization and that of glocalization, there is regular change that occurs as
Forbes’s (2007) snowball effect depicts. Thus, the dynamic socio-cultural environment that
surrounds this intended research can be better understood and acknowledged through an
interpretivist approach.
Furthermore, as opposed to positivism, interpretivism understands that ‘if the social reality is
based in individuals’ or groups’ perceptions, then in order to be able to understand those
perceptions, these individuals must be involved in creating the research process’ (Anderson et
al, 1988: 512). Hence, in the context of celebrating Christmas, the people that this research is
conducted on are viewed more as associates and informants through an interpretivist
approach as opposed to subjects and patients in positivist perceptions. This can be supported
by the fact that ‘positivists assume a secure observational base from which objective
observations can be made, but observations are value-laden, theory-laden, and
interpreted....Positivists try to conceive of the objective features of society apart from their
social context and the perceptions of people.’ (Ibid: 516). This could be challenging when
attempting to understand the way Greeks celebrate Christmas without the ability to socially
interact and gain knowledge from the people that experience this celebration at first hand and

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as a result one could perceive the Christmas holiday in Greece in a different way from the
perceptions of Greeks and the people actually experiencing it.
In other words, when quantifying such social data, one is unable to view the social
interactions, feelings, expressions and atmospheres surrounding the celebration Christmas. In
effect, it is an ongoing process of interacting and observing the field of study, in which the
researcher, through an interpretive approach, will be able to view and feel the social
dynamics involved in the research; something that a positivist approach may fail to
acknowledge. To understand this further, one could imagine himself as a movie critic or
reporter, who has to write a review of a movie. It is more effective to actually attend the
cinema and feel the atmosphere and effect of that movie to other viewers, rather than view it
in a screening room alone or even in textual form (screenplay and script).
3.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN
In this research secondary data which includes electronic textual data from the internet,
significantly magazines concerning Christmas in Greece will be used in order to gain
background knowledge of the way Christmas is celebrated in Greece and its importance in
that country. These written documentary materials offer advantages such as fewer resource
requirements, unobtrusive, but more importantly they may be able to provide comparative
and contextual data (Saunders et al, 2009). This means that the information obtained from
these online sources could be compared with primary data that will be collected in the form
of semi-structured interviews, in order to confirm or deny to an extent the knowledge to be
used in this research. Additionally, as a result, unforeseen discoveries as Saunders et al
(2009) may come up both from gathering secondary data and by comparing secondary with

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primary information, which may contribute to the formulation of the argument of this
research. For example, textual data may provide a Greek feature of Christmas which could
afterwards, through a semi-structured interview, be confirmed as a feature not used any more
in Greece. One limitation here however, is the quality and reliability of textual electronic data
as it cannot be completely verified as truthful fact and some data could be opinions of
authors.
In addition, semi-structured interviews will be used for data collection in order to ‘help
clarify and organize an individual’s perception of reality’ (Fetterman, 1989, p. 50), which
will occur after gathering the textual data. Moreover, in semi-structured interviews ‘the
researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary
from interview to interview’ (Saunders et al, 2009: 328). Additionally, interviews here are
more free flowing; allowing the person being interviewed to extend the conversation beyond
simple questions. The interviewee may correct or reveal other information that would not be
uncovered through simple yes or no questions for instance. Hence, the interviewee may offer
the researcher past experiences with stories and effects of Christmas in Greece, and personal
and group reactions and opinions of Christmas and its effects that may not be clearly stated
through formalized structured interviews.
However, in conducting semi-structured interviews one must take into account forms of bias.
For instance, ‘the comments, tone or non-verbal behaviour of the interviewer creates bias in
the way that the interviewees respond to the questions being asked’ (Saunders et al, 2009:
326). In effect, this may create an unstable, stressful environment in which the interviewee
may reaction in unnatural ways and provide false or distorted information. Moreover, ‘ the
time consuming requirements of the interview process may result in a reduction in
willingness to take part on behalf of some of those to whom you would like to talk’ (Ibid).

