1. 0
Original Sustainability
The struggles and successes of small-scale farming
In Latin America and the Caribbean
Theresa Englund
International Studies
Senior Seminar – 495

2. 1
Introduction
Small-scale farming in South America, Central America, and the Caribbean is constantly under
pressure from competition with larger, often mono-crop land use, and the global market. The
various processes, economic options, and need for capital that accompany land cultivation create
challenges for viable continuation of farming. Additionally, families cope with the income
variability associated with cultivation reliant on nature and the ever-increasing draw toward other
labor options. This paper will study the similarities that local, indigenous, and family farmers
face in Ecuador, Costa Rica, and Jamaica. The examination includes decision-making power,
ability to own land, and the farmer’s willingness to remain dynamic in order to survive.
Furthermore, I will display that the techniques and practices small-scale farmers implement
better sustain the environment, the local community, and maintain a source of independence for
their families and domestic markets.
Regardless of the country, small-scale farms in Latin America share some of the same challenges
and successes. Research shows that similar crops, labor factors, and techniques offer cultivators
continuation of achievement for survival on small areas of land. Furthermore, innovative
practices ensure the ability to overcome challenges of land degradation, competition, and loss of
income. One question requiring an answer is the potential for small-scale farming to remain
viable for the farmer, the region, and the global market. A discussion about interaction in the
domestic and global markets, and the opportunities and challenges such a relationship presents
will reveal the dynamic approaches farmers take. The goal of this essay is to determine that
though common opinion may view agriculture as a realm best suited for the Green Revolution’s
mono-crop, genetically modified growth strategies, the benefits of supporting small-scale
farming exist for the farmers’ future and our own.

3. 2
Methodology
As a student of International and Environmental Studies, whose focus is on globalization and
development, turning to our neighbors in the South to determine their means of viability has long
been of interest to me1. My coursework includes biological, geological, and geographical
approaches to the earth sciences, extensive historical exploration of colonization and world
cultures, and continuous focus in the social sciences2. These studies provide me with a
knowledgeable framework to examine research on the complex systems of small farms.
Additionally, researching the Maya and visiting them in Chiapas, Mexico in 2009, I have studied
and written about the history and sustainability of a dynamic culture. In 2010, I did research on
Cuba’s ability to overcome dependency and create food security on the island through urban
agriculture. My plan for fieldwork in both countries is since delayed, limiting my options to
collect further data on the region to scholarly works. This year, it was important to expand my
knowledge of Latin America and the Caribbean and focus particularly on sustainability of the
environment using a multidisciplinary approach.
Literature Review
In choosing the selection of works in order to research small-scale farming in Latin America and
the Caribbean themes of biodiversity, sustainability for the farmer and the environment,
traditional knowledge, and the ensuing challenges arose. A broad compilation of social science
approaches enhanced by a small selection of natural science methodology support my thesis.
1 Plus, the climate and vegetation in the region is fantastic!
2 Outside the classroom, I also focus on the protection of animals. I was a foster home for abandoned dogs,and
spent Jan 2010 winterm volunteering and observing at the Bahamas Human Society in Nassau.

4. 3
The authors chosen cover rural agriculture, biodiversity, and the development challenges that
farmers face. These are multiple authors researching rural small-scale agriculture in Ecuador,
Costa Rica, and Jamaica. With case studies, ethnographies, and interviews the evidence
documented and cited by the researchers identifies successful cultivation practices that assist in
overcoming challenges. They are also my sources for the types of crops that are farmed small-
scale especially those that exist in all three countries, for example coffee, maize, and tubers. The
collection documents research exploring the productivity and sustainability of conservative
resource utilization and cultivation methods that benefit or minimally affect the environment.
Sustainability
Each work includes at minimum mention of, if not full focus on, sustainability of the ecosystem.
Additionally, sustainability of the culture, community, and development are significant themes.
Jules Pretty is one author who does not focus specifically on Latin America. Pretty’s work,
Regenerating Agriculture, addresses the misconception of low input, minimal technological
cultivation as un-advanced, describing the combination of new and traditional practices as
sustainable (12). Chapter 3 especially identifies the social and environmental costs of practicing
unsustainable cultivation. His other article, “Regenerating Agriculture: The Agroecology of
Low-External Input and Community-Based Development,” written with Irene Guijt, Ian Scoones
and John Thompson, discusses the technology involved in agriculture, and the need to reinvent
that technology in order to eliminate damage to the environment. The article identifies the
requirement of food production in relation to the trend of exponential human population growth.
According to Pretty et al, low input cultivation is the option to best control pests and diseases,
ensure water and nutrient conservation, and optimize recycling and utilization of resources (125).

