This document discusses concepts in philosophy. It begins by defining a concept as a constituent of thought. It then outlines key aspects of a metaphysical account of concepts, including their identity conditions and distinction between simple and complex concepts. It also discusses epistemological accounts of concept possession, acquisition, and categorization. The document then discusses the concept of educational philosophy and theory, noting the philosophical underpinnings of educational research. It argues that philosophical reflection is central to educational research methodology. Finally, it discusses different approaches philosophers can take to conceptual or linguistic analysis in educational thought and practice.

1. 1. Introduction to philosophy:
Definition:
The word research itself is a combination of “re” and “search,” which is meant by a systematic
investigation to gain a new knowledge from already existing facts.
Frankly speaking, research may be defined as a scientific understanding of existing knowledge and
deriving a new knowledge to be applied for the betterment of the mankind.
According to Werner von Braun ( a german philosopher ) ,“Research is what I’m doing when I don’t
know what I’m doing”. It is basically search for truth/ facts.
The significant contribution of Research deals with the progress of the nation as well as an individual
with commercial, social, and educational advantages.
Albert Szent Gyorgyi (Hungarian Biochemist, Nobel Prize – 1937) writes “Research is to see what
everybody else has seen and think what nobody has thought”.
Research may be an important parameter to judge the development of any nation/generation.
According to Clifford Woody (American philosopher, 1939), “Research comprises of defining and
redefining problems, formulating the hypothesis for suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and
evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusion and further testing the conclusion
whether they fit into formulating the hypothesis.”
There are various objectives behind undertaking research by individuals as well as various
organizations/universities.
Some philosophical objectives behind any research include:
• To propose and test certain hypotheses to provide causal relationships between certain variables.
• To discover and establish the existence of relationship, association, and independence between two
or more aspects of a particular situation or phenomenon.
• To understand different phenomenon and develop new perceptions about it
• To study and describe accurately the characteristics of situations, problems, phenomena,
• Services, groups, or individuals.
• To explain unexplored horizons of knowledge.

2. • To test reported findings and conclusions on new data and novel conclusions on previously
Reported data.
• To study the frequency of research that is connected with unspecified objectives.
As a long process, the main driving factor of research is motivation and passion.
 For some researchers and post-graduate students, the main objective behind the research
remains to earn a degree.
 For organizations including defense and research laboratories, research is an important aspect
for the nation and sustainability.
 To the philosophers and thinkers, research means the outlet for new ideas and insights.
 Whereas to the intellectual people research can be the development of new styles and creative
work.
Failure is an inevitable step in the research phase, but may be a pillar of success.
Creativity, good written and verbal communication skills and in-depth knowledge of the
subject are essential for successful completion of research work.
A researcher should have sound fundamental knowledge of the domain to be undertaken.
A querying attitude is one of the important factors.
Important ingredients for a good researcher are.
 Dedication and Commitment.
 Consistency and Patience.
 Good Written Communication.
 Domain Knowledge.
 Good Verbal Communication.
 Creativity.
Main research types include:

3. • Basic Research:
✓ pure or fundamental research;
✓ no immediate need;
✓ new theories can be added to the knowledge cluster;
✓ may solve problems but may not have practical applications;
✓ broader scope as compared to applied research.
• Applied Research:
✓ tries to solve an immediate specific problem faced by industry or society;
✓ obtained solution can be deployed to solve the problem;
✓ duration of is shorter as a quick solution is expected;
✓ optimized search type problem (e.g. engineering domain);
✓ either address the unsolved problem or improve the existing solution.
• Descriptive Research:
✓ used in business analysis or social problems;
✓ does not have any control over the parameters or variables;
✓ just tries to represent or analyze the previous and or current facts;
✓ Correlation methods, survey methods, and comparative studies are used.
• Analytical Research:
✓ uses existing information to explain a complex phenomenon or to perform a critical
Evaluation;
✓ identified hypothesis can be accepted or rejected depending on the analysis;
✓ from experience the hypothesis can be redefined;
✓ observed in historical study, forensic work, food, in the medical domain etc.;
✓ summarizes and evaluates the ideas in historical research for accessing both witness
and literature sources to document past events;