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Hence, interviewees may feel uneasy in talking to an “outsider” and may provide limited
information.
3.7 STRUCTURE AND EXECUTION OF SEMI-
STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
For the purpose of this study, 7 people were selected to participate in individual semi-
structured interviews. The interviewees where asked five questions as follows:
1. How important do you think the Christmas holiday is in Greece (and why?)
2. How do most people celebrate Christmas in Greece today (i.e. what do they do)?
3. Do you think the way Christmas in Greece is celebrated, both in the home and in the
towns and villages (?) has changed much over the last x number of years?
4. What, if anything do you think makes the celebration of Christmas in Greece different
from other parts of the world – especially countries such as America or the UK?
5. Do you think Western commercialization and promotion of Christmas has replaced OR
influenced Greek Christmas celebrations?
These questions were considered as a base to instigate a conversation surrounding Christmas
in Greece in the past and present moment. In effect, interviewees were not limited to only
these five questions and were also asked various follow-up questions based on the discussion
(certain interviewees were asked one of the questions and follow-up questions were used
until the end).
Along with anonymity and discretion, two prerequisites were formed; that the interviewee
should be of Greek origin as the questions deal with Christmas in Greece, and the interviewee
should preferably be an age that would enable them to share knowledge of Christmas in
Greece at least thirty to forty years ago.

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In terms of ethical considerations, every interviewee was asked if they accepted to contribute
to this research through an interview and were briefed of its purpose and ensured of its
preservation of anonymity and confidentiality of their identity.
Lastly, limitations concerning these interviews did surface; among them being the fact that a
small sample of Greek citizens was selected. In effect, this may not fully represent the
perceptions and beliefs of all Greeks as well as the fact that in other countries there may be
different perceptions and opinions. On the other hand however, this may help support the
argument of glocalization since it proposes that in every country there will be various local
traditions and opinions.

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CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The following chapter will begin by investigating gathered primary textual data from various
internet sources that reveal characteristics, traditions and aspects of Christmas in Greece. This
analysis will be able to portray to an extent, evidence that will either support the argument
that through Christmas glocalization seems to be occurring, or challenge this argument by
displaying evidence that perhaps Western concepts and customs of Christmas have colonized
local traditions and thus, globalization could be the occurring process.
However, this form of data is ‘limited’ in what it might tell us. Thus, the second part of this
chapter will explore further confirmation through the use of semi-structured interviews, with
questions designed to engage the interviewee with discussions about Christmas in Greece
including descriptions of any Greek traditions, customs and perceptions of Christmas and
whether such factors have been preserved or replaced in the presence of global (Western)
concepts of Christmas. Hence, these interviews may be able to provide further evidence of
the process of glocalization in today’s world through the investigation of the celebration of
Christmas. Once again however, these interviews represent a small sample limited by various
factors such as geography, age and national origin.

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4.2 TEXTUAL DATA ANALYSIS
By examining present textual data, one may be able to perceive such tendencies in Greece.
For instance, an article on Greek Christmas traditions argues that ‘even though Greek
Christmas is regarded by many as less colourful than the Greek Easter, the Greeks really have
some of the richest Christmas traditions in the world’ (ypseni.wordpress.com, 2009). Another
article supports this argument by stating that ‘Greeks have, not unreasonably, considered
Christ’s death and sacrifice as being more central to the message of the Christian gospel than
Christmas, and therefore have traditionally focused on Easter instead – although this isn’t to
say that Greece doesn’t have its own distinctive Christmas traditions’
(RobertsonLanguages.co.uk, 2011).
Hence, one may begin to understand two important factors. Firstly, although Greeks have
traditions during Christmas, Easter seems, as previously noted, to be celebrated to a greater
extent. This brings us to the second factor, that although it has declined in recent time mostly
amongst the youth, Christian orthodoxy has played a major role in Greek life. In effect, this
has generated many customs and traditions associated with Christianity that encompass and
preserve holidays in Greece such as Easter and Christmas. Thus, one could assume that
foreign influences, especially commercial influences on Christmas would not effectively
replace Greek approaches to the celebration of the season.
Once again through textual data we will now be able to view certain Greek traditions during
Christmas, as well as global features of Christmas for the purpose of depicting a process of
glocalization in Greece in terms of Christmas. Firstly, as one source presents ‘many of the
traditions of eons ago continue to exist unchanged, so Christmas in Greece maintains its
originality and many of the customs’ (explorecrete.com, 2012). Hence, one major Greek
tradition that has been preserved is the Nativity Fast which starts from November 15 and ends

