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1. 1
Research Methods-I
Qualitative Techniques
Descriptive research methods:
 Involves gathered data to check hypotheses
 discusses deep and detailed information about the object
 also known as statistical research
 questions like what, when, where, who, how are discussed
a.Observation
i.Naturalistic observation observation without intervention:
 Observing people in real / normal environment with or without any interference
 Recording of spontaneous behavior of an individual/event under examination of natural environment
 provide generalized results due to natural settings.
 great chances of ethical issues of privacy due to interference.
ii.Observation with intervention:
- Participant observation
 observer/researcher itself becomes part of the research
 Researcher perform as an active member of the observed group
 Observer must be careful that other members of the group can’t identify him
 He should maintain the appropriate bond and understanding with the participants under examination
 enables the researcher about the complete method to understand the process from his own
perception as well from participant’s point of view to reduce research biasness.
 This observation is not generalizable due to small research groups.
- Structured observation
 systematically collect data in a controlled manner.
 involves using standardized forms or checklists to ensure consistency in data collection.
 commonly used in fields like psychology, education, and sociology to study human behavior.
 helps researchers gather reliable and quantifiable data for their studies.
 Researchers may use checklists, rating scales, coding systems to record observations.
 aids in the objective analysis of behaviors and phenomena, contributing to a better understanding of
various subjects.

2. 2
- Field experiments
 Performed in natural settings: schools, industries, hospitals.
 consumes more time
 To know whether classroom learning or open environment learning is more appropriate teaching
method for students then researcher will recommend this method.
iii.Recording behavior:
- Qualitative measures of behavior
- Quantitative measures of behavior
Aspect Qualitative Measures of Behavior Quantitative Measures of Behavior
Nature of
Data
 non-numeric data
 Descriptive
 Numeric
 measurable data
Data Type
 Subjective
 based on opinions & interpretations
 Objective
 based on counts, measurements or scales
Examples
 Observations
 Interviews
 open-ended survey responses
 Counts
 Frequencies
 Scores
 Ratings
 measurements
Precision  Less precise and standardized  More precise and standardized
Data
Analysis
 Involves coding, categorizing, and
interpreting text or observations
 Involves statistical analysis, calculations, and
numerical comparisons
Use in
Research
 Useful when exploring new or complex
phenomena, providing insights and
depth
 Suitable for hypothesis testing,
comparisons, and statistical modeling
Deals with
 Characteristics
 attributes
 Amounts
 numerical values
Research
Fields
Commonly used in
 social sciences
 humanities
 ethnographic studies
Commonly used in
 natural sciences
 psychology
 economics
iv. Analysis of observational data Advantages, problems & methodological
issues

3. 3
b. Unobtrusive measures of behavior
- Physical traces
- Archival data
Aspect Physical traces Archival data
Nature of
Data
 Tangible
 tangible remnants or artifacts left
behind by human actions
 Recorded information stored in documents,
records, or databases
source
 Directly observable physical
artifacts, such as footprints, graffiti,
or tools
 Pre-existing records or documents created for
various purposes
collection
 Requires on-site observation and
physical examination
 Requires access to existing archives, libraries,
or databases
Temporal
Characteristics
 Typically reflects past actions and
behaviors in a specific time and
place
 Can cover a wide range of time periods, from
historical records to recent data
Data type
 Often qualitative or semi-
quantitative, describing the nature
of physical traces
 Can be both qualitative and quantitative,
depending on the content
Research
application
 Useful for reconstructing past
events, understanding ancient
cultures, or forensic investigations
 Valuable for historical research, social studies,
policy analysis, and trend analysis
Preservation
and
Accessibility
 May deteriorate over time and
require preservation efforts
 Typically stored and maintained for long-term
accessibility
Examples
 Footprints, archaeological artifacts,
graffiti, broken glass at a crime
scene
 Historical documents, census records,
newspaper archives, digital logs

4. 4
importance of research methods in psychology
1. Understanding Behavior: Research methods help psychologists figure out why people do the things they do.
2. Evidenced Answers: They provide evidence-based answers to questions about the mind and behavior.
3. Improving Lives: Research helps develop better therapies and treatments for mental health.
4. Avoiding Assumptions: It stops us from making guesses about human behavior without proof.
5. Testing Hypotheses: Research methods let us test our ideas and see if they're true.
6. Learning from the Past: We learn from past research to build on our knowledge.
7. Validating Theories: They help validate and refine psychological theories for a better understanding of the mind.
Aspect Stratified Random Sampling Snowball Sampling
Purpose
 To ensure representation from different
subgroups in the population.
 To study hard-to-reach or hidden
populations where no clear sampling frame
exists.
Method
 Divide the population into distinct
subgroups (strata) based on specific
characteristics ( age, gender, income).
 Start with a few participants who meet
your criteria (seed participants). Ask them
to refer others who also fit the criteria.
Selection
Process
 Randomly select samples from each
stratum in proportion to their size in the
population.
 Participants recruit more participants,
creating a "snowball" effect.
Use
 Useful when you want to make sure
each subgroup is adequately
represented in your study.
 Helpful when researching sensitive or
marginalized groups where traditional
sampling methods are challenging.
Example
 If you're studying opinions on a political
issue, you might stratify by age groups
to get a balanced view across
generations.
 If you're studying the experiences of drug
users in a specific community, you might
start with one known user and ask them to
introduce you to others in their network.