5. 4
Additionally, they identify the gaps of the Green Revolution that came about at the end of the
20th century. The resulting advantages missed many people in less developed counties because
modern techniques require exceptional costs in energy, water use, artificial fertilizers, pest and
disease controls, labor, and capital (126). Further conveyed is the dichotomy of maintaining
social and cultural tradition of native populations within the request and need for government
influence. This source identifies the role of indigenous federations and non-profits in
agricultural development. Lastly, tying in concepts of local knowledge developed over
generations that maximize resource utilization and successful cultivation practices ties into the
themes of many writers addressing the neglect of rural peoples, or traditional knowledge in
research and extension work (131).
I reference Patti Anderson’s ethnographic fieldwork in Ecuador, even though it is an examination
of non-food harvesting because she studies sustainable development. Additionally, she
recognizes the value of traditional local knowledge (413). Her methods include ecological
research and interviews exploring Amazon deforestation and the changes resulting from
road/highway construction on the local people. Access to new employment and new market
demands reveal the paradox valuation of traditional and modern influences in relation to resource
conservation.
Biodiversity
All of the works selected easily maintain the value of biodiversity. From forest harvesting to
cash crop cultivation, this element is number one for sustainability. To emphasize empirical
evidence on biodiversity I include supporting references from the natural sciences from Johnson
et al and Varón et al. Additionally, researchers study the concept of agro-forestry to evaluate

6. 5
biodiversity. The articles are also a productive survey of biological pest and disease control. In
Ecuador, Costa Rica, and Jamaica cultivation diversity including a cash crop such as coffee helps
to sustain the household. Therefore, biological research experiments are beneficial to verify the
positive results of natural vegetation conservation or multi-cropping to argue against the
damages from mono-crop growing. In addition, for each of the countries, the science also ties in
the cultivation techniques of the people. The following sources provide identification and
explanation of successful systems and practices. Whether intentionally cultivated or naturally
occurring, sustainable agriculture successfully includes poly-culture farming practices.
In their article, “Effects of Shade and Bird Exclusion on Arthropods and Leaf Damage on Coffee
Farms in Jamaica’s Blue Mountains,” Johnson et al prove the usefulness of over-story trees and
birds for pest control in crop production. The methods include, bird exclosures, arthropod
sampling, leaf surveys, vegetation complexity, and data analysis. The conclusion drawn is that
the habitat (shade trees) available for pest predators (birds) drastically reduces the damaging
insect population (144). My paper also cites this article to support the research on the
disadvantages of mono cropping, but the significance of coffee to the region.
Turning then to Costa Rica, Varón et al also prove that the inclusion of shade trees to coffee
cultivation in agro-forestry systems is beneficial. The vegetative diversity reduces the crop
damage caused by ants. Their methods involve a field survey of ant foraging and laboratory
bioassay for ant preference. The article “Effect of Farm diversity on Harvesting of coffee Leaves
by the Leaf-cutting Ant Atta cephalotes” concludes that the pest prefers other vegetation and that
diversity can lead to healthier crops. Furthermore, the authors cite the significance of small-scale
farming production in Latin America (53).

7. 6
Carlos Ramos García-Serrano and Juan Pablo Del Monte provide a clear example of the many
benefits of biodiversity in their essay, “The Use of Tropical Forest (Agroecosystems and Wild
Plant Harvesting) as a Source of Food in the Bribri and Cabecar cultures in the Caribbean Coast
of Costa Rica.” Their methodology includes fieldwork, taxonomy, and interviews. The “tribal
use” of vegetation or ethnobotany they examine reflects cultural and sustainable practices. In
addition, this article supports the value of traditional knowledge. For instance, the various
cultivation patterns and types of growth utilized by the Bribri and Cabecar relate directly to their
belief systems. My focus however, leans on the ecological, and draws on the benefits of tropical
food forestry, multiple plant use, and year round subsistence production (61).
Theo Hills also explores food forestry in the Caribbean3. Like García-Serrano and Del Monte,
he identifies the significance of year round production for sustaining the household (6-7).
Moreover, “The Caribbean Peasant Food Forest, Ecological Artistry or Random Chaos”
recognizes efficient food production, modeling the extensive and complex value of traditional
knowledge with high productivity. His method involves historic and contemporary evidence
summarized to conclude food forestry the “best case” for traditional small-scale farming in the
Caribbean (22).
Local Knowledge
A common thread found while researching small-scale farming in Latin America and the
Caribbean is the significant value of the cultivators’ knowledge. Maintaining natural
biodiversity or multi-cropping appears inherent, described as “ethno-botanical knowledge”
(Beckford and Barker 124). The future success of the small-scale farming is dependent on
3 Hills is also cited by Beckford regarding the food forest and home garden

8. 7
inclusion of the farmer as the foundation for cultivation improvements and development. While
many of the works I cite touch on rural peoples’ knowledge, it is the focus of both Anthony
Bebbington and Clinton Beckford’s research and essays.
Anthony Bebbington et al produced a network paper sponsored by the Overseas Development
Institute Research and Extension Network. The research addresses the development needs in
Ecuador’s rural small-scale agriculture. One realization is that technological innovation in
agriculture is not sufficient to address rural development. Land rights, education, access to
marketing, banking, and investment assistance must be resolved first (1). The challenges rural
agricultural populations face are likely to displace the small farm if not addressed4 (5). They
conclude that overall, the “virtue of rural people’s knowledge5” cannot be excluded (2).
The majority of my literature collection on Ecuador concentrates on the Andes highlands.
Bebbington researched alternative development in this Ecuadorian rural area vis-à-vis
conventional agricultural development. In particular, his article, “Modernization from Below:
An Alternative Indigenous Development” includes extensive citing concluding the failings of the
Green Revolution as a means of development for rural people. His main thesis emphasizes the
combining of modern options for productivity with traditional methods to maximize success and
maintain indigenous identity. Additionally, like Pretty, he explores the paradox in the common
arguments for sustainable farming and the need or movement toward improvement via
modernizing methods including outside influences. The conclusion drawn from these works for
the purpose of this paper is the necessity to promote indigenous technical knowledge along with
the maintenance of indigenous culture (Bebbington 287).
4 See my section on Challenges
5 Coined RPK