4. ✓ data can be presented to support the data in comprehensive model.
• Correlation Research:
✓ focuses on exploring the relationship or association between incidences, variables;
✓ from the collected data, researchers may come up with number of observations and
analytics.
• Qualitative Research:
✓ mainly deals with the quality or the types of the parameters considered for the
research;
✓ differences in the parameter may occur with time;
✓ related to human behavior;
✓ more complicated and requires more guidance;
✓ less emphasis is given on generalization and more focus is towards individual;
✓ focus of the work is to find results with respect to qualitative parameters.
• Quantitative Research:
✓ involves measurements of quantities of characteristics that can be used as features
for the research study;
✓ assumes that the world is stable and uses statistical analysis on parameter values for
Conclusions;
✓ statistical quantities that can be measured are involved.
• Experimental Research:
✓ focuses on the fieldwork and experiments that can control the independent variable;
✓ can be tested and trained with pre- and post - experimental research design.
• Explanatory Research:
✓ tries to analyze and justify the reason behind the occurrence of particular
Phenomenon or association between the variables;

5. ✓ answers the “Why” type of questions;
✓ aims to explain why a relationship, association, or interdependence exist;
✓ a causal research with three important components like time-to-time sequences
which will occur before the effect, concomitant variations, where the variations will
be systematic between two variables.
• Exploratory Research:
✓ explores the areas that have required meagre attention;
✓ for checking the possibility of research in the particular domain or area.
✓ a small-scale study is done to decide the further scope of advancement in domain.
✓ Depending on outcomes of study, domain is further explored for in depth research
on the specific topic.
The Nature and Scope of Philosophy
1. Nature of Philosophy
Philosophy literally means ‘love of wisdom’. It is an attempt to arrive at a rational conception
of the reality as a whole.
It enquires into the nature of the universe in which we live, the nature of the human soul, and
its destiny, and the nature of God or the Absolute, and their relation to one another.
It enquires into the nature of matter, time, space, causality, evolution, life, and mind, and their
relation to one another.
It is the art of thinking all things logically, systematically, and persistently. It is the art of
thinking rationally and systematically of the reality as a whole.
Plato rightly conceived of philosophy as the persistent attempt to seek clear notions.
It examines, clarifies, and explains popular and scientific concepts of matter, space, time,
causality, evolution, mechanism, teleology, life, mind or soul, God or the Absolute, right and
wrong, good and evil, beauty and ugliness, arid the like, and arrives at a rational conception
of the reality. Clarification of concepts is the task of philosophy.
Philosophy is the critical analysis of the popular and scientific concepts, and the discovery of
their relations to one another.
It is a rational attempt to integrate our knowledge and interpret and unify our experiences.
It systematizes our scientific knowledge, and moral, aesthetic and religious experiences.

