Computer Application and Agri Informatics

AST 201
Computer Application and Agri Informatics
Subham Mandal ( Student )
B.Sc Horticulture , 2nd year
Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya

Logic Gate | Universal Gate (NAND / NOR) | Binary Conversion Mind Map
Universal Gate : A universal gate is a type of logic gate, such as NAND or NOR, that can be used to implement any
other logic gate. They are called universal because they can perform all possible logic operations and are capable of
expressing any Boolean function.

Role of IT in the field of Agriculture ( 5 )
1. Farm Management Systems: These software solutions assist farmers in managing their farms effectively. They provide features such as crop planning,
resource management, inventory tracking, and record-keeping. Some popular farm management systems in India include AgriERP, FarmERP, and FarmLogs.
2. Crop Advisory Services: IT platforms offer crop advisory services to farmers, providing them with personalized recommendations based on weather
conditions, soil health, pest and disease management, and best agricultural practices. Companies like CropIn and AgroStar provide mobile applications and
helplines to deliver these services.
3. Precision Agriculture: Precision agriculture involves using technologies like Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Global Positioning Systems (GPS), and
remote sensing to optimize resource utilization and increase crop yield. It enables farmers to make informed decisions regarding irrigation, fertilization, and
pesticide application. Companies like Mahindra Agri Solutions and TAFE's iRide offer precision farming solutions.
4. Market Information Systems: These IT services provide farmers with real-time market information, including commodity prices, market demand, and supply
trends. Farmers can make informed decisions on crop selection, timing of sales, and identifying potential buyers. Examples include Agmarknet and e-NAM
(National Agricultural Market) platform.
5. Agri-financing Platforms: Several digital platforms connect farmers with financial institutions and provide them with access to credit, insurance, and other
financial services. Companies like AgriBazaar and GramCover facilitate easy access to loans, crop insurance, and assistance in insurance claim settlement.
6. E-commerce Platforms: Online marketplaces for agricultural produce enable farmers to directly connect with buyers, eliminating middlemen and improving
their income. Platforms like BigHaat, DeHaat, and Ninjacart provide a marketplace for farmers to sell their produce and access a wider customer base.
7. Supply Chain Management: IT services are used to optimize supply chain operations in agriculture. These solutions track the movement of goods from farm
to market, ensuring timely delivery, minimizing wastage, and improving efficiency. Companies like Ninjacart and WayCool Foods offer supply chain
management solutions.
8. Weather Forecasting: Accurate weather information is crucial for farmers. IT services provide real-time weather updates, forecasts, and early warning
systems for extreme weather events. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) offers weather information through its website and mobile apps.

Generations of Computer ( 10 )
1. First Generation
● The first generation of computers emerged in the 1940s and was characterized by the use of vacuum tubes for electronic circuitry.
● These computers were large, cumbersome, and consumed a significant amount of electricity.
● They relied on punched cards and magnetic tape for input and output.
● Examples include the ENIAC and UNIVAC machines.
2. Second Generation
● The second generation of computers marked a shift from vacuum tubes to transistors.
● Transistors were smaller, more reliable, and consumed less power compared to vacuum tubes.
● This led to the development of smaller and faster computers that were commercially viable.
● Magnetic core memory was introduced during this generation.
● Examples of second-generation computers include the IBM 1401 and DEC PDP-8.
3. Third Generation
● The third generation of computers saw the invention of integrated circuits (ICs), which integrated multiple transistors onto a single silicon chip.
● This generation also witnessed the development of high-level programming languages such as COBOL and FORTRAN.
● Mainframes and minicomputers became popular during this era.
● IBM System/360 and DEC VAX series are notable examples.
4. Fourth Generation
● The fourth generation of computers was characterized by the advent of microprocessors.
● Microprocessors combined the functions of the central processing unit (CPU) onto a single chip, making computers even more powerful and compact.
● Personal computers (PCs) became accessible to individuals, leading to a widespread revolution in computing.
● The development of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and the introduction of the mouse further enhanced user interaction.
● Examples include the Apple II, IBM PC, and Commodore 64.
5. Fifth Generation
● The fifth generation of computers is ongoing and is marked by advancements in parallel computing, artificial intelligence, and quantum computing.
● Parallel processing allows multiple processors to work simultaneously on a problem, significantly increasing computational speed.
● AI technologies, such as machine learning and natural language processing, have made significant progress.
● Quantum computers have the potential to solve complex problems exponentially faster than classical computers.
● This generation is still evolving, and new technologies continue to shape the future of computing.