9. 8
Clinton Beckford also studies rural peoples’ knowledge, interviewing and studying farmers in
Trelawny, Jamaica. I select his term local knowledge, and interchange it with traditional
knowledge to discuss the significance of rural, local, and indigenous peoples’ intellect and
farming methods. His 2002 article, “Decision-making and Innovation among Small-scale Yam
Farmers in Central Jamaica: a Dynamic, Pragmatic, and Adaptive Process” recognizes the
significance of small farmers for Jamaica’s export economy. He indicates that modernity is
essential for the island’s food security (250). Largely research on the failures of Caribbean
farming ignores the delivery methods of agricultural development projects, specifically the
exclusion of farmers (251). Like the aforementioned authors, Beckford determines that the
incorporation of the farmer in the development process is crucial for success.
"The Role and Value of Local Knowledge in Jamaican Agriculture: Adaptation and Change in
Small-scale Farming," Beckford and David Barker’s 2007 article, defines local knowledge as
“dynamic and complex bodies of know-how, practices and skills…providing framework for
decision making [and is] embedded in culture and tradition (118).” Decisions farmers face go
beyond cultivation and affect all aspects of living including social, economic, and environmental
concerns. Those decisions are valuable, influencing traditional knowledge as they learn the
natural sciences, usually through generations of tested methods (126). However, the authors
identify a lack of support for farmers in research, extension projects, land ownership, lending, as
well as little government policy on domestic crop growth (125). Such failings hinder farmers’
decisions and their progress toward development. In addition, this makes managing food
security, conserving resources, even good health, and education difficult to achieve for local
growers. The article concludes that independence, control over inputs, research, as well as

10. 9
willing collaboration are important for the farmers and necessary for a common goal of
development on the island (126).
Beyond the Farm: non-agro income, cooperatives, and fair trade
There are income options beyond farm production to consider when the market demand is not
meeting household needs, or more capital is necessary. Sometimes there is a shift to other labor
options, and sometimes there are new market opportunities. Douglas Southgate, Fabian
Rodriguez, and Timothy Haab look closely at the role added income has for subsistence farmers
in Ecuador. “Payments for Sustainability” is a case study on the methods and effectiveness of
supporting water conservation. The authors explore the variability and risk in agriculture vis-à-
vis working elsewhere as an employee (55). In receiving payment to reduce land cultivation and
thus conserve and protect water resources farmers who rely solely on their produce accept less
funds than those with additional income. However, there is less risk of loss when one relies on
their own land. The conclusion then is that the payment not to cultivate, offered at a lower costs
to already poor farmers, does not benefit efforts toward development.
Discussions on research and development for rural people often include non-profits, federations,
and cooperatives. These organizations often have the people as the first priority, though some
would argue there is still a top down approach when collaboration includes external influences.
The bulk of sources cited inevitably include discussion regarding the role one or more play in the
successes and challenges of small-scale farmers.
Choosing Dennis O’Brien’s piece provides specific research into agriculture and cooperatives
working to maintain diversity and support traditional crop cultivation in Ecuador. Steven
Gliessman’s editorial, “Building Sustainable Livelihoods While Conserving Biodiversity,” also

11. 10
provides onsite experience with non-profits and cooperatives in Costa Rica. Successes for
family farms there come from collaboration to improve research, education, and market and
network development. The selection is also significant because Gliessman studies agro-
ecosystems and I utilize his research, “The Ecology and Management of Traditional Farming
Systems,” to validate biodiversity6. Lastly, Deborah Sick challenges the actual value of the fair
trade market for coffee farmers in Costa Rica. One positive discovery is the benefit of
government support for small-scale farms versus other countries in the region. She provides
insight into market challenges revealing the destruction of farms that occurs when markets fail7
(195). This occurs when production exceeds demand. The article, "Coffee, Farming Families,
and Fair Trade in Costa Rica: New Markets, Same Old Problems," concludes that the current fair
trade market is not adequate to meet the needs of small-scale farmers, citing examples of no
improved income (202).
Conclusion
The research in Latin America and the Caribbean on small-scale farming must continue for the
world to accept and recognize the benefits of biodiversity and sustainable practices. Pulling
together examples across the region allows the reader to recognize with certainty the challenges
and successes of sustainable farming. My extensive research results in the works cited section
are not all inclusive of the evidence I came across. The works do however, support my thesis
that traditional, diverse small-scale farming practices sustain the rural population and that these
methods are better for the environment, hence us all. By accumulating the results of these
findings, I have successfully enhanced a new approach to agriculture in Latin America and the
6 O’Brien and Gliessman counterthe challenges of development for small-scale farmers that Bebbington and
Beckford address in their conclusions.
7 Gliessman’s editorial also addresses the collapse of the coffee market in 2001

