2. Why Commercialisation?
• Increased for domestic needs
• Research and Development process
• Profit creation and gains
• Medical use value additions
• etc
4. • Plant growth and development and often the
nature and quantity of secondary metabolites
are affected by the following:
➢Temperature,
➢Rainfall,
➢Aspect length of day that includes quality of light ,
➢Type of soil and
➢Altitude
5. • Studies have shown that cannabis grown
in England are reach in CBD (cannabidiol)
and devoid of THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)
6. TEMPERATURE
• Temperature is a major factor controlling the
development and metabolism of plants
• Each species has become adapted to its own
natural environment
• Plants are able to exist in a considerable range
of temperature
• Many tropical and subtropical plants will grow in
temperate regions during summer months, but
lack frost resistance to withstand winter
7. • The highest temperatures are experienced
near the equator, but as the temperatures
fall about 1°c for every 200m of elevation,
it is possible in say Jamaica to have a
tropical climate on the coast and become
temperate in the mountains
• The annual variations in temperature for
Jamaica can be just as important as the
temperature in the hottest month in the
year as from the cooler part of the same
year
8. • Formation of volatile oils in Hyoscyamus
muticus is affected by temperature
variation
• Logically, hot days may lead to excess
physical loss of volatile oils
• This would mean each plant will have the
mean optimum temperature for production
of volatile oil.
9. RAIN FALL
• The important effects of rainfall on vegetation
must be considered in relation to the following:
➢ annual rainfall pattern,
➢ its distribution pattern through out the year,
➢ its effect on humidity and
➢ its effect coupled with the water holding
properties of the soil
10. • Variable results have been reported for the
production of volatile oils under different
conditions of rainfall and the development
of glandular hairs( trichomes)
• Continuous rainfall may lead to excess
loss of water soluble substances from the
leaves and roots by leaching, this is
particularly common in alkaloids and
glycosides even volatile oils
• This could account for low production of
the active constituents in wet seasons
from plants
11. Length of the day and Radiation Characteristics
• Plants vary much in both the amount and
intensity of light which they require
• Research has shown that light is a factor
which helps to determine the amount of
glycosides or alkaloids produced
• With Cinchona ledgeriana, full sunshine
gives higher content of alkaloids than that
produced in the shade
12. • During the summer when the days tend to be
longer, production for Cinchona ledgeriana could
be better than the winter days
• Experiment indicate that with Datura stramonium
vartatula, long exposure to intense light brought
a sharp increase in hyoscine content at the time
of flowering
• Irradiation of intact plants of Cantharatus roseus
with ultraviolet light in the range of 290-380 nm
(peak 370 nm) stimulates the synthesis of
dimeric alkaloids probably by inducing
catharathine oxidation as a trigger reaction
13. • It has been shown that on long day condition
peppermint leaves contain methone, menthol,
and traces of menthofuran
• Plants grown under short day conditions contain
menthofuran as a major component of the
volatile oil
• Long photo period for young leaves activates the
reduction pathway with conversion of menthone
to menthol
• Presence or absence of light together with
wavelength range, have a marked effect on the
secondary metabolite production of some plants
in tissue culture
14. Altitude
• The coconut palm needs a marinetime
climate and the sugar cane is a lowland
plant
➢Tea - 1000-20000m,
➢cocoa - 100-200m,
➢coffee - 800-1800m
➢Tragacanth and Cinchona require elevated
growing land
➢Cinchona succirubra will grow in low land
but produces no alkaloids
15. • The bitter constituent of Gentiana lutea
increase with altitude
• alkaloid of Lobelia inflata will decrease and
so will the oil content of peppermint at
certain altitude
• Pyrethrum gives the best yields of
flowering head and pyrethrins at high
altitudes or near the equator
16. Atmospheric composition
• Digitalis lanata grown in
greenhouses with carbon dioxide
–enriched atmosphere (1000
p.p.m.CO2 during the whole of the
growth period produce 3.5 times
more the amount of digoxin, that
normally would be produced
17. Cultivated and wild plants
• Certain plants are obtained exclusively from
cultivated plants
• These include Indian hemp (cannabis sativa),
ginger, peppermint, spearmint, cinnamon,
opium, cinchona
• In some cases both wild and cultivated are used
• Owing to the demand and sparse distribution or
inaccessibility ,difficulty in collection, cultivation
becomes essential
18. • Indian hemp and opium are subjected to
legal control
• In many cases cultivation is advisable
because of the improved quality of the
drug with which it is possible to produce
• The improvement may be due to the
following:
19. • The power to confine collections to species
varieties or hybrids which have the desired
character e.g. cinchona,cinammon
• The better development of the plants owing to
improved conditions of the soil, pruning ,and
control of insect pests , fungi
• The better facilities for treatment after collection
e.g. drying at correct temperatures ,and peeling
of ginger
20. • For success in cultivation it is necessary to
study the conditions under which the plant
flourishes in the wild state and reproduce
these conditions or improve on them
• Small changes in ecology can affect plant
products
21. SOIL
• Different plant species vary enormously in
their soil and nutritive requirements
• Three basic characteristics of soil are the:
➢physical,
➢chemical and
➢microbiological properties
• Variation in particular size results in
different soils ranging from clay, via sand,
to gravel
22. • Particle size is one factor influencing water
holding capacity , and some plants e.g.
Althaea officinalis which produce mucilage
as a water retaining material contain less
mucilage when grown on soil with high
moisture content.
• In moist regions such as Western Europe,
clay soil absorb water beyond their
absolute capacity
23. • Their high moisture content make them
cold i.e. they heat up slowly
• In drier regions such as the
Mediterranean's soils have the capacity to
absorb and retain moisture
• The basic soil type can be modified by the
presence of humus, organic fertilizers,
chalk lime etc.