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in Christmas Eve. Moreover, according to the ChristmasMagazine.com committing to fast
‘means abstaining from meat, eggs and dairy products as well as oil in a strict fast’
(ChristmasMagazine.com, 2012). In effect, WhyChristmas.com depicts how important
Midnight Mass Service before Christmas day is a significant practice during Christmas in
order to end the fast afterwards (WhyChristmas.com, 2012). This is an important tradition to
keep in mind since we are able to witness how the church still plays a significant role during
Christmas in Greece and the fact that this process continues today may indicate how a large
number of Greeks could perhaps be maintaining the religious aspect of Christmas over more
commercialized features.
Another maintained custom during Christmas in Greece is the ‘Christopsomo’ (IMAGE 1) or
Christ bread which ‘has a cross and symbols of the family’s occupation, on the top. The bread
and the dinner table must be blessed’ (ilearngreek.com, 2012). Additionally, the ‘kalada’ or
Christmas carols represent another maintained tradition, where ‘at dawn on Christmas Eve,
the children in groups go from door to door to sing the kalada’ (Ibid). Lastly, one more
custom during Christmas, but which some of its aspects have diminished recently, is
‘ayiasmos’ or blessing. As ChristmasMagazine.com states ‘throughout the “dodekaimera” or
Twelve days of Christmas it is of interest to note that all houses are vulnerable to a malicious
type of elf/pixy called the “kallikantzaroi” (IMAGE 2) who play tricks on housewives, put
out the fire and urinate on the Christmas food if it is not covered at night’
(ChristmasMagazine.com, 2012). Thus, in order to be protected from these kallikantzaroi, on
the Eve of the Epiphany a priest will sprinkle holy water on the houses as he passes by to
expel the evil doers, and this is called ‘ayiasmos’ (ChristmasMagazine.com, 2012). These
three Greek traditions may display the significance of family (home) and religion (church)
during the Christmas holidays, a feature that is declining in other parts of the world.

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IMAGE 1 IMAGE 2
However, as Explorecrete.com states ‘Christmas in Greece, or “the holidays”, are not what
they were 40 years ago. Over the years we notice a universal culture developing as the
western European customs spread more and more change’ (Explorecrete.com, 2012). This is
further supported through the article of in2greece.com which explains that ‘the past few
years, by following western fashion, more and more Greek houses are decorated with
Christmas lights, reindeer, slays, and Santa Claus figures that sing Christmas carols’
(in2greece.com, 2008). Furthermore, this article also states that apart from houses, retail
outlets are now following the trend of Western Europe and begin to sell Christmas products
in early November’ (Ibid).
In effect, we may begin to observe the glocalization or even globalization effect, as globally
followed concepts of Christmas begin to enter and influence different countries. However,
one major key factor that guides one to follow the notion of glocalization is the fact that
today in Greece for instance, these global concepts have not replaced but instead attached and
co-exist with certain local customs and concepts and thus creates a mixture of traditions
similar to a glocalization process. Additionally, one example that may have played a role in
preserving certain Greek customs is the ‘determination from certain quarters in Greece to
resist “imported” Christmas traditions. Since 1999, Thessaloniki – Greece’s second-largest
city – has been erecting a giant illuminated ship in December as a nod of the importance of
the sea in Greece’s culture and history’ (Robertsonlanguages.co.uk, 2011) (IMAGE 3).