CLASSIFICATION OF VARIOUS TYPES OF COMPUTER ( 10 )
Depending on the size of computers,
1) Micro computer:
● Small-sized computers utilizing microprocessors, with the CPU usually contained on one chip.
● Microcomputers have low storage capacity and are slow in operation.
● Initially used for dedicated applications like experimental control, following a fixed program for a single task.
● Word length : 8- 16/32 | CPU Speed : 500 KIPS | Storage capacity : 256kb - 16mb | Example : IBM-PC , Apple , BBC Micro
2) Mini computer:
● General-purpose computer systems with reduced storage capacity and performance compared to mainframes.
● Operate at CPU speeds of a few million instructions/sec.
● These computers can also accept all types of high-level languages, and their word length is 16 or 32 bits.
● They can support up to about 20 terminals.
● Word length : 16-32 | Storage capacity : 8-96 mb | Example : PDP 11 ,HP 2000
3) Mainframe computer:
● Large-scale general-purpose computer systems with origins in early, large-sized computers.
● Require a large framework for housing.
● Mainframes have large storage capacities in several million words, with secondary storage capacities in the order of several billion words.
● They have one or more CPUs and support a large number of terminals (up to 100 or more).
● Mainframes operate at high speeds (approx. 100 million instructions/sec) and can accept all types of high-level languages.
● Word length : 32-64 | CPU Speed : 30-100MIPS | Storage capacity : 8mb - 256mb | Example :HP 9000 , CYBER 170
4) Supercomputer:
● Large general-purpose computers capable of executing more than 100 million instructions/sec.
● They have a storage capacity of millions of bits.
● Supercomputers achieve high speeds by using multiple processors working in parallel,
● high storage densities are obtained through magnetic bubble memories and charge-coupled devices, reducing storage costs.
● Word length : 64-96 | CPU Speed : 400-10000 MIPS | Storage capacity :256 mb and more | Example :CRAY - XMP 14 , ETA 10

Depending on the principle of working,
1) Digital computer: All operations are done using binary digits & it operates by counting.
2) Analog Computer: The analog computer operates by measuring the electrical signals representing a physical process.
3) Hybrid computer: A hybrid computer is combination of both analog and digital computers. It can accept input data both in analog and digital form.
Depending on the processing mode,
1) Batch processing:
● Computer processes jobs in sequence from the reception.
● When one job finishes, another is taken from the queue.
● Users prepare a file of commands and request execution as a batch.
●
2) Time sharing:
● Allows all programs to have brief shares of the CPU in turn.
● Each job has a short period of sole control over the processor, known as a time slice or time slot (typically 10 milliseconds).
3) Multiprocessing:
● Each user has their own separate program in memory.
● The CPU rapidly switches between programs, giving the impression of individual computers while sharing one computer among multiple users.
● True multiprocessing has multiple CPUs sharing memory and peripherals.
● Loosely coupled systems assign jobs based on requirements and policies,
4) Multiprogramming:
● Useful for I/O bound programs, allowing multiple programs to reside in central memory simultaneously.
● While one program performs I/O operations, another program can be executed, increasing CPU utilization.

Primary Memory vs. Secondary Memory:
Primary Memory:
● - Also known as main memory
● - Directly accessible by the CPU.
● - Stores data and instructions that are actively used by the CPU
during program execution.
● - Volatile memory, or non volatile memory
● - Faster access speed compared to secondary memory.
● Provide a limited short storage for RAM but more storage in ROM
● - Examples include cache memory, register memory, and main
system memory (RAM), ROM.
Secondary Memory:
● - Also referred to as auxiliary memory or storage.
● - Indirectly accessible by the CPU, data needs to be transferred
between secondary memory and primary memory for processing
● - Used for long-term storage of data and programs, even when the
computer is powered off.
● - Non-volatile memory, retains data even when power is turned off.
● - Slower access speed compared to primary memory.
● - Provides larger storage capacity compared to primary memory.
● - Examples include hard disk drives (HDD), solid-state drives
(SSD), optical disks (CDs, DVDs), and flash drives (USB drives).