24. • Fine soil rich in humus and having a
permeable substratum posses a degree of
humidity which is favorable for plants
• Sandy soil are suitable for xerophilous
(plant adapted for life with a limited supply of water) plants
• Soils containing much humus and little
lime are inclined to be more acidic while
those with abundant lime are alkaline
25. • All plants require calcium for their normal
nutrition
• The effect of nitrogen-fertilizers as soil
nutrients will increase the size of the plant
and the amount of total alkaloids and
glycosides produced
27. Growth Propagation from seeds
• To ensure success the seed must be collected
when perfectly ripe
• If not planted immediately they must be properly
stored in a cool dry place and must not be kiln
(artificial) dried
• Some seeds like cinnamon cocoa and nutmeg
lose their power to germinate if allowed to dry or
if stored for quite short periods
• In some, long storage decrease the percentage
of germination e.g. some cereals and nuts
28. • Seed can be sown at different time of the year
• Some seeds are sown in spring while others can
be immediate as fresh seed e.g. colchicum
autumnale. If dried just for a few days only 5%
will germinate in a year
• Seeds slow to germinate can be soaked in water
or a solution of Geberrilic acid solution for 48 hrs
before sowing to increase the chances of
germination
29. Growth Propagation by vegetative
means
1. By the development of bulbs
squill, corms, e.g. colchicum,
tubers e.g. jalap or
rhizome e.g. ginger
2. By division, a term usually applied to the
separation of a plant which has a number
of aerial stems or buds into separate parts
each having roots and a growing point this
method may be used for Althaea, Gentiana
30. 3. By runners or offsets e.g. chamomile and
mints
4. By suckers or stolon e.g. liquorice and
valeriana
5. By cuttings or portions of the plant
severed from the plant by use of rooting
hormones
- Cuttings may be employed for the
propagation of mints, lavender,
rosemary
31. 6. By layers: A layer is a branch or shoot which is
induced to develop roots before it is completely
severed from the parent plant
- This is done by partly interrupting the food
supply by means of a cut and embedding the
part
32. 7. By grafting and budding: Grafting is an
operation which two cut surfaces usually
of different but closely related plants are
placed so as to unite and grow together
• The rooted plant is called the stock and
the portion cut off is the scion or graft e.g.
Cinchona
• Budding consist of the introduction of a
piece of bark bearing a bud into a suitable
cavity or T-shaped slit made in the bark of
the stock
• Budding is used in citrus spp
33. 8. By fermentation : This process applies to
the production of moulds and bacteria and
is used for the manufacture of antibiotics
and some vitamins
9.By inoculation : Specific to ergot whereby
spores are of the fungus are artificially
cultured and injected into the rye by
special machines
10.By cell culture: The same example as for
ergot spores.
34. Propagation by means of Chemical
Growth Regulators
• The growth and development of plants
may be regulated by a number of
intentional added chemical substances
such as:
➢Auxins
➢Gibberellins
➢Cytokinins
➢Abscisic acid
➢Ethelyne
35. • These substances occur naturally in all
plants
• They are specific in their action and are
very active in very low concentrations
• They regulate cell enlargement, cell
division, cell differentiation,
organogenesis, senescence and
dormancy
• Other hormones are concerned with
flowering formation and reproduction
• The essential role of these hormones is
illustrated in cell and tissue culturing
36. Auxins
• These are growth-promoting substances
which are divided into the following:
➢Auxin-a
➢Auxin –b
• They are obtained from human urine and
cereal products
• They have similar properties to indole 3-
acetic acid (IAA)
37. • Auxins are found in actively growing
tissues and is derived in the plants from
tryptophan
• Effects of auxins are cell elongation giving
an increase in stem length of root growth
adventitious roots production and fruit
setting in the absence of pollination
• Synthetic auxins include:
➢Indole-3-butyric acid (I-3-BA)
➢Naphthalene-1-acetic acid (NAA)
➢2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)
38. USES FOR AUXINS
1. In low concentrations to accelerate the
rooting of woody and herbaceous cuttings
2. (Placed for 24hrs in a 1: 500,000 solution
of NAA, cuttings develop roots)
3. In higher concentrations to act as
selective herbicides or weed-killers
39. 4. Seedlings of Mentha piperitta when
treated with derivatives of NAA increased
the yield 30-50% of oil which contained
4.5%-9% menthol
5. Auxins on Datura stramoniun showed an
increase in production of trichomes,
production of smooth fruits but there was
no increase production of the tropane
alkaloids
40. Gibberellins
• Discovered by Japanese worker in
connection while working in the fields of
rice.
• This was during the the disease of rice
fields
• The effect on the plant is excessive
elongation the plant to fail to support itself
• The causative organism of the disease is
Gibberella Fugikuroi
41. • Gibberellins are distinguished as
GA1,GA2,GA3…….
• GA3 commonly known as gibberellic acid
and is produced commercially by fungal
cultivation
• Gibberellins are synthesized in leaves and
they accumulate in large quantities in the
immature seeds and fruits
42. • Application of gibberellins to short –node
plants produce rosettes of leaves e.g.