6. It analyses the popular and scientific concepts, examines their validity in the light of reason,
and interrelates them to one another.
Its method is logical and rational. Its chief instrument is logic. Its method is rational
speculation—logical analysis and synthesis.
Philosophy is the rational attempt to have a world-view.
It endeavours to reach a conception of the entire universe with all its elements and aspects
and their interrelations to one another. It is not contented with a partial view of the world.
It seeks to have a synoptic view of the whole reality it tries to have a vision, of the whole.
The different sciences deal with different departments of the world.
Mathematical sciences deal with numbers and figures. Physics deals with heat, light, motion,
sound, electricity and magnetism.
Chemistry deals with chemical phenomena. Astronomy deals with the phenomena of
heavenly bodies. Botany deals with Phenomena of plant life.
Zoology deals with the phenomena of animal life. Physiology deals with the functions of the
various organs of the animal and human organisms.
Psychology deals with the phenomena, of mental life. Sociology deals with the structure and
growth of the society and its institutions.
Economics deals with wealth and welfare of man. Politics deals with the structure and
functions of the State and its various organs.
Ethics deals with nature of the highest good, rights, duties, and virtues. Logic deals with truth
and the conditions of its attainment.
A Esthetics deals with beauty and its appreciation. The positive or natural sciences deal with
facts, events or phenomena by the laws of nature.
Mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, botany, zoology, physiology, sociology and
psychology are positive or ideals.
Ethics,’ Logic and AEsthetics are normative sciences, which seek to explain certain mental
phenomena by norms or ideals.
Truth is the ideal of Logic. Good is the ideal of Ethics. Beauty is the ideal of AEsthetics.
Logic deals with the intellectual ideal of Truth.
Ethics deals with the volitional ideal of Good. AEsthetics deals with the emotional ideal of
Beauty.
They are normative or regulative sciences which seek to determine the nature of the norms or
ideals which regulate our life.
Thus sciences give us a sectional view of the world. But philosophy harmonizes the highest
conclusions of the different sciences, co-ordinates them with one another, and gives a rational
conception of the whole world.

7. It investigates the nature of the fundamental concepts of matter, time, space, life, mind, and
the like and interrelates them to one another.
It enquires into the nature of the universe, its stuff or material, its creator or God, its purpose,
and its relation to man and his soul.
Scope of Philosophy
Philosophy consists of three parts:
(1) Epistemology;
(2) Ontology and Metaphysics, and
(3) Axiology.
Epistemology is the theory of Knowledge. Ontology or Metaphysics is the theory of Being or
Reality. Axiology is the theory of Values. Modern philosophy is not dogmatic. It does not
plunge into metaphysical investigation of the nature of reality without a prior criticism of the
organ of knowledge. It is based on epistemology. Epistemology enquires into the nature,
origin, validity and extent of knowledge.
Is experience or reason the source of knowledge?
Does knowledge represent the reality?
What is the nature of valid knowledge?
What are the tests of truth?
What are the conditions of valid knowledge?
What are the limits of human knowledge?
Can man know the world, soul, and God?
Can the finite mind know the Infinite?
Epistemology seeks to answer these questions. It has a dominant place in contemporary
philosophy. It is a preliminary to metaphysical speculation. It is a prior criticism of the organ
of knowledge.
Ontology or Metaphysics is the theory of Being. It enquires into the nature of the reality. It
investigates the nature of the world including matter and life, of the soul, and of God or the
Absolute.
Ontology of Nature, Ontology of the Soul or Mind, and Ontology of the Absolute are the
three essential parts of metaphysics.
Ontology of Nature investigates the nature of matter, time, space, causality, life, evolution,
mechanism, and teleology.