RAM V/S ROM
RAM (Random Access Memory):
● - RAM stands for Random Access Memory.
● - Volatile memory, meaning its contents are lost when the computer
is powered off or restarted.
● - Used for temporary storage of data and program instructions that
are actively being used by the CPU.
● - Allows for random access and modification of data.
● - Provides faster read and write speeds compared to secondary
storage devices.
● - Data can be read from and written to RAM.
● - Common types of RAM include DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM
(Static RAM).
ROM (Read-Only Memory):
● - ROM stands for Read-Only Memory.
● - It is a type of non-volatile memory.Retains its contents even when
the computer is powered off or restarted.
● - Contains permanent or semi-permanent instructions or data that are
typically not modified during normal computer operation.
● - Data stored in ROM cannot be easily modified or deleted.
● - Allows for read-only access to the stored information.
● - Provides slower access speeds compared to RAM.
● - Common types of ROM include PROM (Programmable ROM),
EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM), and EEPROM (Electrically
Erasable Programmable ROM).

Secondary Storage Devices and Their Functionalities:
1) Hard Disk Drive (HDD):
1. Hard disk drive is made up of
a series of circular disks
called platters arranged one
over the other almost ½
inches apart around a
spindle.
2. Disks are made of
non-magnetic material like
aluminum alloy and coated
with 10-20 nm of magnetic
material.
3. Provides high storage
capacity at a relatively low
cost.
4. Suitable for long-term storage
of large amounts of data,
such as operating systems,
software applications, and
user files.
2) Solid-State Drive (SSD):
1. -Uses flash memory
technology to store data
electronically.
2. Faster access speed
compared to HDDs.
3. More durable and
shock-resistant due to the
absence of moving parts.
4. Ideal for improving overall
system performance by
storing frequently accessed
data.
3) Optical Disks (CDs, DVDs,
Blu-ray):
1. Utilizes laser technology to
read and write data on optical
disks.
2. Provides portable storage
and distribution of data.
3. CDs and DVDs are
commonly used for music,
movies, software installation,
and data backup.
4. Blu-ray discs offer higher
storage capacity and are
commonly used for
high-definition video content.
4) Flash Drives (USB drives):
1. Uses laser technique
2. Compact, portable storage
devices using flash memory
technology.
3. Provide convenient and
portable storage for personal
files, documents, and media.
4. Plug-and-play functionality
allows easy transfer of data
between different computers.
5. Also known as PEN
drive…mostly used now days

1. Register with types:
Registers are small, high-speed memory units within the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. They are used to store temporary data and
instructions that are actively being executed or manipulated by the CPU. Registers are typically built directly into the CPU and are faster to access
compared to main memory.
● 1) Instruction register (IR): It contains the instruction that is being executed. Its output is fed to the control circuit, which generate the
timing signals for control of the actual processing circuits needed to execute the instruction.
● 2) Program counter (PC): It keeps track of the execution of the program & contains the memory address of the instruction currently
being executed.
● 3) Memory address registers (MAR): it holds the address of the location from which data is to be transferred.
● 4) Memory data register (MDR): It contains the data to be read or written of the addressed location.
● 5) General register (GR): It is a set of register where each register can function as an accumulator.
2. Cache memory:
- Small, fastest
memory between
CPU and main
memory.
- Stores frequently
accessed data and
instructions.
- Reduces access
time from slower
main memory.
3. Virtual memory:
- Memory
management
technique.
- Uses secondary
storage as an
extension of RAM.
- Creates illusion of
larger memory
space.
4. Protected memory:
- Isolates
programs/processes
from each other.
- Enhances stability
and security.
- Prevents
interference with
other programs.
5. Static memory:
- Allocated and
reserved during
compile/linking.
- Retains memory
throughout program
execution.
- Used for global
variables and
constants.
6. Dynamic memory:
- Allocated and
released during
runtime.
- Provides flexibility
and efficient
memory utilization.
- Used for dynamic
data structures