Digitalis lanata and Hyocymus niger
• Gibberellins initiate the synthesis of
hydrolytic and proteolytic enzymes upon
which seeds germinate
• The growth effect of gibberellins arises by
cell elongation in the sub-apical meristem
region where young internodes are
developing
• As with auxins, gibberellins occur in plants
in deactivated forms
43. Effects on Alkaloids
• GA treatment with the seeds assist in
obtaining a uniformity germination and
total emergence
• The plants elongation gives 2-3 folds
increase in height, rapid onset of flowers
and decrease in dry weight
• Cantharatus recorded a lowering of
alkaloid content
• Datura treated with GA showed elongation
of the stems and reduced alkaloid content
44. EFFECTS ON VOLATILE OIL
• GA treatment of volatile oil containing
plants showed changes in morphological
characters
• Oil of peppermint gave an increased yield
by 40%
45. Cytokinins
• Cytokinins have specific effects on cell
division (cytokinesis)
• Cytokinins also regulate the pattern and
the frequency of organ production as well
as position and shape of the plant stem
• Cytokinins promote formation of
adventitious buds and shoots from
undifferentiated cells in tissue culture
• They have an inhibitory effects on
senescence
46. Abscisic acid (ABA)
• These are generally referred to as Growth
Inhibitors
• Natural growth inhibitors are present in
plants and affects bud opening, seed
germination and development of dormancy
• One such substance is Abscisic acid
(ABA)
• These act as inhibitors to shoot elongation
• Sprayed on plants showed reduced height
47. Ethylene
• Ethylene induces growth Reponses in
plants
• Ethylene is synthesized in plants from S-
adenosylmethonium
• However, it has been found to inhibit the
growth of potato shoots
49. COLLECTION
• Drugs may be collected from the wild or
cultivated plants
• It is known that the active constituents of
medicinal plants are affected by many
factors and may vary during the course of
plant growth.
• This also requires skilled and unskilled
labour
50. Collection of medicinal plants
• The season at which the drug is collected is as
important as the environment of growth - Proper
time of collection is very important to obtain a
drug of a good quality.
• The amount of the active constituents is not
constant through out the year
• The age of the plant is also important as it would
depend on the time of collection
51. • The age governs the total quantity of the
active constituent produced but also the
relative proportion of the components of
the active mixture
• Composition of the secondary metabolites
varies throughout the day and night
• Leaves are collected when the flowers
begin to open
52. • Under ground organs are collected as the
aerial part die down e.g. nuts
• Leaves flowers and fruits should not be
collected when covered with dew or rain
• Any plant attacked by mould or insects
should not be collected
• It is almost impossible to collect one part
of the plant without collecting other parts
53. • A certain percentage of stalks parts are allowed
according the official monographs as “foreign
matter” as defined by the BP or EP
• Special machines are used to collect ergot and
lavender
• Reaping machines are sometimes used as
compared to manual or human labour
• Barks are usually collected after a period of
damp weather which makes it easier for the bark
to separate from the wood
54. • Gums and gum resins are collected in dry
weather
• Care must be taken when collecting to
reduce debris
• Underground organs must be free from
soil and must be dug in dry weather e.g.
potate
• Certain under ground organs must be
washed and others are peeled e.g.
carotine
55. Factors affecting collection
1. Time of the year:
The plant may contain a substance in winter that is not
present in summer, or its amount varies markedly e.g.
Rhubarb contains no anthraquinone in winter, instead
it contains anthranols, which in summer, are oxidized to
anthraquinones.
Colchicum corm is free from bitterness and is devoid of
the alkaloid colchicine in autumn, hence is used in
Austria as a food, instead of potatoes. Bitterness starts
to appear in spring and early summer when it is used
as a drug.
56. 2- Time of the day:
Some drugs, like Digitalis, contain different
amounts of active constituents at different
times of the day. Being highest in the
afternoon.
57. 3- Stage of maturity and age:
• The value and content of active
constituents of many drugs depends on
the stage of maturity and age.
• Conium fruits contain coniin when fruits
are mature and unripe.
• Santonica flowers are rich in santonin,
when unexpanded, when it starts to open,
the santonin content decreases.
58. Drying of crude drugs
Reasons for drying:
1. To help in their preservation.
2. To fix their constituents, by preventing
reactions that may occur in presence of water.
3. To prevent the growth of micro-organisms such
as bacteria and fungi.
4. To facilitate their grinding.
5. To reduce their size and weight.
6. Insufficient drying favors spoilage by micro-
organisms and makes it possible for enzymatic
destruction.
59. • If enzymes’ action is to be encouraged slow
drying at moderate temperatures is necessary
e.g. cocoa
• If enzymatic action is not desired drying should
take place as soon as possible after collection
• Drugs containing volatile oil are liable to lose
their aroma if not dried or if the oil is not distilled
from them immediately
• All moist drugs are likely to develop mould if left
long in a dumpy environment
60. • For this reason drying apparatus and stills
should be situated as near to the growing
plants as possible
• The duration of drying varies from a few
hours to weeks
• Open air drying is used for cloves,
cinnamon
• For drying in shades drugs may be
suspended in bundles
61. • Trays are also used that are made of wire
mesh
• Drying by artificial heat is used where
rapid drying is desired or where humidity is
high
• Continuous belts are used for drying large
crops such as digitalis
• Heat may also be applied as open fires, by
use of stoves and hot water pipes
• In all drying sheds the space between the
trays should be 15cm apart
62. • Rapid drying of flowers helps them retain
their colour and aromatic drugs also retain
there aroma
• Leaves, herbs and flowers may be dried at
20-40c
• Barks and roots slightly higher than that of
leaves as above, at 30-65c
63. Methods of drying
Drying is carried out either by natural or artificial
methods.
1- Natural drying: this is accomplished by natural
air in sun or shade.
2- Artificial drying: this is a rapid method done at
well-controlled temperature and is accomplished
by:
• direct fire.
• Use of heated stones.
• Use of stoves.
64.
65. • Lyophilization (Freeze drying):
Frozen material is placed in an evacuated apparatus which has a
cold surface maintained at -60 to -80 °C. Water vapour from the
frozen material passes rapidly to the cold surface.
It is used for drying heat-sensitive substances e.g. antibiotics and
proteins.
• Chemical drying using desiccators
• An absolutely dried drug is that completely freed from water,
when exposed to air it absorbs 8-10% of moisture and is called
air-dry drug.
66.