8. Ontology of the soul investigates the nature, origin and destiny of the soul, and its relation to
body. Ontology of God investigates, the nature and attributes of God and his relation to the
world and’ the souls. It discusses and examines proofs for the existence of God.
Ontology investigates the nature of reality. It discusses the theories of monism, dualism, and
pluralism. Monism recognizes one type of reality.
It assumes the form of materialism or idealism. Materialism regards matter as the ultimate
reality, and reduces mind to matter.
Idealism regards mind or spirit as the fundamental reality and reduces matter to mind.
Dualism recognizes matter and minds both as irreducible realities.
Matter is unconscious and extended, while mind is conscious and un-extended.
They are radically different from each other and cannot be reduced to each other. This
doctrine is dualism.
Pluralism recognizes many realities independent of one another, which are not derived from
one reality, and which cannot be reduced to one reality.
They are either material or spiritual. Innumerable material atoms constitute the world.
Atomism is materialistic pluralism. Or an infinite number; of monads or spiritual atoms
constitute the world, there being no unconscious matter. Monadism is spiritualistic pluralism.
Leibnitz was an advocate of monadism.
But he recognized the existence of God, and Monad or monads, who created the monads and
adjusted them to one another. Therefore, he combined spiritualistic pluralism or monadism
with monism or theism.
Ontology of the cosmos is called cosmology.
It investigates the nature and origin of the universe, its creation or evolution, and mechanical
or teleological character of its evolution. Thus cosmology is included in ontology.
Axiology is the theory of values or ideals. Values are the supreme norms of life. Logic
investigates the nature of Truth.
Ethics investigates the nature of Good. A Esthetics investigates the nature of Beauty.
Theology investigates the nature of the Holy.
Axiology enquires into the nature of intellectual, moral, esthetic, and religious values. It
investigates the relation of values to reality.
It enquires into their subjectivity or objectivity. It is a very important branch of
contemporary philosophy. Tile problem of values is in the forefront of recent philosophy.
Formerly a difference was made between cosmology and cosmogony. Cosmology dealt with
the number of the fundamental principles that constitute the world. It dealt with the doctrines
of monism and pluralism. Cosmogony dealt with the origin of the world.

9. Conceptin philosophy
A concept is generally understood in the philosophy of mind to refer to a constituent of
thought.
An account of the metaphysics of concepts
 An answer to the problem of universals, treating the problem of what concepts are as
a special case
 An account of concepts as universals with concepts distinguished from other sorts of
universals
 An account of the identity conditions for concepts
 An account of the distinction between simple and complex concepts
An account of analysis for concepts
 An account of the satisfaction conditions for being in the possible-worlds extension of
a given concept
 An account of logical constitution for concepts
 An account of the distinction between primitive and complex concepts
 Specific conditions on correct analyses
An account of the epistemology of concepts
 An account of concept possession
 An account of concept acquisition
 An account of categorization
Concept of Educational Philosophy and Theory
Wilfred Carr (Chair, Philosophy and Education Society of Great Britain, 1993-1996)
observed succinctly in a paper presented at a British Educational Research Association
(BERA) conference roundtable in September 1995:
Research ... always conveys a commitment to philosophical beliefs even if this is unintended
and even though it remains implicit and unacknowledged ... [Researchers] cannot evade the
responsibility for critically examining and justifying the philosophical ideas that their
enquiries incorporate.

10. It follows that philosophical reflection and argumentation are central features of the methods
and procedures of educational research.
Many researchers who might not necessarily identify themselves as philosophers are,
perfectly alert to these methodological issues and their philosophical underpinnings.
There are two or three alternative moves for philosophers, which are interesting not just as
defensive political moves in a particular academic economy, but for what they reveal about
the characteristics of different
Kinds of philosophical activity to:
✓ accept that the term ‘research’ is appropriately attached to the scientific or (in the case
of social sciences quasi-scientific) paradigm indicated to find a different descriptor for the
activities of philosophers;
✓ advance more inclusive but restrictive definition of research which can include the
evidentially based work characteristic of historical and literary scholarship and biography
and a good deal of philosophical writing rooted in the history of ideas;
✓ advance an even wider definition of research to encompass at least some philosophizing
terms. A systematic and sustained inquiry to be made public is also called research.
The actual products of philosophical work provide a very mixed picture of the extent to
which the producer was engaged in an inquiry of the fact.
Most commonly researchers take the form either of a critical attack on a previous writer, or
an attempt to advance and defend a point of view held by the author, or some combination of
the two.
The author might place the question or point of curiosity in the centre, but this is by no means
a requirement or expectation of philosophical writing, which in some of its more declamatory
forms can come across as the product not of a humble inquirer after truth but of a somewhat
arrogant holder of the truth, a knower rather than a seeker after knowledge.