12. 11
Caribbean. Moreover, in selecting specific countries and linking various similarities provides
small-scale farming methods in the region a novel platform from which to shine.
What is Sustainable Small-scale Farming?
Cultivation of land and vegetation for food and cash crop in Latin America varies in degrees of
intensity, labor, capital, and necessary inputs. Land size, geographic location, vegetative
structure, soil composition, and both natural and human resources all play a role in the ability for
farmers to maintain agricultural productivity. In most cases, low input agriculture benefits the
environment and the lower costs provide comparable yields, whether in produce or net return
(Pretty 12). Additionally, the farms become a habitat of their own. Crop residues are recycled
into the soil or animal food, fertilizer results from plant and animal manures, and legumes
(grown in all three countries) complete the nitrogen cycle. Furthermore, farmers who use
regenerative technologies are able to increase their yields with little or no external input by
utilizing traditional knowledge gained over time (Pretty 19).
For the purposes of this paper and the general results of the case studies selected, small-scale
farms are defined by sizes ranging from the home garden of less than one hectare to mono or
poly-crop areas of about ten hectares. More importantly, the close link between the landowner
and the land involves cultivation practices that ensure future generations will have use of the
land. In each country studied, emphasis on low to moderate input coincided with decision
making to ensure sustainable land tenure. On another note, the input levels for labor on small
farms often involve family members. However, when available wages from external sources are
present, hiring of outside labor occurs (Southgate, Rodriguez, and Haab 55).

13. 12
Throughout the case studies in Ecuador, Costa Rica, and Jamaica farmers maintain traditional
knowledge while utilizing available agricultural advances (Bebbington 1993; Beckford 2002,
2007; Garcia et al 2004). In fact, combining agricultural practices that are centuries old with
advantageous modern practices, is another feature found in small-scale farming. Additionally,
maintaining some original farming practices validates strides to continue sustainable practices.
Finally, some examples of blended cultivation include the use of scientific suggestions while
multi-cropping, new rotation patterns enhancing past ideas, and the use of local pest management
(versus artificial manufactured products) which now benefits a consumer seeking organic
production ( Pretty Regenerating Agriculture 10) (Sick 197).
Biodiversity
There are environmental, economic, and cultural advantages to maintaining a diverse ecosystem.
Research continues to demonstrate the benefits of diversity for crop cultivation, maintenance of
traditional knowledge, and low capital input for small-scale farmers. In fact, scientific analysis
on a global level identifies biodiversity as significantly advantageous to the survival of a
multitude of species including our own. Additionally, agricultural cultivation while maintaining
diversity ensures retained food sources with the inherent genetic ability to combat the stresses of
disease and pests (Varón 47). In traditional cultures throughout Latin America and the
Caribbean, known plants with medicinal properties benefit the local population as well as
expanding into the western pharmaceutical world. The value of protecting their cultivation and
habitat is both economically and environmentally beneficial (Murray 22). Of particular
importance is conservation. This region retains significant native species. Losing these
traditional crops is a serious concern for indigenous farmers and there are efforts to ensure
survival of the plant diversity (O’Brien 10). Lastly, farmers utilizing available vegetative

14. 13
intercropping and pest control methods see improved productivity with less need for economic
capital.
Recognizing the natural processes in our environment has been essential to human survival.
Fortunately, many rural people in Latin America and the Caribbean use traditional ecologically
valid practices in order to retain land productivity8. Maintaining vegetation complexity is one
example of following natural methods of growth (Johnson 139). Farms with multi-crop systems
benefit because the negative effects of crop failings are reduced (Pretty “Regenerating
Agriculture” 129). Following is a discussion of two types of successful intercrop cultivation.
Traditionally managed farms maintain a native habitat for plants, insects, mammals, and birds
(Johnson 140). Furthermore, sustainable farming from an environmental perspective includes
methods that farmers already practice because of limited resources. Examples of sustainable
methods involve biological controls, planting with intent to recycle nutrients, overall
conservation of the resources available, and waste management. Most farm households also
utilize a small kitchen garden for vegetables, herbs, and medicines (Besson 41).
Research proves that the inclusion of shade trees when growing coffee protects the crops by
increasing diversity and decreasing insect damage to the crop (Varón et al 47). Additional
benefits particular to sustaining the soil include an increase in organic matter (dropped leaves
etc.), and completion of the nitrogen and nutrient cycles. In comparison, elimination of shade
trees, the use of agrochemicals, and manipulation of crop genetics creates monocultures that
8 Janis Alcorn also provides an excellent analysis of Agroforestry systems in all of Latin America in her essay
“Indigenous Agroforestry Systems in the Latin American Tropics.” Agroecology and Small Farm Development.
Eds. Miguel Altieri and Susanna Hecht. Boca Raton: CRC Press Inc., 1990. 203-218.