67. Stabilization
• On long storage, enzymatic reactions will
slowly destroy the constituents, because the
last traces of water can never be removed.
• In order to avoid this degradation, the
enzymes should be destroyed before drying,
a process usually called stabilization.
• The most common method being brief
exposure (a few minutes only) of the plant
material to ethanol vapor under pressure (0.5
atm).
68. Fermentation
• Enzymatic transformation of the original plant
constituents is sometimes desirable. e.g. Vanilla pods
• The fresh material is placed in thick layers,
sometimes covered and often exposed to raised
temperatures (30-40 °C) and humidity, so as to
accelerate the enzymatic processes.
• The fermented product must be dried afterwards to
prevent attack by microorganisms, e.g. moulds.
69. Preservation and protection of
crude drugs
Storage represents the last stage of preparing crude drugs.
Drugs usually deteriorate along the time of storage, except in few cases
e.g. Cascara and Frangula should not be used except after certain period
of storage.
Certain drugs such as Nux vomica are hardly affected by storage.
Generally, changes that take place during storage of crude drugs are
objectionable, e.g. drugs containing volatile oils gradually lose their
aroma.
Improper methods of storing and inadequate protection during storage can
cause a pronounced deterioration.
There are two principal reasons for deterioration:
Physiochemical: moisture, heat, air and light.
Biological: fungi, bacteria, insects and rodents.
70. Physicochemical factors
1. Moisture: moisture sometimes affects drugs adversely
through activating the enzymes (as in cardiac
glycosides).
2. Heat: rise of temperature up to 45 activates the
enzymes causing decomposition of active constituents.
Volatile oil containing drugs are also affected by higher
temperatures, their content decreases.
3. Air: oxygen of air oxidizes certain constituents of crude
drugs, e.g. linseed and lemon oil, it causes rancidity of
fixed oils and resinification of volatile oils.
4. Light: it affects drugs, especially those having marked
colours.e.g. yellow colour of Rhubarb changes to
reddish tint, white coloured corollas turn brown.
71. Biological factors
1. Bacteria: cotton fibres are rendered brittle by bacterial attack
which makes the cotton wool objectionable and dusty.
2. Moulds: the mycelium of delicate hyphae produces an
unpleasant mass of clinging particles in powdered drugs.
3. Insects: they seem to attack all drugs but have preferences to
certain drugs as ginger, belladonna, kola, liquorice - Insects
which infest vegetable drugs include beetles, mites and moths.
They render drugs porous and powdery.
4. Rodents: they cause much spoilage of crude drugs during
storage, especially if wrapped in paper, cloth or put in
cardboard or wooden containers. The presence of rodent's
filth, excreta, hairs causes rejection of the drug.
72. Methods for controlling insects
1. Heat treatment: it is the simplest method and
is done by exposing the drug to a temperature
of 60-65. it is effective especially for insect
eggs which are not affected by insecticides.
2. Fumigation: this is done by volatile
insecticidal agents in closed areas e.g. CCL4,
CS2, CN. Most fumigants do not kill eggs of
insects. It is advisable to repeat fumigation at
intervals to obtain better results.
73. 3. Liming: liming of certain drugs as ginger,
nutmeg to protect against insect attack provides
only partial protection.
4. Low temperature storage: this method is
preferred to fumigants and liming. Adult insects,
pupae, larvae and eggs are sometimes killed by
very low temperatures.
5. Exposure to alternate periods of low and
high temperatures: frequently is more effective
for killing insects than a prolonged period of low
temperature exposure.
75. Grinding of crude drugs
• Regardless of whether the crude drug is to be used
for isolation of a pure compound or for manufacture
of a simple preparation, the first operation that must
be performed is grinding of the plant material to a
powder of suitable particle size.
• It is important that the particles are of as uniform size
as possible.
• Excessive dust can clog percolators and result in a
turbid extract which is hard to clarify.
76. • Large particles take a longer time for complete
extraction than small ones.
• Large differences in particle size thus slow down the
extraction process.
Types of machines used for grinding crude drugs:
1. Hammer mill; a common type for grinding crude
drugs.
2. Knife mill; is useful for production of low-dust
powders of leaves, barks and roots for subsequent
percolation or maceration.
3. Tooth mill; is used for production of very fine
powders.
77. Notes:
• Grinding produces a certain amount of heat
which must be observed when grinding crude
drugs containing heat-sensitive compounds.
• Mills cooled with liquid nitrogen are available
for such purposes.
• Cold grinding is also preferable for crude
drugs containing volatile oils.
• Following grinding, the material must be
sifted to ensure the proper particle size.
78. Extracts
• Extracts can be defined as preparations of crude
drugs which contain all the constituents which are
soluble in the solvent used in making the extract.
• In dry extracts all solvent has been removed.
• Soft extracts and fluid extracts are prepared with
mixtures of water and ethanol as solvent.
• Tinctures are prepared by extraction of the crude
drug with five to ten parts of ethanol of varying
concentration, without concentration of the final
product.
79. • Plant constituents are usually contained inside the
cells. Therefore, The solvent used for extraction must
diffuse into the cell to dissolve the desired
compounds whereupon the solution must pass the
cell wall in the opposite direction and mix with the
surrounding liquid.
• An equilibrium is established between the solute
inside the cells and the solvent surrounding the
fragmented plant tissues.
80. The speed with which this equilibrium is
established depends on:
1. Temperature
2. pH
3. Particle size
4. The movement of the solvent
81. Choice of solvent
• The ideal solvent for a certain pharmacologically
active constituent should:
1. Be highly selective for the compound to be extracted.
2. Have a high capacity for extraction in terms of
coefficient of saturation of the compound in the
medium.
3. Not react with the extracted compound or with other
compounds in the plant material.