11. Conceptual or linguistic analysis may have a role as a helpful preliminary or accompaniment
to other forms of theoretically informed or ideologically laden enquiry into educational
thought and practice;
But it cannot be separated from such theory or such ideology since the analysis rests itself on
the same framework of beliefs.
Philosophers of education are faced with something of a dilemma, which different scholars
resolve in different ways.
The dilemma is created by a simultaneous demand to produce work which is a visible
contribution to contemporary educational debate (and perhaps oneThat non-philosophers will
find accessible) and to produce work of serious philosophical
Branches in philosophy
There are 7 branches of Philosophy, namely, Metaphysics, Axiology, Logic, Aesthetics,
Epistemology, Ethics and Political Philosophy.
Philosophy is the study of the search for the truth and equally an effort to know the hidden
realities truths about ourselves.

12. The main branches of Philosophy are:
1. Axiology: Study of the nature of value and valuation
2. Metaphysics: Study of the fundamental nature of reality
3. Epistemology: Study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge
4. Ethics Philosophy: Study of what is right and wrong in human behaviour
5. Aesthetics: Study of beauty and taste
6. Logic Philosophy: Study of the nature and types of logic
7. Political Philosophy: Study of government, addressing questions about the nature,
scope, and legitimacy of public agents and institutions.
1. Axiology:
 Also referred to as the theory of value, Axiology explores the nature of value and its
metaphysical aspects.
 Value Theory is often interchangeably used as Axiology and this branch of
Philosophy peruses upon the value of goodness.
 To put it simply, Axiology looks at the concept of value in terms of its philosophical
terms and argues questions about nature and what actually is valued.

13. 2. Metaphysics
Metaphysics has been a primary area of philosophical debate. It is mainly concerned with
explaining the nature of being and the world.
Traditionally, it has two different study areas, including Cosmology and Ontology.
Cosmology is focused on understanding the origin, evolution, and the eventual fate of the
universe, which include laws that keep it in perfect order.
On the other hand, Ontology investigates various types of things that exist and their
relationship with each other.
Much before the discovery of modern science, all the science-related questions were asked as
a part of Metaphysics.
3. Epistemology
Another major component of Philosophy is Epistemology. Going back into history, this term
originated from the Greek word episteme which literally means knowledge, and the other half
of the word ‘logy means ‘the study of’.
Basically it is about the study of knowledge.
What can we know? A fundamental question concerning Epistemology is, what is
knowledge? It also asks questions like, can knowledge ever be absolute? Is there a limit for
humans to know certain things? If we are living in a world of simulation, how can we know
it? These are some of the essential questions Epistemology seeks answers for.
4. Ethics
Everyone in their day to day life tries to conduct themselves according to some established
ethical norms. This philosophical concept has different applications in a person’s real life.
For instance, there are certain organizations that have ethical committees which lay down
rules of behaviour for its employees. Ethics is concerned with the definition of right and
wrong.
It elucidates schools of thought that instruct us how to act in a given situation, which has
always been a matter of contention between philosophers.
Every philosopher has defined it according to their own subjective understanding.
5. Political Philosophy
Combining the two fields of Politics and Philosophy, Political Philosophy studies political
government, laws, liberty, justice, rights, authority, political states and systems, ethics, and
more.
It explores the concepts of why we need governments, the role of played by governments,
what are its constituents, amongst others.