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IMAGE 3
4.3 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW ANALYSIS
As noted in the methodology, 7 random people were chosen for a semi-structured interview
in order to obtain primary first-hand data concerning Christmas in Greece. Two preconditions
were constructed; the first being the requirement of the interviewee to be of Greek origin and
the second favouring older age people to be chosen in order for effective knowledge of
Christmas in the past in Greece. Gender did not play a significant role although it was found
that female interviewees had more knowledge to share in terms of family and house customs,
shopping and preparations during Christmas, whereas male interviewees had more to say
about the commercial transformation of Christmas in Greece. Within these interviews three
themes were identified as they overlapped each other; food, religion, and family. These three
themes will be revealed below. Additionally, one factor that influenced interviewee answers
and perceptions was the location that they lived or celebrated Christmas at. (FIGURE 1)

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From the people interviewed, four were from/or celebrated Christmas in major cities such as
Athens and Thessaloniki (interviewees A), one was from/or celebrated Christmas in a
provincial town (interviewee B), and two were from/or celebrated Christmas in villages
(interviewees C). This categorization is interesting as it was found that within the selected
sample of people, people located further away from major cities, depicted Christmas in
Greece in the past and present as original and separate from other countries as they celebrated
many Greek customs and managed to preserve quite a few with only gift-giving, colourful
lights, and in one case Santa Claus. Such an observation was formed based on discussions
such as with one interviewee (C) from a village stating that
‘We always considered Christmas a religious celebration; we would fast for
40 days and attend midnight mass on Christmas Eve. On Christmas day we
would spend the day with family and relatives and end the night at a village
feast.’
This interviewee gave the impression that in that village Christmas may have been affected to
a lesser extent by global commercial aspects of Christmas. As a result, Greek traditions and
40%
10%
20%
FIGURE 1
LOCATION
Major Cities (Athens, Thessaloniki) Provincial Towns Villages

Page | 45
customs of Christmas may have been more dominant and maintained over western concepts,
as another interviewee (C) indicated that
‘Although commercial aspects of Christmas like in Athens, are known in our
village, we tend to adopt just one or two features to satisfy the children; that is
why we buy them presents and tell them the story of Santa Claus, but we also
tell them the Greek version.’
In discussing the issue of Santa Claus and its Greek version, one may understand the link it
has with boats being decorated instead of Christmas trees, and why this concept has not
entirely been replaced by western influences. In asking interviewees about any changes in
Christmas features in Greece over the past 30 to 40 years, one interviewee (A) answered
‘in Greek tradition, Saint Nicholas was a protector of ships and sailors, and
sailors believed that caring an icon of Saint Nicholas on board will guide
them safely to their destination. Nowadays though the youth especially, know
the western Santa Claus and prefer him’.
For this reason Greeks used to decorate small or even large boats with lights associating it to
Saint Nicholas and the culture of Greece that always incorporated the sea from ancient time.
It is important to note that even though the awareness and appreciation of Saint Nicholas
during Christmas may be of less importance nowadays, the decorating of a boat still occurs in
many parts of Greece to this day. Thus, one may argue that according to trend and preference
certain local and global concepts of Christmas are adopted and kept and some are replaced
and resisted, resulting in a mixture of local and global features.

Page | 46
In discussing Greek features of Christmas that still exist today and are uniquely different
from other countries, one key feature is the food and the feast on Christmas day which
interlinks with the theme of family. As one interviewee (A) stated
‘on Christmas day we usually gather with family and many relatives around a large
table with many traditional home cooked dishes and sweets such as yiaprakia,
Christmas hog(pork), melomakarona (IMAGE 4) and kourabiedes (IMAGE 5), which
are prepared days before’.
IMAGE 4 IMAGE 5
One may observe that Greek culture surrounding food which is well-known around Europe
has influenced not only what Greeks eat during Christmas, but also the way they eat. In other
words, a Christmas feast in Greece may include family and relatives of fifteen to twenty
people spending effort in making traditional dishes, and spending hours eating and
conversing with each other. Whereas a more western way of eating on Christmas day is more
limited in the number of family members and number of dishes and time spent over it; as one
interviewee (B) said
‘on Christmas day we have a feast like those feasts in ancient Greece
celebrating the God Dionysus’
Something that may have faded in other countries.