15. 14
become susceptible to pests (García-Serrano and Del Monte 65). This paper further explores
shade tree and coffee harvesting as it relates to required contributions and natural alternatives9.
Agro-forestry is another type of sustainable small-scale farming. It is complex farming
combined with rational methods of traditional knowledge. Termed agronomic, the food forest
provides annual production through mixed cropping and maintains ecologically supportive
vegetation (Hills 6). In Limón, Costa Rica, indigenous erudition and diversity are combined to
grow a multitude of vegetation and crops while sustaining the tropical forest ecosystem (García-
Serrano and Del Monte 62). This agro-ecosystem of the tropical forest contains multiple levels
of cultivation and overcomes the challenges of reduced land area (García-Serrano and Del Monte
61). The first type is the home garden, one to two hectares, where subsistence crops are grown
year round (García-Serrano and Del Monte 61). Secondly, slash and burn agriculture provides
crops like maize, and beans, which are marketable traditional foods for the community (García-
Serrano and Del Monte 63). Although at times controversial, pairing slash and burn with crop
rotation can preserve the soil. This final growing technique of poly-culture is a fine example of
integrating modernity into farming. Again using Costa Rica for an example, we find native
vegetation, and staple crops grown among plantain trees. Though less diverse than the home
garden, for remote farms these crops provide necessary income and provisions to the household
(García-Serrano and Del Monte 65). Lastly, one may conclude that agro-forestry is beneficial
and sustainable because the farmers’ dependency is on wild plants and agricultural produce
rather than indeterminate external sources.
9 See heading “ Organic Inputs” for further discussion

16. 15
Organic Internal Inputs
Low external inputs are paramount for conservation of natural resources and preservation of
cultivated foods (Pretty et al 125). In contrast, inorganic inputs threaten habitats surrounding
farms and unbalance the ecosystem. These manmade controls contaminate the water and soil,
lead to increased land erosion, and as a result will eventually reduce productivity for the small-
scale farm. Though fossil fuel based inputs were effective for decades in large-scale mono-crop
farming, they require high capital, are non-renewable, and again, are highly pollutant.
Sustainable farming that utilizes organic inputs is instead less dangerous to consumers of plants,
air, and water.
Basic internal organic inputs require little or no capital toward productivity. Examples of
organic internal inputs include; compost, plant and animal manure, ash, as well as the practices
of terracing, crop rotating, and of course, intercropping (Bebbington 285). For many, energy is
derived naturally from the sun, rain provides the water source, nitrogen is maintained with plant
selection, and nutrients are added through the options described above10 (Pretty 10). In addition,
symbiotic crop cultivation based on traditional knowledge is a no cost biological and cultural
method of production (Beckford and Barker 119). In fact, in this region sixty to eighty percent
of corn, squash, beans, and potatoes are intercropped (Pretty et al 129). Likewise, pest and
disease control are sustainable through biological methods. What is more, native or natural
species are already adapted so as not to be negated by pests or become disease resistant. These
plants are cultivated through local knowledge thus avoiding destruction or poisoning to other
vegetation and the environment (Pretty et al 132). Lastly, biodiversity controls insects, retains
10 Admittedly lack of any are a challenge that farmers must face (see “Challenges”)

17. 16
soil, and sustains necessary cycles11. Acting as such, there is a reduced need for fertilizers and
external inputs. This means capital can be used to toward other household needs and be invested
locally thus sustaining the cultivators’ community.
Research shows that there are biological alternatives for small farms growing only coffee, which
are proven effective at reducing pests. In separate studies, crop leaf damage was analyzed, one
in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica, the other Turrialba, Costa Rica. Farms in Jamaica that
include shade trees provide a habitat for birds, which in turn reduces the herbivorous insect
presence (Johnson et al 146). Findings in Costa Rica show that almost half of coffee plants on
mono-crop farms were targeted by ants, verses ten percent on farms with diverse vegetation
(Varón et al 50). In both cases, the results prove that biodiversity sustains productivity.
The Challenges of Small-scale Farming
A challenge most obvious to the reader is the term “small.” Alternatively, were one to assume
crop cultivation to feed the world’s population by today’s standards, the Green Revolution and
the industrialization of agriculture have made great strides. Unfortunately, our environment and
the viability of crop diversity have suffered significantly. In addition, fresh water sources and
the little remaining productive soil surfaces face negative impacts and often-permanent damage
from large-scale farming methods and pollution. These are realistic reasons to turn to the small-
scale farmer and the traditional practices that sustain the niche and ensure diverse local food
production.
11 Water, Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Phosphorus