14. 6. Aesthetics
Every person defines beauty as per his or her own perspectives. This philosophical subject is
wholly devoted to defining the different aspects of beauty, even its contours.
How do we find something beautiful? Is beauty always subjective or can it be objective too?
Can everyone find a thing beautiful? It also examines individual taste and attempts to provide
answers about these things in a scientific manner.
Aesthetic Philosophy’s primary topic of investigation is beauty and art. It is often debated
inside its classrooms. It also talks about performing arts like music.
7. Logic
We use this word in our commonplace conversations, so we are all aptly familiar with it.
People constantly ask each other, “where is the logic behind this or that?”.
People even acknowledge a good thought or act by calling it logically correct.
Hence, the question arises, what does Science of logic has to do with Philosophy? In logic,
we usually construct two sentences which are called premises, and they are used to make a
conclusion. This sort of logic is called a syllogism, pioneered by Aristotle.
2. Ethics
Definition:
Ethics is the study of what is right or wrong in human conduct. This is a branch of
Philosophy which studies moral principles. Hence, Ethics is also known as Moral
Philosophy.
Many people use the words Ethics and Morality interchangeably. However, there is a
difference between Ethics and Morals.
To put it in simple terms, Ethics = Morals + Reasoning.
Ethics and Human Interface – Topics Covered:
 Essence,determinantsandconsequencesof Ethicsinhumanactions
 Dimensionsof ethics
 Ethicsin private andpublicrelationships
Essence, determinants and consequences of Ethics in human actions
Ethics is all about reasoning about how one should act in a given circumstance – ie. how to
do the right action.

15. Essence of Ethics
Ethics is the study of morality. The essence of Ethics (core of ethics) is to understand those
philosophies which guide us in determining what is right or wrong.
Determinants of Ethics
Determinants are the sources from which the ethical standard arises. There are multiple
determinants of ethics like
 Religion
 Law
 Society
 Individual
 Knowledge
 Time
Consequences of Ethics
A consequence is the outcome of any act. Doing good with proper reasoning (being ethical)
has many positive consequences like
 Safeguarding the society.
 Feeling good.
 Creating credibility.
 Satisfying basic human needs etc.
However, being unethical has many negative consequences like
 Loss of trust.
 Nepotism.
 Corruption.
 Crimes etc.

16. Ethics in Private Relationships
Private relationships largely involve relations with family and friends and hence are informal
in nature. Private relationships are often driven by emotions and not by reasoning. This can
result in unethical practices.
For example, helping your friend to cheat in an exam (unethical). Also, remember the
Ramayana story where Kaikeyi tried to put her son Bharata on the throne, ahead of Rama –
the elder son of Dasharatha (unethical).
Ethics in Public Relationships
Public relationships involve relations which are formal in nature. This can include co-
workers, government officials, or strangers. There can be legal or social obligations as well.
Ethics in public relations can come into play at:
 Social Ethics – tolerance towards other sections, peace and harmony etc.
 Political Ethics – constitutional ethics, national interest etc.
 Organisational Ethics – impartiality, honesty, hard work, efficiency, corporate
governance etc.
 International Ethics – ethics in diplomacy, respecting international treaties etc.
Moral Philosophy is the rational study of the meaning and justification of moral claims.
A moral claim evaluates the rightness or wrongness of an action or a person’s character.
For example, “Lying is wrong” claims the act of lying is wrong, while “One shouldn’t be
lazy” claims a character trait (i.e., laziness) is wrong.
Moral philosophy is usually divided into three distinct subject areas: metaethics, normative
ethics, and applied ethics.
What is Metaethics?
Metaethics examines the nature of moral claims and arguments.
This partly involves attempting to determine if moral claims have clear essential meanings
(i.e., they avoid vagueness and ambiguity).

17. But it also attempts to answer questions such as: Are moral claims expressions of individual
emotions? Are moral claims social inventions? Are moral claims divine commands? Can
one justify moral claims? How does one justify them?
Our class discussions will focus on mathematics when we examine Nagel’s moral
philosophy chapter in What Does It All Mean?.
Nagel attempts to answer the ancient mathematics question, “Why be moral?”
What is Normative Ethics?
Normative ethics examines moral standards that attempt to define right and wrong conduct.
Historically, this has involved examining good and bad habits, duties, or an action’s
consequences.
In addition, historically, normative ethics has focused on the prospect of a single moral
standard defining right and wrong conduct; but it has become more common for
philosophers to propose a moral pluralism with multiple moral standards.
Our class discussions will examine four moral standards: ethical egoism, ethical relativism,
the principle of utility, and Immanuel Kant’s categorical imperative.
What is Applied Ethics?
Applied ethics examines specific moral issues.
For example, one is doing applied ethics when one addresses the morality of abortion,
euthanasia, capital punishment, environmental concerns, or homosexuality.
By using the conceptual tools of mathematics and normative ethics, discussions in applied
ethics try to resolve these issues.
Our class discussions will not focus on applied ethics.
If you are interested in applied ethics, the philosophy department offers Philosophy 7,
Contemporary Moral Issues.