INTERNET
1. HTML:
- HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language and is the standard language for creating web pages.
- It defines the structure and content of a webpage, including headings, paragraphs, links, images, and other elements.
- HTML uses tags to mark up different parts of the content, allowing web browsers to interpret and display the page correctly.
- It is the foundation of the World Wide Web and is essential for creating and designing websites.
2. HTTP:
- HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol and is the protocol used for communication between a web browser and a web server.
- It enables the retrieval of resources such as HTML documents, images, videos, etc., by establishing a request-response model.
- HTTP operates on top of the TCP/IP protocol and typically uses port 80 for communication.
- It is a stateless protocol, meaning each request-response cycle is independent of previous interactions.
3. HTTPS:
- HTTPS stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure and is an extension of HTTP that provides secure communication over the internet.
- It adds an extra layer of encryption using SSL/TLS protocols to protect sensitive information transmitted between the web browser and web server.
- HTTPS uses port 443 instead of port 80 used by HTTP.
- It is commonly used for secure transactions, such as online banking, e-commerce, and any other activity requiring data privacy and integrity.
4. Web browser:
- A web browser is a software application that allows users to access and navigate the World Wide Web.
- It retrieves and displays webpages, interprets HTML, executes scripts, and renders multimedia content.
- Popular web browsers include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, Safari, and Opera.
- Web browsers also support additional features like bookmarks, tabbed browsing, and extensions to enhance the browsing experience.
5. Web server:
- A web server is a computer program or hardware device that hosts websites and serves webpages to client requests.
- It responds to HTTP requests from web browsers, retrieves the requested resources, and sends them back to the client.
- Web servers store website files, such as HTML, CSS, JavaScript, images, and videos, and make them accessible over the internet.
- Popular web server software includes Apache HTTP Server, NGINX, Microsoft IIS, and LiteSpeed.

6. IP and how it works:
- IP stands for Internet Protocol and is a fundamental protocol used for communication between devices on the internet.
- It provides a unique address for each device, known as an IP address, which allows data to be sent and received.
- IP works in conjunction with other protocols, such as TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), to enable reliable data transmission.
- IP addresses can be either IPv4 (32-bit) or IPv6 (128-bit) and are used to route data packets across networks.
7. URL:
- URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator and is the address used to locate resources on the web.
- It specifies the protocol (HTTP, HTTPS), domain name (e.g., www.example.com), and optional path or query parameters.
- URLs can be used to access webpages, files, images, videos, or any other resource available on the internet.
- For example, "https://www.example.com/contact" is a URL that directs the browser to the contact page of the example.com website.
8. WWW:
- WWW stands for World Wide Web and refers to the collection of interconnected websites and webpages accessible via the internet.
- It was developed by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 and popularized the concept of hyperlinks for navigating between different resources.
- The WWW uses protocols such as HTTP and HTTPS to facilitate the exchange of information over the internet.
- It has become an integral part of modern society, providing access to vast amounts of information, services, and
9.TCP:
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a reliable and connection-oriented protocol that ensures the ordered and error-checked delivery of data over
IP networks.
2. It breaks data into packets, numbers and sequences them, and reassembles them at the receiving end to maintain data integrity.
3. TCP uses a three-way handshake process to establish and terminate connections between devices.
10.FTP:
1. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a standard network protocol used for transferring files between a client and a server on a computer network.
2. It allows users to upload, download, and manage files on remote servers, providing a convenient way to share and exchange files.
3. FTP operates on a client-server architecture, where the client connects to the server using port 21, and it supports authentication for secure access
to specific directories and files.

Computer Operating System (OS):
An operating system is a software that manages and controls computer hardware and software resources.
It provides a set of services and functions to facilitate the execution of programs, manage memory, handle input/output devices, and provide a user interface for
interaction with the computer.
Some popular OS software used in present days:
1. Microsoft Windows: Windows 10, Windows 11
2. macOS: macOS Mojave, macOS Big Sur
3. Linux: Ubuntu, Fedora, CentOS
4. Android: Mobile OS used in smartphones and tablets
5. iOS: Mobile OS used in iPhones and iPads
6. Chrome OS: Operating system used in Chromebooks
Functions of the Operating System:
1. Process Management:
- Control access to shared resources (file, memory, I/O, CPU)
- Control execution of applications
- Create, execute, and delete processes
- Cancel or resume processes
- Schedule processes
- Handle synchronization, communication, and deadlock for processes
4. Device Management:
- Open, close, and write device drivers
- Communicate, control, and monitor device drivers
2. Memory Management:
- Allocate memory
- Free memory
- Reallocate memory to programs
- Track memory usage
5. Protection and Security:
- Protect system resources
- User authentication
- File attributes (read, write, encryption)
- Data backup
3. File Management:
- Create and delete files and directories
- Provide access to files
- Allocate space for files
- Backup files
- Secure files
6. User Interface or Command Interpreter:
- Provide interface between user and hardware
- Set of commands or graphical user interface for user interaction with applications and
hardware