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Another difference in celebrating Christmas from other countries is the way in which
Christmas was spent with family and friends. One interviewee (A) described
‘We wake up early in the morning and around 6.30-7am we arrive at church
for service. Then we return home and prepare the table and house for
Christmas lunch while the kids are out from the morning going to houses to
sing Christmas carols. We spend the rest of the day at home with family and
relatives unless we decide sometimes to go to Sintagma Square to see the
large Christmas tree and walk along the coffee shops and stores’.
Firstly, it is of great interest that certain interviewees did not mention gift-giving on
Christmas day unless I asked them directly. Secondly, Christmas day here seems to be
centred on religion, food/feast and family/relatives and less on commercial or western aspects
such as presents, Christmas parades, house Christmas decoration, and Santa Claus. However,
this does not mean that these western concepts are eradicated from Greek culture.
The question that raised much conversation as well as emotions was that of changes that have
occurred to the celebration of Christmas in Greece. Firstly, one interviewee (A) indicated that
‘There was no such thing as Christmas Eve celebration. People would only
gather at church for midnight mass and then return home. Nowadays however,
after church for instance, people book a table at a restaurant or even a hotel
for late dinner’
Another interviewee (C) felt irritated and expressed that
‘in the past almost everyone would fast for 40 days which would end on
Christmas Eve where we would end the night by reading Greek Christmas
stories to the children especially the stories of Alexi Papadiamandi. Today

Page | 48
however, all I see are Christmas parties at clubs, hotels and bouzoukia
(traditional Greek music)’.
Such a change may have been triggered from the influence of western Christmas concepts
depicted especially on Hollywood movies. However, these changes were not considered
negative to all Greeks, as one interviewee (A) stated that
‘yes today most Greeks have adopted Santa Claus, giving presents, famous
Christmas songs and the Christmas tree, because it makes us feel more
connected to the world but at the same time we keep our pride to be Greek by
not overdoing it’.
This last sentence may be better understood when connected to a comment from another
interviewee (A) concerning the Christmas tree, indicating that
‘we do put up a Christmas tree a few days before Christmas days and
decorate it with photographs of the family, cotton wool for snow, and acorns
rapped in colourful shiny paper.’
One may thus view that perhaps local and global features are mixed in a certain way that
provides a balance between the global connection of people and their local identity.
Therefore, these interviews could support the given textual data in the argument that through
Christmas in Greece we are able to observe a process of glocalization that could be evident in
other parts of life as well.
However, one limitation should be noted; that since Easter is considered more important and
is celebrated more than Christmas in Greece, information provided on Christmas was not as
much as one would find in other countries such as the USA.

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4.4 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this chapter explored various textual data in terms of online magazines and
sources, in order to depict Christmas traditions and features that occur in Greece in contrast to
other more western Anglo-US trends, and to observe how these Greek features (although
some have been replaced) have come to co-exist and mix with the global more Anglo-US
features. In effect, it was argued that through this observation, the process of glocalization
could be seen as neither did western Christmas features spread throughout Greece (to all
villages) and replace local ones, nor did all Greek traditions manage to prevail over time and
“imported” Christmas customs.
Moreover, to support this argument, semi-structured interviews in the form of five flexible
and circumstantial questions, where seven interviewees were selected at random with the
prerequisites that they are of Greek origin and preferable of older age in order to provide the
correct information needed for the interviews to be effective. Thus, once these interviews
were conducted, information was obtained that depicted the lives of common Greek citizens
during Christmas holidays both in the past and present. Through this information, differences
and similarities of Greek celebrations towards western trends were presented that portrayed
an image resembling the Christmas feasts in ancient Rome before Christianity transformed it,
however, the difference being that this image also contained a more religious aspect with the
Greek orthodox church playing a major role. On the other hand, these interviews also
depicted how some western features were adopted by Greeks in order to feel more connected
with the world and more importantly for the pleasure of their children and the youth in
general.
This point is important as it reveals that to some extent a process of globalization may be
visible in the sense that the youth of Greece could be transforming the country to follow more

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globalized trends in the future. Nevertheless, in current circumstances we are able to
positively observe a process of glocalization as some western customs and features of
Christmas are accepted and mixed with local Greek traditions, and thus although western
features are used, they are celebrated in a recognisably Greek way.