18. While the topics can vary from semester to semester, recent contemporary moral issues
classes have examined abortion, capital punishment, homosexual marriage, pornography,
and war and terrorism.
Doing Moral Philosophy
While mathematics, normative ethics, and applied ethics are distinct subjects, these subjects
are interdependent.
For example, how one pursues normative ethics will be greatly affected by one’s
mathematics assumptions.
If one assumes, for example, that moral claims are divine commands, then one’s normative
positions will be determined by identifying divine commands.
Given this relationship between mathematics and normative ethics, it is common for
mathematics questions to arise during a class discussion on normative ethics.
If you have such a question, don’t hesitate to ask. While I will be able to give only a brief
answer in class, I think such questions are a vital part of doing moral philosophy.
Similarly, how one pursues applied ethics will be greatly affected by one’s normative
assumptions.
If one assumes that one always should pursue those actions which lead to the best
consequences, then one’s position on, for example, capital punishment, abortion, and
terrorism will be determined by identifying which action(s) will lead to the best
consequences.
Given this relationship between mathematics and normative ethics, it is common for
normative questions to arise during a discussion on normative ethics.
Since we will not focus on applied ethics, it probably will not occur in our class discussions.
However, if this occurs when discussing an applied ethical issue (e.g., abortion, euthanasia,
capital punishment, war and terrorism), remember that such questions are a vital part of
doing moral philosophy.

19. Nature of moral judgements
Ethics is a science of morality and it discusses the contents of moral consciousness and the
various problems of moral consciousness. Moral consciousness is the consciousness of right
and wrong. It involves three factors
1. Cognitive or intellectual,
2. Affective or emotional,
3. Conative or volitional
Moral judgement is the main conaitive factor in moral consciousness. It involves intuition of
moral standard by reason and comparison of a voluntary action with it.
It also involves evaluation of voluntary action of it as right and wrong. The emotional factors
include the moral sentiments and moral judgements are followed by moral sentiments and not
vice versa.
Moral obligation is the main cognitive factor of moral consciousness and moral judgement
involves moral obligation or the sense of duty or toughness.
It involves the moral impulse to do the right action. We feel we are under moral obligations
to do what is right and avoid what is wrong.
Meaning of moral judgment
The moral judgement is the judgement which deals with the moral value or quality of an
action.
It is a judgement of value and it evaluates the rightness or wrongness of our actions. When
we analyse a moral judgement then we find that it contains
a) a subject which will judge, b) an object whose action will be judged,
c) a standard in conformity to which the action of the subject will be judged and
d) a power of judging the action as required.
Moral judgment is the judgment of moral quality of voluntary habitual actions. Generally, a
moral judgment is given on the voluntary and habitual actions of a rational being.
The voluntary actions of a rational person which involve deliberation, choice, and resolution,
have the moral quality of rightness and wrongness.
They are considered to be right or wrong with the reference to the moral standard. And on the
basis of this standard, moral judgment is given.