Type of Operating System
1. Batch Operating System: Users submit jobs on punch cards, which are batched together and run as a group. Limited user interaction, CPU idle
time, and difficulty providing priority. User prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator.
2. Time Sharing Operating System : Multiple users share CPU time, providing quick response and reducing idle time. Processor's time is shared
among multiple users simultaneously.
3. Distributed Operating System: Uses multiple processors to serve real-time applications and users. Resource sharing, faster data exchange,
fault tolerance, and load reduction. Multiple central processors are used to serve multiple real-time applications and multiple users.
1. Client-Server Systems
2. Peer-to-Peer Systems
4. Network Operating System: Runs on servers, enabling shared file and printer access in a network. Centralized stability, security, and remote
access. Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage data and other networking functions.
5. Real-Time Operating System: Executes programs with multitasking, scheduling, hardware abstraction, and communication. Used in electronic
devices with a minimal user interface. Time interval required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment.
6. Clustered Operating System: Connected computers sharing storage via LAN. Combines distributed OS and multiprocessor system features.
7. Handheld Operating System: Mobile OS for smartphones and tablets. Combines PC OS features with mobile-specific functions like
touchscreens, cellular connectivity, GPS, etc.

FLOW CHART
A flowchart is a visual representation or diagram that illustrates the sequence of steps or actions in a process or algorithm using various symbols and arrows
to show the flow of control.

Draw a flow-chart to find the largest among three numbers A, B, C and develop an algorithm from the
drawn flow-chart.
Algorithm :
Firstly we will start with reading all three numbers. Consider the three numbers be A, B and C. we will compare first two numbers A > B?
If A > B is true we will compare A with C. | If A > C is true then A is the largest number. | If A > C is false then C is the largest number.
If A > B is false we will compare B with C. | If B > C is true then B is the largest number. | If B > C is false then C is the largest number.
After getting the results the flowchart gets terminated
Diagram:

Software
Software refers to the collection of programs, data, and instructions that enable a computer system to perform specific tasks or functions. It is intangible
and includes applications, operating systems, and other programs that run on computer hardware.
Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system that can be touched and seen. It includes devices such as the central processing unit
(CPU), memory, storage devices, input/output devices, and other physical components that work together to support the execution of software.
1. System Software: System software is designed to manage and operate computer hardware. Examples include:
- Operating Systems: Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, iOS.
- Device Drivers: Software that allows the operating system to communicate with hardware devices like printers, graphics cards, etc.
- Firmware: Software embedded in hardware devices, such as BIOS in a computer.
2. Application Software: Application software is used to perform specific tasks or provide specific services to users. Examples include:
- Word Processors: Microsoft Word, Google Docs.
- Spreadsheets: Microsoft Excel, Google Sheets.
- Web Browsers: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox.
- Multimedia Players: VLC Media Player, iTunes.
- Graphic Design Software: Adobe Photoshop, CorelDRAW.
- Video Editing Software: Adobe Premiere Pro, Final Cut Pro.
3. Programming Software: Programming software is used to develop, debug, and maintain software applications. Examples include:
- Integrated Development Environments (IDEs): Visual Studio, Eclipse, Xcode.
- Text Editors: Notepad++, Sublime Text, Atom.