4. Have a low price.
5. Be harmless to man and to the environment.
6. Be completely volatile.
82. • Aliphatic alcohols with up to three carbon atoms, or
mixtures of the alcohols with water, are the solvents
with the greatest extractive power for almost all
natural substances of low molecular weight like
alkaloids, saponins and flavonoids.
• According to the pharmacopoeias, ethyl alcohol is
the solvent of choice for obtaining classic extracts
such as tinctures and fluid, soft and dry extracts.
83. • The ethanol is usually mixed with water:
1- to induce swelling of the plant particles
2- to increase the porosity of the cell walls which facilitates the
diffusion of extracted substances from inside the cells to the
surrounding solvent.
• For extraction of barks, roots, woody parts and seeds the
ideal alcohol/water ratio is about 7:3 or 8:2.
• For leaves or aerial green parts the ratio 1:1 is usually
preferred in order to avoid extraction of chlorophyll.
84. Extraction Procedures
There are many procedures for obtaining
extracts
1- Infusion
2- Maceration
3 Percolation
4- Digestion
5- Decoction
6- Continuous hot extraction
7- Solvent-solvent precipitation
8- Liquid-liquid extraction
9- Distillation 10- Specific procedures
85. STORAGE
• Long storage for herbal drugs is not
recommended
• Indian hemp deteriorates with long storage
• Drugs can be stored in sacks, cardboard
boxes ,wooden cases and paper bags
which, enables them to reabsorb about 10-
20% surrounding moisture
• These are termed air dry materials with
such moisture percentage content
• Plastic sacks will seal effectively the
contents
86. • Permissible moisture for starch ,acacia
gum is found in standard International
Pharmacopeias such as EP, BP, USP etc
• A combination of moisture and
temperature on humidity and the
subsequent water condensation when
temperature falls must be considered in
during storage as it can be detrimental to
the substances
• They must be kept in sealed containers
with dehydrating agent
87. • For large quantities the bottom of the
box may be filled with quicklime and
separated from the drug by perforated
grid or sackings
• Volatile oil should be sealed in well-filled
containers and in cool dark places
90. Terrestrial Ecosystem Response to
Climate Change – This is just a reminder
of the global natural system changes on
global natural medicinal plants
distribution
Terrestrial Ecosystem (Biomes)
91. Global Change and Effects on
Terrestrial Ecosystem
Introduction
• Temperature, precipitation, latitude and altitude all
determine distribution of major terrestrial ecosystems
(biomes).
• Plants found within the different biomes are influenced
by soil type, water shed conditions and amount of sun.
• Specific combinations of temperatures and
precipitation ensure the survival and thriving of plants
within a given environment (known as Climate Space
and Change).
92. Terrestrial Ecosystems are an…
• Integral part of global carbon system
• As earlier stated that plants take in and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through
photosynthesis
• Below ground microbes decompose organic matter and release organic carbon back into the
atmosphere
Cycle shows how nature’s sources of CO2 are self regulating – that which is released will
be used again – Anthropogenic carbon not part of natures cycle – is in excess
www.bom.gov.au/.../ change/gallery/9.shtml
93. Forests
• Forests occupy major portions of land mass in different
countries.
– In the U.S. forests occupy 33% of the land mass
while in Africa, natural forestry occupy over 60%
of the land
• Forests have many functions:
– Provides habitat for plants and animals
– Influence amount of and availability of water
runoff
– Provide sites for recreation
– Provide timber for harvesting lumber; wood pulp,
fire wood for fuel
– Total commercial estimated valued in U.S. =
$290 billion and more than twice for Africa
94. Land Formation
• 18,000 years ago glaciers retreated in the Northern hemisphere
resulting in a rocky and lifeless ecosystem
• Pioneer plants scientifically may have emerged due to the following:
– Lichens – broke down rock
– Decaying lichens mixed with broken rock chips developed
soil (long/slow process)
• Winds blew – soil flew – dispersed into crevices of rocks – provided
nutrients for small plants to grow
• Soon mosses appeared followed by grasses, then larger plants
(shrubs & trees) known as primary succession
95. Succession and Climax Forests
•Primary succession - How temperate forests first
emerged
•As forests continue to grow – become more diverse
in both plant and animal life
•Simple plants unable to compete – live in the
shade of larger plants
•Saplings unable to develop due to shade - slowly
die out (Birch, Aspen) – gives rise to middle stage
succession
•Shade tolerant plants emerge (Maple, Hemlock)
and dominate forests – now have a climax forest
96. Secondary Succession
• Secondary succession occurs quicker than primary succession (soils
already there)
– Exception to this – land cleared for development and agriculture
• Temperate forests dominate because of their resistance to fires
• Less resistant trees eventually die off – leaving the evergreens still standing