18. 17
Inputs, Capital and Land
It can be difficult to sustain the crop diversity necessary to meet all the economic needs of the
household. As outside influence reaches more cultivators, mono-crop cultivation rises (García-
Serrano and Del Monte 65). The resulting pressures to increase productivity at lower costs in
order to remain competitive require technological and economic inputs (Bebbington et al 5).
Resources, such as water and quality soil once lost must be supplemented and inorganic options,
though less expensive and recyclable, are not always an option. Regrettably, this leads to use of
chemicals, synthetics, and machinery and the resulting need for capital can result in debt.
Alternatively, finding funding, extension support, or domestic investment is a challenge and as
input prices intensify, small-scale farmers are often denied lending (Beckford and Barker 121).
Indeed, increased productivity of food through modernization has led to unemployment,
pollution, and negative effects on local communities (Pretty 58).
Land ownership, and affluent groups’ consumption and takeover of once public viable land are
additional challenges facing small-scale farmers. Testimony of earlier farming in Costa Rica
reveals that though they were poor, people were able to cultivate crops sufficient to feed their
families, utilize their surrounding environment, and practice animal husbandry with greater
multiplicity (Faber 68). Alas as capital heavy agriculture spread, cultivation became limited by
soil and water degradation (Besson 41). In fact, forty-four percent of Costa Rica’s soil contends
with erosion problems (Faber 64). In Jamaica, farmers are constrained to small areas of viable
land and tenure is an impediment (Beckford 254). With the rise of tourism, the number of
islanders employed in agriculture is now less than twenty-five percent, down from almost fifty
percent a half century ago (Beckford 248).

19. 18
The Market
Today, global market realities emphasize mass production and long distance, fossil fuel driven,
transportation. Furthermore, for the small-scale farmer price fluctuation at the grand scale can
lead to production costs higher than sales (Sick 195). Being dependent solely on market
conditions is not a secure livelihood (Bebbington 277). At the turn of the century, many Costa
Rican coffee growers gave up on farming due to market conditions12 (Sick 196). Other farmers,
hoping to maintain income and not lose their land, switched to cattle though it is more damaging
to their land (Gliessman “Building Sustainable Livelihoods” 359). These farmers and
cooperatives in the provinces of Puntarenas, Heredia, and San José reveal the challenges of a
one-crop system to sustain income. Unfortunately, fair trade as an alternative is a small market
with low demand not yet large enough to provide a fully viable alternative to the prevailing
market (Sick 199).
The market system that encourages unsustainable practices and the industrial approach to
increase output thus manages prices, supply and demand levels, and import/export needs of a
nation-state. This veracity creates difficulty for smaller farms to maintain productive land and
compete for market prices. For example, on Jamaican yam farms income security is the largest
influence on decisions made by small-scale farmers. They must compete with crops globally,
forcing particular and un-natural cultivation to obtain larger yams (Beckford 252). Even with
agrarian reform across the region in the 1980s, farmers continue to struggle to overcome the
import market challenges. In the Andean highlands of Ecuador, forty percent of the rural
population receives income from more than one job (Bebbington et al 7). Some question
whether rural families can support themselves solely on agriculture (Bebbington et al 1).
12 Mono-crop is again less environmentally sustainable than diverse vegetation cultivation

20. 19
Government policies add to the challenges of the small-scale farmer. In the last half of the 20th
century reliance on foreign investment, the World Trade Organization, and IMF demands have
dramatically influenced corporate control on agriculture, and the cultivation options available for
funding (Choudry 291). The free trade agreements that open a country to outside control usually
favor the wealthy larger farms and ignore the small-scale farmer or peasants. Movements in
Costa Rica and Ecuador have been semi-successful in resisting areas of natural resource
exploitation, but less so in the realm of agriculture (Choudry 295). Jamaican farmers were
largely unable to compete with the opening of the island to imports, due to its smaller size, even
the domestic market was overcome by the flood of imported fruits, vegetables, and dairy (Life
and Debt 2003).
Inexpensive foreign imports are also bad for farming because foreign investment drives
migration to urban areas resulting in a loss of independence, insecure income, and unguaranteed
employment. In a decade, Jamaica’s domestic production was reduced to half13 (Beckford and
Barker 122). The island must maintain food security, or risk permanent dependency on outside
influences. Without the support of subsidies, conservation encouragement, research and capital
investment from the national to the local government, the peasant farmer struggles to sustain the
household and improve their standards of living.
Migration
Accompanying loss of land was the influx of manufacturing, and new labor options from other
natural resource exploitation such as mining and petroleum. The wage labor available from
these new markets, though less stable, provides the cash necessary to purchase goods from the
13 1995-2005

21. 20
opened markets. This leads to an increasing desire for western cultural products, sneakers,
televisions, etc. (Anderson 413). The social demand for modernity and technology where quick
income and not long-term subsistence are the goal is high especially for youth (Bebbington 279).
This and new construction of roads in rural areas creates a wave of out migration. Indeed,
acculturation is leading to a decline in sustenance farming and as income options arise,
independence for the native farmer decreases (García-Serrano and Del Monte 66).
Transportation costs, migration of youth out of rural areas, and competition with technological
advances make sustainable farming more difficult than it once was. For many however, the
insecurity of wage labor creates more instability than reliance on nature or self-employment
(Southgate 54). Lastly, despite the challenges, there are significant strides toward new methods
of cultivation that ensure gain, cooperation in the communities, and some external options to
open the market. One may conclude that though the struggles exist, the ability for a household to
survive in dire times is only possible for those who are able to cultivate land for food crop.
Overcoming Challenges – Sustainable Success
Jamaica
Until the end of the 20th century when tourism really took off, agriculture was the focus of
economic development (Beckford 248). Rural people were able to grow food even though
divisions from slave plantation days marginalized their access to land (Besson 39). Today,
small-scale farmers continue working hard to be innovative and traditional at the same time in
order to remain independent and continue farming. Combining local knowledge, selecting