Language
1. Assembly Language:
- Definition: Low-level language using mnemonics for machine instructions.
- Application: Embedded systems, device drivers, operating systems.
- Advantage: Control, optimization for specific tasks.
- Disadvantage: Architecture-specific, less portable, complex syntax.
- Example: Intel x86 Assembly Language, ARM Assembly Language.
2. Machine Language:
- Definition: Lowest-level language consisting of binary instructions.
- Application: CPU execution, program translation.
- Advantage: Direct hardware control, efficiency.
- Disadvantage: Difficult to read/write, architecture-specific, non-portable.
- Example: Binary machine code specific to a particular processor.
3. High-Level Language:
- Definition: Human-readable language with abstractions.
- Application: Application development, web development, scientific computing.
- Advantage: Readability, productivity, code reuse.
- Disadvantage: Potential performance overhead, limited hardware access, interpreter/compiler dependency.
- Example: C, C++, Java, Python, Ruby.
4. Scripting Languages: Scripting languages are used to automate tasks and provide a high-level interface for executing commands. They are often
interpreted and are commonly used for web development, system administration, and automation. Examples include JavaScript, Perl, PHP, and Ruby.
5. Object-Oriented Languages: Object-oriented languages are based on the concept of objects, which encapsulate data and the operations that can be
performed on them. They promote modular and reusable code and provide features like inheritance, encapsulation, and polymorphism. Examples include
Java, C++, C#, and Python.
6. Markup Languages: Markup languages are used to annotate and structure text for presentation or data exchange. They use tags to define elements and
their attributes. Examples include HTML (Hypertext Markup Language), XML (eXtensible Markup Language), and Markdown.

BLOCK DIAGRAM & Component
- CPU (Central Processing Unit): The CPU is the primary component of a computer responsible for executing instructions and performing calculations. It
consists of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), control unit (CU), and registers. The CPU fetches, decodes, and executes instructions, and performs various
operations on data.
- CU (Control Unit): The Control Unit is a component of the CPU that manages and coordinates the activities of the other components. It controls the flow of
data and instructions within the CPU and communicates with other devices. The control unit interprets instructions, generates control signals, and directs the
operation of the ALU and other units.
- ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): The ALU is a part of the CPU that performs arithmetic and logical operations on data. It handles mathematical calculations, such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It also performs logical operations, such as comparisons and bitwise operations.
- Memory Unit : A memory unit is a component in a computer system that stores and retrieves data and instructions. It provides temporary or permanent
storage for data and instructions that are actively used by the CPU during program execution.
- PCB (Process Control Block): The Process Control Block, also known as the Task Control Block, is a data structure used by the operating system to manage
and store information about a process. It contains information such as the process state, program counter, register values, memory allocation, and other
details necessary for process management. The PCB allows the operating system to track and control the execution of processes.

System Call
A system call is a mechanism provided by the operating system that allows user-level processes to request services from the
kernel. It serves as an interface between user applications and the underlying operating system, enabling programs to perform
privileged operations and access system resources.
Types
1. Process Control System Calls: Create, terminate, and manipulate processes (e.g., fork(), exec(), exit()).
2. File Management System Calls: Create, open, read, write, and close files (e.g., open(), read(), close()).
3. Device Management System Calls: Access and control devices (e.g., read(), write(), ioctl()).
4. Information Maintenance System Calls: Retrieve system and process information (e.g., getpid(), getcwd(), stat()).
5. Communication System Calls: Facilitate inter-process communication and synchronization (e.g., pipe(), socket(), send(), recv()).
6. Memory Management System Calls: Manage memory allocation and deallocation (e.g., malloc(), free(), mmap()).

IF…THEN…ELSE, WHILE…WEND, FOR…NEXT, DO…LOOP, GOTO. ( 5 )
1. IF...THEN...ELSE: A conditional statement that allows the program to execute one block of code if a condition is true and another block of code if the
condition is false.
10 IF condition THEN
20 ' code to execute if condition is true
30 ELSE
40 ' code to execute if condition is false
50 ENDIF
2. WHILE...WEND: A loop statement that allows the program to repeat a block of code while a condition is true.
10 WHILE condition
20 ' code to repeat while condition is true
30 WEND
3. FOR...NEXT: A loop statement that allows the program to repeat a block of code for a specified number of times.
10 FOR variable = start TO end [STEP step]
20 ' code to repeat
30 NEXT variable
4. DO...LOOP:
DO...LOOP WHILE: The code block is executed while the condition is true. The condition is checked at the beginning of the loop.
DO WHILE condition
' code to repeat
LOOP
DO...LOOP UNTIL: The code block is executed first, and then the condition is checked. The loop continues while the condition is false.
DO
‘ code to repeat
LOOP UNTIL condition
5. GOTO: A statement that allows the program to jump to a specified line number or label.
10 GOTO label or line number

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