• Fires promote evergreen growth by busting seed coats open and scattering
them in the soil
• Deciduous forest devastated by fires
• Secondary succession only way new forest will dominate
people.eku.edu/ritchisong/ secondarysuccession
97. A look back into time…..
Driving forces effecting global
temperature;
•Plate tectonics
•Earths orbital geometry
(eccentricity, obliquity and
precession)
98. Billions of years ago
Major continental shifts
– earth extremely hot
Underwent cycles of
glaciations
ice sheets existed
at lower latitudes
Paleozoic Era
Interglacial period
plants invade
land
Permian
Major Glaciation
Paleocene
Elevated greenhouse
gases warmed up
planet
Palm trees in Alaska
Crocodiles in the
Arctic
610 – 575 Ma
438 – 408 Ma
292 - 250 Ma
55 – 52 Ma
Antarctic
ice sheets
formed
34 Ma
Pleistocene
Ice Age
1 Ma
1.8 Ma –
18 Kya
Holocene – cycle of
glaciation and
melting of ice caps
– rising sea levels
18 Kya
Last glacial
period
99. Changes in Global Climate 65 ma to Present
Asteroid hit Chesapeake led
to major glaciation period
100. Billions of years ago
Major continental shifts
– earth extremely hot
Underwent cycles of
glaciations
ice sheets existed
at lower latitudes
Paleozoic Era
Interglacial period
plants invade
land
Permian
Major Glaciation
Paleocene
Elevated greenhouse
gases warmed up
planet
Palm trees in Alaska
Crocodiles in the
Arctic
610 – 575 Ma
438 – 408 Ma
292 - 250 Ma
55 – 52 Ma
Antarctic
ice sheets
formed
34 Ma
Pleistocene
Ice Age
1 Ma
1.8 Ma –
10 Kya
Holocene – cycle of
glaciation and
melting of ice caps
– rising sea levels
18 Kya
Last glacial
period
101. Time Line of Plant Life
Paleozoic era (438 – 408 Ma)
Bryophytes
Cretaceous era (110 Ma)
Angiosperms dominate
Carboniferous (360 – 286 Ma)
Ferns, Gymnosperms
Liverworts
Hornworts
Mosses
taggart.glg.msu.edu/isb200/fland.htm
103. 570 505 438 408 360 286 245 208 144 66 2 10K
Million years before present
Global Temperature
104. Paleogeographic Biome
Late Jurassic (150 Ma)
www.geo.arizona.edu/ ~rees/Jurassic.html
Five Main Biomes:
• winter wet (seasonally dry)
• summer wet (subtropical)
• desert
• warm temperature
• cool temperate
▪ Fossils of plant life
used to reconstruct
climate biomes
summerwet
(subtropical)
warm temperature
cool temperature
winter wet
(seasonally dry)
desert
105. 570 505 438 408 360 286 245 208 144 66 2 10K
Million years before present
106. Prentice, C.I., Guiot, J., Huntley, B., Jolly D. and Cheddadi, R., 1996,
Reconstructing biomes from palaeoecological data:
a general method and its application to European pollen data at 0 and 6 ka.
Climate Dynamics 12:185-194.
Global Distribution of Vegetation
18,000 years ago
conifers
tundra
taiga
grassland
woodland
desert
107. Prentice, C.I., Guiot, J., Huntley, B., Jolly D. and Cheddadi, R., 1996,
Reconstructing biomes from palaeoecological data:
a general method and its application to European pollen data at 0 and 6 ka.
Climate Dynamics 12:185-194.
Global Distribution of Vegetation 6,000 years ago
taiga
temperate deciduous
woods & scrub
conifers
grassland
desert
tundra
cold deciduous
108. Prentice, C.I., Guiot, J., Huntley, B., Jolly D. and Cheddadi, R., 1996,
Reconstructing biomes from palaeoecological data:
a general method and its application to European pollen data at 0 and 6 ka.
Climate Dynamics 12:185-194.
Global Distribution of Vegetation - Present
taiga
tundra
temperate deciduous
grassland
cold deciduous
tropical R.F.
warm mix
109. 18 kya
9 kya
Present
Distribution of spruce and oak forests in Northern Hemisphere since the
glacial period 18,000 kya
spruce
spruce
spruce
spruce
spruce
ice sheet
ice
ice
ice
ice
oak
oak
oak
oak
• 18,000 years ago Spruce
trees and oak trees filled
small pockets of habitat –
as climates warmed
Spruce trees migrated
into the Northern
Hemispheres and the
Oak trees expanded in to
Southeastern U.S.,
Western Europe and
Southern Europe
• Shifts in vegetation occur
slowly tree species were
able to successfully
expand into favorable
regions
Shifts in Terrestrial Habitat
18Kya
9Kya
Present
110. Major Biomes and Their Vegetation
• Tundra – no trees, lichens, grasses and shrubs
• Taiga (or Boreal Forest) – coniferous
evergreens
• Temperate forests – include evergreens
(spruce), deciduous forests (oaks), mixed
forests, and temperate rain forests (sequoias)
• Tropical rain forests – greatest amount of
diversity in vegetation (vines, orchids, palms)
• Grasslands – grasses, prairie clover
• Deserts – cacti, small bushes
111. Major Terrestrial Biomes
• Geographic distribution of biomes are dependent on temperature,
precipitation, altitude and latitude
• Weather patterns dictate the type of plants that will dominate an
ecosystem
faculty.southwest.tn.edu/. ../ES%20%20we16.jpg
112. Major Terrestrial Biomes
• Geographic distribution of biomes are dependent on temperature,
precipitation, altitude and latitude
• Weather patterns dictate the type of plants that will dominate an
ecosystem
faculty.southwest.tn.edu/. ../ES%20%20we16.jpg
114. Alaska
Greenland
Ice land
Siberia
Canada
Location:
Regions south of the ice caps of the Arctic
and extending across North America,
Europe and Siberia (high mountain tops)
Yakutsk
Tundra
N. Europe
Average Temperature: -40°C to 18°C
Average Precipitation:
150 to 250 mm of rain per year
Type of vegetation:
Almost no trees due to short growing
season and permafrost; lichens, mosses,
grasses, and shrubs
116. Temperature:
-40°C to 20°C, average summer temperature
is 10°C
Precipitation:
300 to 900 millimeters of rain per year
Vegetation:
Coniferous-evergreen trees
Location:
Canada, Europe, Asia, and the United States
Other:
Coniferous forest regions have cold, long,
snowy winters, and warm, humid summers;
well-defined seasons, at least four to six frost-
free months
Boreal Forest (Taiga)
Canada Europe Asia
S.W. U.S
118. Average Yearly Temperature:
Between -30°C to 30°C; hot summers, cold
winters; sunlight varies between seasons
Average Yearly Precipitation:
750 to 1,500 mm of rain per year
Vegetation:
Deciduous - Broadleaf trees (oaks, maples,
beeches), shrubs, perennial herbs, and mosses.