22. 21
symbiotic crops, conservative irrigation, and maintaining soil quality ensures cultivators’
success.
To compensate for lack of available arable land in St. Lucia cultivation methods involve agro-
forestry. This involves annual and perennial mixed cropping (Hills 1). Fruits, vegetables, herbs,
and cash crops are grown within tropical species maximizing organic inputs of sunlight,
fertilizers, and biological pest controls. The vegetative variation is based on crop availability and
soil conditions as well as economic considerations (Hills 6). By utilizing land (the size of a
small yard or at max one hectare), cultivators are able to maximize productivity, maintain
biodiversity, and sustain household nutritional needs.
In St Elizabeth, domestic production of garden produce involves sustainable soil management.
Here farmers are able to overcome low rainfall, one internal input that can become a challenge.
The technique involves planting under a fixed cover of dried grass. Beside maintaining moisture
this manual and biological control reduces weeds and soil erosion (Beckford and Barker 123). It
is a perfect example of sustainable small-scale farming that is beneficial for both the
environment and the farmer.
Lastly, in Trelawny, local knowledge implements dynamic cultivation practices to address
environmental and economic challenges (Beckford and Barker 119). For residents of the village
of Martha Brea, a total of 20 hectares and 800 people, land ownership consists only of the
kitchen garden (Besson 41). The villagers are able to grow traditional sustenance foods while
otherwise surrounded by plantations. Elsewhere in the province, farm sizes are five hectares or
less and include animal husbandry of goats, pigs, and chickens. Because of arable land scarcity
and fragmentation, labor intense, mixed cropping practices accomplish growth with minimal

23. 22
input resources (Beckford 249). This region is a source for export crops that include yams14,
cassava, sweet potatoes, coca, and pumpkins. In this regard, the ability of small-scale farmers to
remain dynamic in order to sustain the farm also benefits Jamaica’s economy (Beckford 250).
Costa Rica and Cooperatives
Cooperatives combine voices, inputs, and knowledge with an egalitarian approach (Pretty et al
136). In AguaBuena, Costa Rica, the Coope Pueblos cooperative consists of fifty coffee farms of
less than five hectares (Gliessman “Building Sustainable Livelihoods” 359). According to
Johnson et al, coffee is second only to oil in exports out of Latin America (139). Therefore,
promoting sustainable coffee growing is a great success for the cooperative. Additional
accomplishment includes a direct market link to the USA, the worlds’ largest economy. In fact,
the local harvesting, processing, roasting, and shipping of coffee results in two to three times
greater profit than the fair trade market (Gliessman “Building Sustainable Livelihoods” 360).
Lastly, there is sustainability of the local community and support of local knowledge and labor
forces through development of the small-scale ecological coffee processing.
Ecuador
Like cooperatives, indigenous farmer federations ensure independence, reduce input costs, and
promote non-polluting practices. They create support for sustaining native species through seed
banks, encourage farmer-to-farmer extensions, and provide research support (Bebbington 286).
In the Chimborazo province, over thirty farmer federations enhance the small-scale native
farming community. Projects focus on bilingual literacy training of social and cultural rights and
resource management. There is education on legislation, accounting, and administration to
14 A staple food crop that is grown entirely small-scale (Beckford and Barker 124)

24. 23
improve farm viability (Bebbington et al 11). All of these features promote small-farmer
interests and an agenda of profitable sustainability.
Other examples of small-scale farming successes are found across the country. In Pinchincha
province, non-commercial agriculture occurs on areas less than three hectares providing
subsistence farming for primary or secondary sustenance (Southgate 56). The methods they use
ensure continued daily nutrition for rural households that income cannot always provide. For
some in Imbabura province, reliance on external income is offset by produce supporting local
processing plants and the local market (O’Brien 10). Lastly, cultivation in Pastaza and Napo
provinces involves retaining native palms in cattle pastures, and sustainably harvesting the plant
from the forest (Anderson 415).
Conclusion
The term “Original” in title of this paper emphasizes the fact that traditional cultivation practices
found in all three countries were beneficial long before scientific research began evaluating
sustainability. Cultivators who comprehensively utilize water and soil resources, create minimal
waste, and grow multi-crop systems have been able to continue farming for centuries.
Alternatively, mono-crop agriculture becomes susceptible to soil degradation, pollutes the water
source due to high fertilizer and pesticide use, and requires high capital not available to the
majority. Small-scale farming is still an essential production force in Latin America and the
Caribbean (Varón et al 53). In fact, small farms are likely to be the solution to the regions food
security advancements. In Jamaica, multiple levels of vegetative growth ensure practical use of
space, foods available year round, cash crops for some income, and natural means of pest control

25. 24
(Hills 6). Costa Rican plots produce evidence of greater diversity, better utilization of sunlight,
and the benefits of animal husbandry interactive with plant growth (Gliessman “The Ecology”
14-5). Finally, in Ecuador, sustainable conservation practices integrated with cooperatives
maintain sustainability of land, household, and community (O’Brien 10). All of these examples
bring us to the conclusion that we must work with farmers to finds ways to overcome the
challenges that small-scale farming face, or risk food insecurity and irreversible damage to
natural and cultivated resources.