20. If the voluntary actions have conformity with the standard or the ideal, then the moral
judgment will express it as the right action. If the action has conflict with the standard or
norms, then the moral judgment will express it as wrong.
So, moral judgment involves comparison of voluntary acts with the moral standard.
upon voluntary and
habitual acts of persons and not upon their passive experiences.
acts of a person are
right or wrong, because they more or less affect the of interest of others.
Man is a social being. His rights and duties of actions rise out of his relation to other persons
in society. So, moral judgment, apart from society is inconceivable.
Moral judgment can be said to be obligatory in character.
Because a judgment can be given as right, while we feel the moral obligation to do it.
Similarly, moral judgment is given on an act as wrong, when we feel the moral obligation to
refrain from it.
Thus, moral judgment is always accompanied by the sense of duty or moral obligation. And
this moral obligation is essentially self-imposed.
Nature of moral judgment
Moral judgment is a judgment of values. It is distinct from the judgment of facts. A Judgment
of value is a judgment of “what ought to be”. But a judgment of fact is a judgment of “what
is”.
Judgment of fact is a descriptive judgment, while moral judgment is an appreciative or
critical judgment. So, moral judgment is a mental act of pronouncing a particular action to be
right or wrong.
According to Mackenzie, moral judgment is not merely to state the nature of some object,
but to compare it with a standard and to pronounce it to be good or evil, right or wrong.
So, it is normative. Muirhead says that moral judgment is concerned with the judgment upon
conduct, the judgment that such and such conduct is right and wrong.
The judgment upon conduct has a judicial sense and the judgment of fact has logical sense.
Thus, when we perceive a voluntary action we compare it with the moral standard and thus
judge whether the action is in conformity with it or not.
So, it is clear that, moral judgment is inferential in nature, involving the application of a
standard to a particular action.
But in the language of Bradley, ordinarily moral judgment is intuitive and immediate.
Because, we intuitively brings an action under a moral rule recognized by the community and
judge it to be right or wrong. It is only in difficult or doubtful cases that we consciously
compare an action with the moral ideal and judge it as right or wrong. Hence, we can find out

21. that a moral judgment presupposes a subject, who judges an object that is judged, a standard
according to which an action is judged.
Again, it is important to observe that moral judgment is distinguished from logical and
aesthetical judgment.
As we know Ethics, Logic and Aesthetics are normative science. And accordingly they have
three supreme norms and ideals
of life. Ethics is concerned with the ideals of Highest Good, logic is concerned with the ideal
of Truth and aesthetics is concerned with the ideal of Beauty.
It is true that all of them are appreciative or critical judgment. But moral judgments are
always accompanied by moral obligation and moral sentiments, which are not accompanied
by logical and aesthetics judgments.
When we judge an action to be right, we feel a moral obligation to perform it and have a
feeling of approval.
And we judge an action to be wrong, we feel that under moral obligation we are not to
perform it and therefore, we have a feeling of disapproval.
Feeling of approval, disapproval, rightness, wrongness etc. Are called moral sentiments.
Thus, moral judgments are obligatory in character and are accompanied by moral sentiments.
So, they differ from logical and aesthetic judgments which are not accompanied by moral
obligation and moral sentiments.
Moral judgements, whether something is good or bad in its own right are contained wholly in
the field of ethics. In the process of reasoning also we find different classes of judgements
and they are usually judgement of facts.
But moral judgement as a judgement of value is concerned with what ought to be. It judges
our actions ought to be.
It has distinctive features. It is critical judgement and appreciative. It is the mental act of
discerning and pronouncing a particular action to be right or wrong.
After evaluation and deliberation actions are to be judged in conformity with a standard. To
speak the truth is
Always right’ is a moral judgement. Moral judgement differs from judgement of fact which is
descriptive judgement and it describes what is.
Judgements of facts are more objective because they depend on the real nature of the world.
For example ‘Water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen’. Moral judgement is inferential in
character though the element of inference generally remains implicit.
It involves the application of a standard to a particular action. When we perceive a voluntary
action, we compare it with the moral standard and we judge whether the action is in
conformity with it or not.

22. Ordinarily moral judgements are intuitive and immediate. F.H. Bradley says that they are
intuitive subsumptions.
But in complex and doubtful cases the whole process is becomes explicit and reflective.
In complicated circumstances the moral standard is explicitly held before the mind and
applied to the cases under consideration.