Evergreen – (N. America) – Spruce, Hemlock,
Pine and Fir trees
Temperate Rainforests – (CA, OR, & WA) –
made up of Red wood and Sequoias
www.windows.ucar.edu/.../ earth/forest_eco.html
Four types:
1. deciduous forests
2. evergreen forests
3. mixed deciduous and evergreen
4. temperate rain forests
Location:
Eastern United States, Canada,
Europe, China, and Japan
Temperate Forests
119. Staunton, Virginia, United States
38oN; 79oW
earthobservatory.nasa.gov
Average annual temperature and rainfall
120. Tropical
Forests
General Characteristics:
Average Temperature: 20°C to 25°C, must remain
warm and frost-free
Average Precipitation: 2,000 to 10,000 millimeters of
rain per year
Average Humidity: Between 77 – 88%
Types of Vegetation: Large trees reaching up to 240
feet, have the most diverse trees than any other
biome: vines, orchids, ferns
Tropical rainforests:
• Cover less than 6% of Earth’s land surface
• Produce more than 40% of Earth’s oxygen
• Contain more than half of all the worlds
plants and animals
• ¼ of all medicines come from rainforest plants
• Scientists believe more than 1400 tropical plants
thought to be potential cures to cancer
121. 3 major geographical areas:
1. America: Amazon river basin
2. Africa: Zaire basin, small area of W. Africa, Eastern portion of Madagascar
3. Asia: West coast of India, Assam, S.E. Asia, New Guinea and Queensland,
Australia
Tropical Rainforest
Amazon river basin Zaire
Madagascar
India S.E. Asia
Queensland
New Guinea
"Rainforests", http://passporttoknowledge.com/rainforest/GEOsystem/Maps/se_asia.html, (3/18/02)
122. Campa Pita, Belize
15 N latitude
earthobservatory.nasa.gov
Tropical Forest
Average annual temperature and
precipitation
123. Southeast Asia Tropical Rainforest
Monsoons role
• SE Asia has a tropical wet climate which is influenced by ocean wind
systems originating in the Indian Ocean and China Sea
• 2 monsoon seasons:
– Northeast monsoons (Oct. – Feb) – bring heavy rains to Eastern side of
the islands
– Southwest monsoons (April – Aug) – more powerful of the two seasons
– brings heavy rainfall to the western side of the islands – Eastern side
of islands dry – but windy (due to rain shadow)
• Change in monsoon cycle bring heavy consequences
– Ex. 1992 – 1993 – logging degraded primary foresting making it vulnerable
to fires. A drought brought on by El Nino created devastating fires
destroying 27,000 km2 of acreage.
– In 1998 the same type of thing happened again when El Nino created a
weak monsoon season – destroying many plant and animal species.
125. Location: The prairies of the Great
Plains of North America, the pampas of
South America, the veldt of South
Africa, the steppes of Central Eurasia,
and surrounding the deserts in
Australia
Temperature: Dependent on latitude,
yearly range can be between -20°C to
30°C
Precipitation: About 500 to 900 mm of
rain per year
Vegetation: Grasses (prairie clover,
salvia, oats, wheat, barley,
coneflowers)
Other: Found on every continent
except Antarctica
Grasslands
127. Location: Found north and south of the
Equator
Temperature: Average of 38°C (day),
average of -3.9°C (night)
Precipitation: About 250 mm of rain per yr
Vegetation: Cacti, small bushes, short
grasses
Other:
Perennials survive for several years by
becoming dormant and flourishing when
water is available. Annuals are referred to
as ephemerals because some can complete
an entire life cycle in weeks.
Deserts
129. So … what are the
predictions?????
Present day
Predicted Distribution
for
est
for
est
grassland
grassland
ari
d
woodl
and
shrub land
shrub land woodl
and
grassland
grassland
Climate change p. 104
• Arid deserts in Southwestern U.S.
will shrink as precipitation
increases
• Savanna/shrub/woodland
systems will replace grasslands in
the Great Plains
• Eastern U.S. – forests will expand
northerly – weather conditions will
become more severe
• Southeastern U.S. – increasing
droughts will bring more fires –
triggering a rapid change from
broadleaf forests to Savannas
130. Predicted Change in Biomes
Loss of existing habitat that could occur under doubling of CO2
concentration. Shades of red indicate percentage of vegetation
models that predicted a change in biome type.
131. Distribution of Sugar
Maple in Eastern North
America will change due
to an increase in
temperature and a
decrease in moisture
shifting further north east.
present range
Prediction based on Prediction based on increased
increased temperature temperature and decrease
precipitation
present range
Predictions of Sugar Maple in Eastern North America
overlap
predicted new
growth
predicted new
growth
overlap
132. Wet western
slope will
shrink and be
replaced by
pine and oak
Eastern slope
will become
drier and shift
to Juniper and
Sagebrush
More Predictions Western Hemlock
and Douglas fir
found on Western
slope
❑ Douglas Fir found in
wet coastal mountains of
CA and OR will shrink in
low lands and be
replaced by Western
pine species which are
more drought tolerant.
❑ Overall Western U.S.
climate is predicted to
shift to favor more
drought tolerant species
of pine
133. Frequency of forest fires will increase,
reducing total American boreal forest area.
134. Shifts in Terrestrial
Habitat
• It is predicted that at the
end of this century there
will be large scale shifts in
the global distribution of
vegetation in response to
anthropogenic climate
change.
• With man doubling the
amount of carbon dioxide
entering into the
atmosphere the climate is
changing more rapidly then
plant migration can keep
up.