26. 25
Works Cited
Anderson, Patti J. "The Social Context for Harvesting Iriartea deltoidea (Arecaceae)." Economic
Botany 58.3 (2004): 410-19. WilsonWeb. Web. 19 Mar 2011.
Bebbington, Anthony. “Modernization from Below: an Alternative Indigenous Development?”
Economic Geography Vol. 69 No. 3 Environment and Development, Part 1 (1993): 274-
292. Clark University. JSTOR. Web. 17 Feb. 2011.
Bebbington, Anthony et al. Rural Peoples’ Knowledge, Farmer Organizations and Regional
Development: Implications for Agricultural Research and Extension. Network Paper 41,
Agricultural Administration (Research and Extension) Network. London: Overseas
Development Institute. July 1993.
Beckford, C.L. "Decision–making and Innovation among Small–scale Yam Farmers in Central
Jamaica: a Dynamic, Pragmatic and Adaptive Process." Geographical Journal 168.3
(2002): 248-259. Environment Complete. EBSCO. Web. 22 Feb. 2011.
Beckford, Clinton, and David Barker. "The Role and Value of Local Knowledge in Jamaican
Agriculture: Adaptation and Change in Small-scale Farming." Geographical Journal
173.2 (2007): 118-128. Environment Complete. EBSCO. Web. 22 Feb. 2011.
Besson, Jean. “Agrarian Relations and Perceptions of Land in a Jamaican Peasant Village.”
Small Farming and Peasant Resources in the Caribbean. Ed. John Brierlay and Hymie
Rubenstein. Winnipeg: Dept. of Geography, University of Manitoba, 1988. 39-61.

27. 26
Choudry, Aziz. “Fighting FTAs, Educating for Action: The Challenges of Building Resistance to
Bilateral Free Trade Agreements.” Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social
Sciences 2. (2010): 281-307. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 19 Jan. 2011.
Faber, Daniel. Environment Under Fire: Imperialism and the Ecological Crisis in Central
America. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1993.
García-Serrano, Carlos Ramos, and Juan Pablo Del Monte. "The Use of Tropical Forest
(Agroecosystems and Wild Plant Harvesting) as a Source of Food in the Bribri and
Cabecar Cultures in the Caribbean Coast of Costa Rica." Economic Botany 58.1 (2004):
58-71. WilsonWeb. Web. 19 Mar 2011.
Gliessman, Steven R. "Building Sustainable Livelihoods While Conserving Biodiversity."
Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 33.4 (2009): 359-360. Academic Search Complete.
EBSCO. Web. 13 Apr. 2011.
--- “The Ecology and Management of Traditional Farming Systems.” Agroecology and Small
Farm Development. Eds. Miguel Altieri and Susanna Hecht. Boca Raton: CRC Press
Inc., 1990. 13-18.
Hills, Theo L. “The Caribbean Peasant Food Forest, Ecological Artistry or Random Chaos”
Small Farming and Peasant Resources in the Caribbean. Ed. John Brierlay and Hymie
Rubenstein. Winnipeg: Dept. of Geography, University of Manitoba, 1988. 1-28.
Johnson, Matthew D. et al. "Effects of Shade and Bird Exclusion on Arthropods and Leaf
Damage on coffee farms in Jamaica's Blue Mountains." Agroforestry Systems 76.1
(2009): 139-48. WilsonWeb. Web. 19 Mar 2011.

28. 27
Life and Debt. Dir. Stephanie Black. Tuff Going Pictures, 2001. DVD. New Yorker Video, 2003.
Pretty, Jules. Regenerating Agriculture. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd., 1995.
Pretty, Jules et al. “Regenerating Agriculture: The Agroecology of Low-External Input and
Community-Based Development.” Sustainable Development. Ed. John Kirkby, Phil
O’Keefe and Lloyd Timberlake. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1995. 125-45.
O'Brien, Dennis. "Conserving Crop Diversity and a Way of Life in Ecuador." Agricultural
Research 57.7 (2009): 10-11. Environment Complete. EBSCO. Web. 23 Feb. 2011.
Sick, Deborah. "Coffee, Farming Families, and Fair Trade in Costa Rica: New Markets, Same
Old Problems?" Latin American Research Review 43.3 (2008): 193-208. Academic
Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 13 Apr. 2011.
Southgate, Douglas, Fabian Rodriguez, and Timothy Haab. "Payments for Sustainability."
Harvard International Review 31.2 (2009): 54-57. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO.
Web. 13 Apr. 2011.
Varón, Edgar, et al. "Effect of farm diversity on harvesting of coffee leaves by the leaf-cutting
ant Atta cephalotes." Agricultural & Forest Entomology 9.1 (2007): 47-55. Environment
Complete. EBSCO. Web. 22 Feb. 2011.