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CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 TRENDS OF GLOBALIZATION
Many writers such as Held (2000), Stiglitz (2002) and Harvey (2007), continue to support the
argument that in today’s world a process of globalization is increasingly taking place and
according to some it is an inevitable consequence. National economies seem to be converging
worldwide, international trade is operating freely and major Multinational Corporations
(MNC’s) have become increasingly more powerful than nation-states and could represent the
new decision-makers of the world, replacing perhaps to some extent the power of
governments. Consequently, the pro-globalists argue that,
‘The rising “tide” of globalization will “lift all boats”; human material
wellbeing will be enhanced. Although the neo-liberal pro-globalizers
recognize that such a state of perfection hasn’t yet been achieved, the major
problem, in their view, is that there is too little, rather than too much,
globalization. Globalization is the solution to the world’s economic problems
and inequalities’ (Dicken, 2007:6)
On the other hand however, there are sceptics such as Hirst (2009) who questions such
arguments and ideologies, and presented certain factors that contradict to an extent the
arguments of pro-globalists. First, Hirst (2009) argues that ‘genuinely transnational
companies appear to be relatively rare. Most companies are based nationally and trade
regionally or multinationally on the strength of a major national location of assets, production
and sales, and there seems to be no major tendency towards the growth of truly global

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companies’ (Hirst, 2009: 3). Thus, although we are aware of major brands and MNC’s such
as NIKE, Coca-Cola, Apple and Starbucks, there majority of companies worldwide seem to
“stay local” according to Hirst (2009). Second, capital mobility has only recently begun
shifting investment and employment from the advanced to the developing countries, and here
it is just a very few of the emerging economies that are benefiting. Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI) is still highly concentrated among the advanced industrial economies, and the Third
World remains marginal in both investment and trade’ (Ibid). Hence, this concept of
globalization and its perceived benefits are only spreading to certain countries and not to an
entirely global extent at this time. Third, Hirst (2009) states that ‘as some of the extreme
advocates of globalization recognize, the world economy is far from being genuinely global.
Rather trade, investment and financial flows are concentrated in the Triad of Europe,
japan/East Asia and North America, and this dominance seems set to continue’ (Ibid).
Nevertheless, keeping in mind Hirst’s arguments for later on in this chapter, if the process of
globalization would become a global reality in the future to come, then from a marketing
perspective, marketing concepts and operations could become similar to mass production and
standardization. Levitt (1983) stated that ‘if different cultures that previously required
markedly diverse products are steadily growing together – homogenising – then organizations
could benefit by producing a restricted range of products and services, actively promoting
these in much the same way across the globe’ (Ellis et al, 2011: 224). However, these
arguments are not of crucial importance for this research. One important thought to consider
would be the possibility and importance, from a marketing perspective, that a process of
glocalization is occurring and may continue to operate in the future.

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5.2 CHRISTMAS AND GLOCALIZATION
In the context of this dissertation, Christmas may represent more than a religious, family, or
commercial celebration. In effect, Whiteley (2008) states ‘the fixing of the Nativity by the
Roman state was as much a political act as a theological one’ (Whiteley, 2008:18). Moreover,
as Christmas was reinvented significantly with the industrial revolution, Whiteley (2008)
argues that ‘Christmas was invented first and foremost as a commercial event. Everything
that was revived or invented – decorations, cards, crackers, collections of carols, going to a
pantomime, visiting Santa Claus and buying presents – all had one thing in common: they
could be sold for profit’ (Ibid: 20). Therefore, the celebration of Christmas especially its
revived, expanded commercial version offers an interesting insight of the concept of
glocalization and its reality in today’s world.
Christmas under the pretext of a religious celebration, perhaps one might say through a
process of consumption, has, to a great extent, expanded from Western culture to most
countries in the world. In effect, most of these countries have indeed accepted and adopted
this celebration. As a result, the question arises; is this a choice people make? Or are they
influenced and persuaded to do so? The debate that occurs here is that of the sovereign
rational consumer and the irrational perspective. From the perspective of the marketing
concept, it is its belief in ‘the right of consumers to be free to choose from a selection of
options of what they buy, from where and from whom’ (Ellis et al, 2011: 67). Thus, almost
the entire concept of economies and markets are based on the notion that consumers are
rational actors and will practically calculate their choices in order to reach a decision. Hence,
it is the consumers’ choice to accept Western global concepts and features of Christmas.
On the other hand however, Ellis et al (2011) argue that ‘it has long been recognized that one
of the cultural contradictions of capitalism is that rationalized production processes exist

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