Potential distribution of the major world
biomes under current climate conditions
Projected distribution of the major world biomes by
simulating the effects of 2xCO2-equivalent concentrations
www.usgcrp.gov/usgcrp/ seminars/960610SM.html
135. Boreal and Alpine
Vegetation
• Research indicates the greatest
amount of change will occur at
the higher latitudes
• Northern Canada and Alaska are
already experiencing rapid
warming and reduction of ice
cover
• Vegetation existing in these areas
will be replaced with temperate
forest species
• Tundra, Taiga and Temperate
forests will migrate pole ward
• Some plants will face extinction
because habitat will become too
small (ex. Mountain tops of
European Alps)
Predicted changes in Siberian vegetation in
response to doubling of CO2
Climate change
136. Grasslands and Shrub
Lands
• Grassland will change to deserts or shrub lands
– Exposing greater amounts of soil
– Increasing soil temperature – poor nitrogen content – poor plant
growth
– Barren soil exposed to winds and transported into atmosphere
as dust and trapping IR – leading to more warming
• Models of:
• Climate change
• Plant growth
• Soil – water
Predict shifts in distribution of major North American prairie
grasses over a 40 year period
137. Those at Risk
• Northern countries (Russia, Sweden, Finland) ½ of
existing terrestrial habitats at risk
• In Mexico, it’s predicted that 2.4% of species will lose
90% of their range and threatened with extinction by the
year 2055
• Population at greatest risk are the rare and isolated
species with fragmented habitats or those surrounded by
water, agriculture or human development
• Polar bears facing extinction by prolonged ice melts in
feeding areas along with decline in seal population
138. www.sciencedaily.com/.../ 09/050918132252.htm
❑ 35% of worlds existing terrestrial
habitat predicted to be altered
❑ Studies found that deforestation in
different areas of the globe affects
rainfall patterns over a considerable
region
▪ Deforestation in the Amazon
region of South America
(Amazonian) influences rainfall
from Mexico to Texas and in the
Gulf of Mexico
▪ Deforesting lands in Central
Africa affects precipitation in the
upper and lower U.S. Midwest
139. Phenological
Changes
• Life-cycles of plants and animals have been
affected by global change
• Temperatures affecting plants growing season,
flowering time and timing of pollination by insects
have all been altered
• Studies already showing
– Mediterranean deciduous plants now leaf 16 days earlier
and fall 13 days later than 50 years ago
– Plants in temperate zones flowering time occurring earlier
in the season
– Growing season increased in Eurasia 18 days and 12 days
in N. America over past two decades
145. Study Questions
• Respond to the following questions:
➢ Explain the term Commercialisation in terms of natural medicinal plants
utilization
➢ Plant growth and development and often the nature and quantity of secondary
metabolites are affected by which of the critical growth factors
➢ Give a detailed account of growth plant propagation process by vegetative
means
➢ Give a detailed account of growth plant propagation process by means of
chemical growth regulators
➢ Give a descriptive explanation of the plant harvesting process during the
production of natural sourced medicinal substances
➢ What factors are considered to harvest the required natural medicinal product in
quantitative and qualitative terms
➢ For preservation and protection of crude (from natural sources) drugs, ceratian
processes and environmental factors are considered. List and explain with
examples such processes and factor to render the desired quality of such crude
drug materials
➢ Give detailed description of various procedural methods that are practically used
to produce natural sourced product extracts
➢ What are the varying factors when plant diversity and evolution is considered
146. Study Questions
• Respond to the following questions:
➢ Describe the trends in plant diversity and evolution
➢ Give an illustrative description of terrestrial ecosystem (Biomes) with
relationship to different types, species and other varying characteristics of plants
➢ What are 6 major terrestrial ecosystems?
➢ Climate has always changed and plants have been able to migrate with these
changes. Why is modern climate change posing so many problems?
➢ What are some conservation efforts being investigated to prevent plant species
from extinction?
➢ What 4 major things influence geographic distribution of terrestrial biomes?
➢ Consider pro- and against artificial seed dispersal and transplantation into
climatically suitable regions
➢ What health value does Massive reforestation render to any living creature and
human beings
➢ New technologies that are used for plant transplant and plant transformation
processes are commercially available. Give a descriptive account of such
technological tacts that are used with examples plant breeding, bioengineering
(i.e. Toyota and the cherry shrub), fertilization, irrigation, etc)
➢ What social, economic and political needs are required for natural plant or
forestry preservation and conservation policies
147. Study Questions
Group work discussional questions:
➢ Explain the term Commercialisation in terms of natural medicinal plants utilization
➢ Plant growth and development and often the nature and quantity of secondary metabolites are affected
by which of the critical growth factors
➢ Give a detailed account of growth plant propagation process by vegetative means
➢ Give a detailed account of growth plant propagation process by means of chemical growth regulators
➢ Give a descriptive explanation of the plant harvesting process during the production of natural sourced
medicinal substances
➢ What factors are considered to harvest the required natural medicinal product in quantitative and
qualitative terms
➢ For preservation and protection of crude (from natural sources) drugs, certain processes and
environmental factors are considered. List and explain with examples such processes and factor to
render the desired quality of such crude drug materials
➢ Give detailed description of various procedural methods that are practically used to produce natural
sourced product extracts
➢ What are the varying factors when plant diversity and evolution is considered
➢ Describe the trends in plant diversity and evolution
➢ Give an illustrative description of terrestrial ecosystem (Biomes) with relationship to different types,
species and other varying characteristics of plants
➢ Consider pro- and against artificial seed dispersal and transplantation into climatically suitable regions
➢ What health value does Massive reforestation render to any living creature and human beings
➢ New technologies that are used for plant transplant and plant transformation processes are
commercially available. Give a descriptive account of such technological tactics that are used with
examples plant breeding, bioengineering (i.e. Toyota and the cherry shrub), fertilization, irrigation, etc)
➢ What social, economic and political needs are required for natural plant or forestry preservation and
conservation policies
